Unilingua

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Contents

Introduction	4

Basics	5

Word-building	11

Word Families	58

Grammar	144

Conversation Lessons	183

About the book	188

History & Document Notes	188

GNU Free Documentation License	189

Introduction

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Unilingua (aka Mirad) is an artificially-constructed auxiliary language (conlang) developed and published by Paris-based author Noubar Agopoff as a serious medium for easy and logical international communication. Mirad is categorized by constructed language afficionados as philosophical because its vocabulary is mapped letter-by-letter to a semantic ontology or thesaurus. Also, the wordstock of Unilingua is considered a priori, that is, there is no deliberate association with words or roots in existing natural languages. The vocabulary is "from scratch", yet based on internal lexical and semantic rules that help the learner to construct and deconstruct derivations logically, mnemonically, and consistently.

For some odd reason, the author of this language called it the Latinesque name "Unilingua." In this revision of the language, the name will be the more internally consistent Mirad (pronounced mee-RAHD), which means world language (mira = world's + d = speech.) The proximity to the Russian word for 'world' (мир) is pure coincidence; the vocabulary of Mirad, as stated above, is not based on or related to any existing human language.

Basics

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Principles

The author claims in his book Unilingua -- Langue universelle auxiliaire that this language is well-suited for universal, logical communication because it is based on principles already exploited globally by sciences like mathematics and chemistry where symbolic formulas are constructed in accordance with strict rules and a limited sequence of symbols understood by all practitioners.

Unilingua, according to Agopoff, is based on the following principles: ]

Every vowel has numeric, vectorial, scalar, or semantic value.

Every consonant is semantically taxonomic.

Word derivation is systematic, consistent, analogical, and mnemonic.

Words are as ontologically unambiguous as possible.

Words are as short and as easy to pronounce as possible.

Inflection and derivation of words is regular and predictable.

Conlang afficianados, note: Unilingua is not strictly a logical language in the Sapir-Whorf sense. It is meant to be more practical, natural, and humanly-usable. Unilingua is logical in the more usual sense that it is systematic, regular, and predictable.

Alphabet

The Mirad alphabet has both lower-case and upper-case letters. The alphabet has the same base letters as Latin or English, except that the letters Qq, Xx, and Yy are considered non-native and are used only in foreign names and borrowings. Also, the letters Hh and Ww are additional to Agapoff's original Unilingua alphabet and are unique in that they have no inherent semantic values; they are used for various grammatical-only purposes. A unique feature of Mirad is that every native letter is a semantically-significant atom in the language and can be thought of as bricks in lexical construction. See #Word-building

The order of the native alphabet is as follows:

a á à â b c d e é è ê f g h i í ì î j k l m n o ó ò ô p r s t u ú ù û v w z

The above lower-case letters can also be represented as upper-case letters. In Unicode representations and indexing, the uppercase graphemes precede the lowercase values. Uppercase letters are used much as in American English, that is, for the first letter in sentences, proper nouns, etc. See #Orthography for more details. As mentioned above, the Mirad grapheme Ww is additional to the letters in the original Unilingua and is used to form the passive voice of verbs. Foreign names and borrowings sometimes also incorporate Hh, Qq, Xx, and Yy.

Consonants

The following are classified as consonants:

b c d f g h j k l m n p r s t v w z

*Note: The author of Unilingua did not include the letters Hh or Ww as native graphemes. They have been added in Mirad in order to encompass word structures not included by Agapoff, in addition to interjections and foreign names. See more on this under #Vowels.

Vowels

Vowels, or more accurately, vowel nuclei consist of plain vowels and yodified vowels, that is, vowels that have a y-glide sound before, after, or around them. A synonym of yodified is palatalized.

The plain vowels are (only miniscules listed here):

a e i o u

The yodified vowel nuclei are:

á é í ó ú (pre-yodified)

à è ì ò ù (post-yodified)

â ê î ô û (circum-yodified)

Note: The author of Unilingua used non-Roman letters to represent some of the pre-yodified vowels (я = ´, е = é, ø = ó, and ю = ú. The author employed a hacek (called ille in French) over the vowel to represent post-yodification (ă = à, ě = è, etc.). This revised Mirad textbook, however, uses the acute accent (as in French été) for the pre-yodified vowels, the grave accent (as in French père) for the post-yodified vowels, and the circumflex accent (as in French fête) for the circum-yodified vowels. It must be remembered, however, that á, ô, and other yodified vowels are considered single vowels or vowel nuclei in any analysis of the language, not dipthongs or tripthongs). In other words, the accents are merely graphemic devices to distinguish vowels qualitatively, and thereby semantically.

Orthography

Punctuation

Despite Agapoff's idiosyncratic system of punctuation, the punctuation symbols and usage in Mirad are just like those of American English.

Capitalization

Capitalization in Mirad follows the same rules as in English. European learners need to be especially careful to capitalize the first letter of the names of languages, nationalities, and inhabitants, which in most European languages are left in lowercase.

Note the following examples. The words are all capitalized because the root word is the name of the country China:

Mirad	English
Kin	China
Kina	Chinese (people or nation) [adj.]
Kinad	Chinese (language) [n.]
Kinada	Chinese (language) [adj.]
Kinadè	in Chinese [adv.]
Kinut	Chinese person
Kinadaer	to speak Chinese (pronounced: kee-nah-dah-EHR)
Kinader	to utter in Chinese
Kinadrer	to write Chinese
Kinadrun	Chinese writing
Kina vidrun	Chinese calligraphy
Kinadéder	to read Chinese
Kinéna	Chinese-like [adj.]
Kinénà	in the Chinese way [adv.]
Kin-Amerika véani	Sino-American relations
Kinconi	things Chinese (pronounced: keen-SOH-nee)
Kinaser	to sinofy (pronounced: kee-nah-SHEHR)
Kintun	Sinology (pronounced: keen-TOON)
Kintuna	Sinological
Kintut	Sinologist

Pronunciation

Consonant sounds

This chart shows the closest phonetic approximations of the Mirad consonant graphemes in English and some other familiar languages, along with the exact value in IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet):

grapheme	IPA	English	American Spanish	French	Comment
b	b	bee	bien	bon	
c	s	see	hace	garçon	Watch out! Sounds like "s".
d	d	dog	dos	de	
f	f	foo	fiesta	fou	
g	g	goo	goma	gant	Always hard.
h	h	how	jota	--	Closer to the English value.
j	ʒ	mirage	--	jour	As in "Dr. Zhivago.
k	k	skate	casa	comment	
l	l	law	la	les	
m	m	moo	mi	mon	
n	n	no	no	non	
p	p	spoon	poco	peu	
r	r	--	toro	--	Dental flap or trill
s	ʃ	shed	--	chaise	A fricative "sh" sound!
t	t	steak	tú	ton	
v	v	vie	--	va	
w	w	woo	Juan	oui	
z	z	zoo	--	zone	
Note! Be very careful that the c and the s are not pronounced as their English or European equivalents. Think of the c as being the French c cedilla (ç).

Simple vowel sounds

a as in Spanish la

e as in French thé

i as in Spanish sí!

o as in Spanish no

u as in Spanish tú

Pre-yodified vowel sounds

These vowels are pronounced the same as the simple vowel above, but with a y-glide at the beginning.

á is like ya as in English yacht

é is like ye as in German jeder or English yes

í is like yi as in French yippie or English ye (without the final y-glide)

ó is like yo as in German Joga or English yo-yo (without the final w-glide)

ú is like yu as in German Juli or English unit

Post-yodified vowel sounds

These vowels are pronounced like the simple vowels, but with a y-glide at the end.

à is like ay as in English Thai

è is like ey as in English fey

ì is like iy as in English see

ò is like oy as in English boy

ù is like uy as in English fooey

Circum-yodified vowel sounds

These vowels are pronounced with a y-glide at both the beginning and end.

â is like yay as in English yikes!

ê is like yey as in English yea!

î is like yiy

ô is like yoy

û is like yuy

Note the difference in pronunciation between aá, which is pronounced like A-ya as in Spanish "playa", and àa, which sounds like AY-a as in English diagram.)

Syllabification and Stress

A closed syllable is one that ends in a consonant or a y-glide (i.e., a post- or circum-yodified vowel). A syllable consists of [C]V[C], where V, the vowel nucleus, can begin or end with a y-glide, but contain only one of the set of vowels [aeiou], and where C consists of one or two homorganic consonants, i.e. [bcdfgjknpstvz]+[lrwy].

The rule for stress is: If a word ends in a closed syllable, then the last syllable receives the stress, otherwise, the penultimate (next-to-last) syllable receives the stress.

spelling	pronunciation	meaning
gafif	ga-FIF	preference
ifla	I-fla	agreeable
ánsea	yan-SHE-a	collective
manà	ma-NAY	with light
Kinadae	ki-na-DA-e	speaks Chinese
Kinad	ki-NAD	Chinese (language)
Hàfa	HAY-fa	(Israeli town of) Haifa
gracer	gra-SER	to be extreme

Every vowel in Mirad is given its full syllabic pronunciation, even when juxtaposed in what English or European speakers might consider dipthongs:

spelling	pronunciation	meaning	syllable count
daea	da-E-a	speaking	3
oif	o-If	displeasure	2
daò	da-OY	without saying	2

Word-building

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Taxonomic codification of letters

The consonants of root words are taken from a conceptual ontology matrix. For example, all root words beginning with the consonant t have something to do with human beings. Root words containing the consonant j relate somehow to time.

For example, the following words all contain the consonant p, which indicates motion:

zíp travel

jap precedence

tóáp step

zòp regression

pán jump

teap visit

mamp flight

Similarly, the following words all end in the consonant l, which indicates liquid:

mil water

vafil wine

mal gas

meil mud

vozil paint

teabil tear

Again, the following words all end in the consonant m, which indicates place, space, location, or position.:

tom residence

cem table

dénam library

tilam bar

epem parking lot

mem country

Semantic codification of vowels

The vowels in root words have various qualitative and quantitative values based on the following scales:

Numeric (o 0, a 1, e 2, i 3, etc.)

Ordinal/hierarchical (o zeroth/toplevel, a first, e second, etc.)

Qualititive (a/o positive/negative, i/u positive/negative, e neutral)

Vectorial (a/o up/down, i/u right/left, e middle)

Natural (a sky, e land, i water, o underground)

The opposite of a word can often be produced by simply changing a vowel to the "opposing vowel from the above list. For example:

án together ⇒ ón apart

ab on ⇒ ob off

man light ⇒ mon shade

aga big ⇒ oga little

iga fast ⇒ uga slow

Throughout the Mirad word construction scheme, the vowel e always has a neutral or medial value:

éb between

éz inside

eza moderate

ge equal

zem middle

gé rather

ev if

je during

eb at

ve maybe

In hierarchical codification, the vowel o indicates the zeroth or toplevel element of an organization. In a qualitative codification, it has a negative slant. As a prefix, this vowel can also "nullify" a concept as in the following examples:

tel food ⇒ otel hunger

gela same ⇒ ogela different

tadca married ⇒ otadca unmarried

es function ⇒ oes malfunction

Hierarchical codification with ordinal vowels

Root words related hierarchically or organizationally differ only in their ordinal vowels. By ordinal vowels is meant that the vowels have inherent numerical values (o 0, a 1, e 2, etc.). The zeroth element of any hierarchy always contains the ordinal vowel o. For example, the words for "duke", "prince", "marquis", and "king" differ only by an enumerative vowel which determines the rank:

edeb emperor

ideb king

udeb baron

ádeb marquis

édeb count

údeb lord

For further illustration, we can look at how the concept human being is hierarchically codified using ordinal vowels, where the larger the numeric value of the ordinal vowel, the lower the element is in the semantic hierarchy:

tob human being

tab body

teb head

tib trunk

tub arm

Scalability With Contrasting Vowels

Words can be semantically constructed along the qualitative scale of "postive", '"neutral", and "negative" through the used of vowels imbued with these values. In Mirad, there are two qualitative vowel series:

number	positive	neutral	negative
1	a	e	o
2	i	e	u

As implied in the above table, root words with a contrast semantically with those with o and roots words with i contrast with those with u. Words with e are in the middle between the two extremes. The second series does sometimes lacks a middle value. For example:

series	positive	neutral	negative
1	va yes	ve maybe	vo no
1	vay certainly	vey possibly	voy not
1	aza strong	eza moderate	oza weak
2	zi right	ze middle	zu left
2	fia good	fea neither good nor bad	fua bad
2	iga fast	ega moderate	uga slow

Vectorial codification

On the vectorial (or: directional, geo-spatial) scale, the vowels have the following general values (see later for a more detailed explanation):

positive	neutral	negative
a		o
up/north/ahead		down/south/back
	e	
	in/middle	
i		u
right/east/straight		left/west/crooked

Some examples:

positive	neutral	negative
íb up	éb between	ób down
ab on	eb at	úb off
zi right	ze in the middle	zu left
áber to raise	éber to contain	óber to lower

In the following examples, the vowels i/u and e take on directional values with respect to the doer of the action:

bier to take	nier to consume	dier to ask	pier to leave	iper to go away	iber to receive
beer to keep	neer to conserve	der to say	peer to stay	eper to stop	eber to stop
buer to give	nuer to supply	duer to suggest	puer to arrive	uper to come	uber to send

Natural (geological) codification

On the natural scale, the vowels have the following values:

vowel	value	examples
a	sky/air	mampar aircraft, map wind (current)
e	land/soil	mempar car, mep road
i	sea/water	mimpar ship, mip river
o	underground	mompar subway, mop tunnel

Semantic nuancing

Semantic nuances and gradations of quality of words are reflected through the "lengthening", that is, addition of a harmonic subordinal vowel to the ordinal vowel, yodification (adding y) of the ordinal vowel, or the addition of one in a series of intensifying (l, r) or distinguishing (c, s, v, f, etc.) consonants, or any of the above techniques in combination. In this scheme, pre-yodification signals a semantic intensification, while post-yodification indicates a weakening or mitigation of sense. A doubling of the vowel usually indicates another kind of lessened strength of the corresponding single-vowel word. Here are some examples:

Post-yodification deintensifies the semantic value of the base word in much the same way as the suffix -ish sometimes mitigates the value of an English adjective.

normal word	deintensified word
ama hot	àma warm
oma cold	òma cool
ima wet	ìma humid
at vage I want	at vàge I'd like
at ége I must	at yège I should
moza black	mòza blackish
e two	è half
gla very	glà somewhat
mar sun	m&agreave;r star
ifer to love	ìfer to like
bók pain	bôk ache
tom residence	tòm home
dom city	dòm town
din story	dìn tale
pener to seize	pèner to catch
pon rest	pòn respite

Pre-yodification is sometimes used to intensify the semantic value of the base word:

normal word	intensified word
om cold	óm ice
am heat	´m fire
ga more	g´ most
pener to seize	péner to strike
pot animal	pót wild animal
vaa affirmative	váa true
ab on	yab above
ze in the middle of	zé through
uba away	úba far
bok illness	bók pain
paner to move	páner to jump

The consonant extenders "l" and "r" are sometimes used to intensify the semantic value of the base word.

normal word	strong	stronger
bók pain	blók agony	brók torture
vag desire	valg yearning	varg craving
éga necessary	élga urgent	érga critical
péner to hit	pénler to beat	to pénrer smash
fúder to offend	flúder to insult	frúder to outrage
dier to request	diler to beg	direr to demand

The ordinal vowel can be extended with a homorganic subordinal vowel in order to add an element of "lengthening" or some other nuance to the meaning of the base word:

normal word	intensified word
bok illness	book fatigue
vager to want	vaager to desire
dob state	doob nation
dab government	daab administration
tob body	toob gender
din story	diin recitation
béler to retain	béeler to conserve
mil water	miil dew

Here are some examples where all these techniques are employed:

derived word	method of derivation
bok illness	normal
bòk ailment	post-yodification (mitigation)
book fatigue	lengthening
boòk lassitude	post-yodification (mitigation)
bók pain	pre-yodification (intensification)
bôk ache	post-yodification (mitigation)
bóok suffering	lengthening
blók agony	L-intensification (1st order)
brók torture	R-intensification (2nd order)

derived word	method of derivation
vager to want	normal
valger to yearn for	L-intensification (1st order)
varger to crave	R-intensification (2nd order)
vaager to desire	lengthening
vàger to wish for	post-yodification (mitigation)
vaàger to aspire to	lengthening

The consonants l, r, and c are used to differentiate nuances of words, usually in a positive degree of strength. Other consonants can also be used for derivation.

derived word
va yes
vaa positive
vala sure
vàla certain
vaala safe
vara evident
vàra manifest
valda certified
vàca secure
váa true
váya genuine
váca correct
vâca right
vába regular
vâba statutory
váva exact
válva perfect
váfa precise
váta fair
váma real
váama virtual
vâma actual
váda frank
vála authentic

Mnemonic and analogic association

Mnemonics is used to the fullest to associate root words and concepts. For example, the words "neigh", "hehaw", "bark", and "meow" in Unilingua all contain a hint of the animal name with which these are associated. For example:

animal	sound
épet dog	épeder to bark
apet horse	apeder to neigh
ápet pig	ápeder to squeal

Two or more words are often joined into a single compound, producing a new concept, where the separate elements are suggestive of the meaning of the resulting compound. In some cases, words overlap much like portmanteau words in English (breakfast + lunch = brunch). (Note, for euphony, if the final consonant of the first root word is the same as the initial consonant of the second root word, one of the consonants is dropped.)

first concept	second concept	compound
il liquid	pan motion	ilpan wave
teac- to see	per to go	teaper to visit
dom city	mep way	domep street (not dommep)
kum side	mep way	kumep sidewalk
zè across	mep way	zèmep bridge
zé through	mep way	zémep thoroughfare
elám iron	mep way	elámep railroad
mag fire	meb mountain	magmeb volcano
tóáb foot	per to go	tóáper to walk
mic window	nof cloth	micof curtain
mac floor	nof cloth	macof carpet
bik care	nof cloth	bikof bandage
teb head	nof cloth	tef hat
&uacutej- to close	nof cloth	újof fold
tom home	nof cloth	tomof tent
nun merchandise	par vehicle	nunpar truck
pat bird	ij beginning	patij egg
án together	iv joy	ániv festival
oj future	nac money	ojnac credit
ej present	nac money	ejnac cash
vé relative	naz value	vénaz coefficient
ke- to seek	bier to take	kebier to choose
job time	bier to take	jobier to borrow
dop military	bier to take	dopbier to conquer
nuc payment	bier to take	nucbier to purchase
ko- to hide	bier to take	kobier to steal
tel food	tam house	telam restaurant
mag fire	il liquid	magil oil
mam sky	mil water	mamil rain
mir planet	nod point	mirnod pole
mam sky	nid line	mamnid horizon
mar light	nid line	marnid ray
nof cloth	yazser to flatten	nofyazser to iron
taob flesh	tel food	taol meat
taob flesh	fab tree	faob wood
faob wood	cyeb container	faocyeb barrel
ápet pig	tel meat	ápel pork

The following example of compounding with the root word mep (way, route, road) shows the efficiency of Unilingua compounding:

first concept	combined concept
kum side	kumep sidewalk
tóáb walk	tóámep walkway
dom city	domep boulevard
dom city	domèp avenue
dom city	domeap street
éb between	ébdomeap alley
zè across	zèmep bridge
zé through	zémep thoroughfare
óg- short	ógmep shortcut
oiz indirect	oizmep byway
yoz out	yozmep exit
éz in	ézmep entrance
íz beyond	ízmep detour
úz around	úzmep beltway
ig- fast	igmep expressway
ouj- no-end	oujmep cul-de-sac
nùc fee	nùcmep toll road, turnpike
agal- main	agalmep main road
anog- primary	anogmep highway
ogal- minor	ogalmep back road
vó- wrong	vómep blind alley
áb high	ábmep raised highway
mom underground	momep subway
elám iron	elámep railroad
tóáp- to walk	tóámep walkway
par vehicle	parmep driveway
-et little	mepet path, lane
iz- direct	izmep straightaway
-án collective	mepán network

Root words

Root words are divided into two groups:

1st group: nouns.

2nd group: prepositions, adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, and verbs, that is, all other words.

Root words of the 1st group (nouns)

All noun root words are composed of three letters:

The first, a consonant, called the classifier

The second, a vowel, called the ordinal

The third, a consonant, called the generic

Examples:

classifier	ordinal	generic	meaning
t	o	b	man
t	a	b	body
d	o	t	society
d	o	m	city
t	a	m	house

Table of consonant semantic values

consonant	classifier (1st group)	generic (1st group)	classifier (2nd group)
b	organ, illness, body	organism	gesture, manner
p	animal, vehicle	travel	movement
c	thing, furniture	form	making, c hundred
s	action	action	doing, action, thing
d	society	person	saying, writing
t	human being	person	knowing
f	vegetation	textiles, materials	quality
v	plant, color	cloth, linen	quality, truth
g			quantity, size, speed
k			weight, volume
j	time	time	time
z		jewels, precious, art, color	direction
l		element, liquid, food	l ten
m	cosmos, nature	place, building, metal	ml million
n	merchandise, containers	abstraction	counting
r		machine, instrument	mr billion

Table of vowel numeric values

vowel	numeric value
o	0
a	1
e	2
i	3
u	4
ó	5
á	6
é	7
í	8
ú	9

Table of vowel geo-positional values

vowel	value
a	above, superior, north
e	center, middle, equator
o	below, inferior, south
u	left, west
i	right, east

Table of vowel vectorial values

vowel	free movement	contact movement	position	examples
a	on	onto	up/north	ab (on), aper (mount), aber (apply)
á	up	onto		áb (up), áper (climb), páer (rise)
o	under, off	underneath	down/south	ob (under), ober (remove), boer (support)
ó	down	down to		óper (descend), póer (fall)
u	near	to	left/west	uper (come), puer (arrive)
ú	toward	until		úb (near), úper (approach), púer (reach)
i	away	from	right/east	iper (go away), pier (leave)
í	far off	off		íb (away), íber (take away), píer (originate)
e	between	at	center/middle	eb (at), eper (stop), peer (remain)
é	in	into		éz (in), yeber (contain), béer (detain)

Table of vowel geo-specific values

vowel	value	examples
a	air, gas, sky	map wind, mam sky, mal air
e	earth, solid, land	mep road, mem earth, mel soil
i	water, liquid, juice	mip, river, mim sea, mil water

Table of vowel temporal values (for verbs)

vowel	value	example
a	past	pa went, paa had gone, pao will have gone, pae has gone
e	present	pe goes, pee is going, pea has been going, peo will be going
o	future	po will go, poa would go, poe is about to go
u	neutral tense	pu to go, go!

Root words of the 2nd group (non-nouns)

All words of the 2nd group, which are word roots other than noun roots, are composed of two letters, either a consonant-vowel combination like za or a vowel-consonant combination like az, not counting grammatical endings like the adjectival suffix -a or the verbal infinitive suffix -er.

Vowel oppositions in 2nd group root words

Root words with i ⇒ u opposition :

positive	negative
fia good	fua bad
via beautiful	vua ugly
fía brave	fúa afraid
vía clean	vúa dirty
ifa lovable	ufa hateful
iva happy	uva sad
ífa modest	úfa proud
íva free	úva dependent
iga fast	uga slow
íga hard	úga soft
gia sharp	gua dull
gía difficult	gúa easy
ika full	uka empty
kia oblique	kua lateral
kíaheavy	kúa light
íka solid	úka fragile
íba far	úba near
bí since	bú up to
iza straight	uza crooked
ía right	zua left
íz beyond	úz around
zí all over	zúa round

Root words with ternary vowel opposition a ⇒ e ⇒ o and i ⇒ e ⇒ u:

positive	neutral	negative
aza strong	eza medium	oza weak
áza flat	éza concave	óza convex
áz along	éz in	óz out
za front	ze middle	za behind
zà ahead	zè across	zò back
záa wide	zé through	zóa narrow
aga big	eg- repeat	oga small
ága long	ég- must	óga short
va yes	ve maybe	vo no
và and, both	vè or, either	vò nor, neither
vager to want	veger may, can	voger to renounce
av for	ev if	ov against
váa true	véa relative	vóa false
áva innocent	év- to judge	óva guilty
ga more	ge equal	go less
gà also	gè as	gò but, except
gáa fat	géa moderate	góa thin
gla very	gle rather	glo slightly
gra too	gre just	gro insufficiently
gá most	gé average	gó least
kaer find	keer seek	koer hide
kyaer change	kéer fluctuate	kóer stay fixed
aker win	eker play	oker lose
áker to expect	éker to try	óker to be surprised
ja before	je during	jo after
aj past	ej present	oj future
já early	jé on time	jó late
-a past tense	-e present tense	-o future tense
ab on	eb at	ob off
áb above	éb between	ób below
ijer to begin	ejer to last	ujer to end
tijer to be born	tejer to live	tujer to die

2nd Group Root Word Matrix

Two-way i/u opposition

In 2nd group root words, the vowel i signals a positive value, while the contrasting vowel u indicates the negative or opposite value:

positive	negative	positive	negative
fia good	fua bad	via beautiful	vua ugly
ifa dear	ufa hateful	iva happy	uva sad
fía brave	fúa afraid	vía clean	vúa dirty
ífa modest	úfa proud	íva free	úva bound
gia sharp	gua dull	kia oblique	kua lateral
gía difficult	gúa easy	kía heavy	kúa light
iga fast	uga slow	ika full	uka empty
zia right	zua left	iza straight	uza curved
zí- all around	zú- round	íz- beyond	úz- around
ij- begin	uj- end	íj- open	új- close
ib from	ub to	íb far	úb near
ib- receive	ub- send	íb- take away	úb- bring
bi- take	bu- give	bí away	bú toward
bin- pull	bun- push	bín- ...	bún- touch
ip- go (away)	up- come	íp- escape	úp- approach
pi- depart	pu- arrive	pí- originate	pú- reach
pin- grab	pun- throw	pín- ...	pún- assault

Three-way a/e/o opposition

Some 2nd group root words exhibit a three-way contrast where a is the base or positive value, e the middle or in-between value, and o the negative or opposite value:

positive	intermediate	negative
va yes	ve maybe	vo no
váa true	véa relative	vóa false
av for	ev if	ov against
áva innocent	év- judge	óva guilty
ga more	ge equal	go less
gla many	gle several	glo few
gra too many	gre just enough	gro too few
gá most	gé enough	gó least
gáa fat	géa moderate	góa thin
aga big	eg again	oga small
ága long	ég- must	óga short
ka- find	ke- search	ko- hide
ká- change	ké- waver	kó- stay
ak- win	ek- play	ok- lose
ák- expect	ék- try	ók- be surprised
za front	ze middle	zo back
záa wide	yzé through	zóa narrow
aza strong	eza average	oza weak
áza flat	éza concave	óza convex
áz along	éz in	óz out
ja before	je during	jo after
já early	jé on time	jó late
aj past	ej present	oj future
ab on	eb at	ob off
ab- apply	eb- keep	ob remove
áb above	éb between	ób lower
áb- lift	éb- contain	ób- lower
ba- lean on	be- carry	bo- hold up
bar- press	bel- keep	bol- support
bá- erect	bé- lay	bó- hang
ban- shake	ben- hold	bon- calm
ap- get on	ep- stay	op- get off
áp- ascend	ép- intervene	óp- descend
pan- move	pen- seize	pon- rest
pá- jump	pé- stand	pó- fall
pán- surge	pén- attack	pón- dive

The following table shows how some of the 2nd group root words can be expanded on through various word-building techniques:

positive	negative	positive	negative
fia good fi well fian goodness fila delicious fira excellent fìla exquisite fieca happy firsa perfect fiser to improve fider to congratulate fiader to praise flider to eulogize frider to brag fiàsener to favor fibéna polite gafia better gafi better (adv.) gafif moreso gafira famous gafifer to prefer ísfira useful fiíser to utilize	fua bad fura cruel fula malignant fùra ferocious fueca unhappy flua wicked fluica sinister frueca furious fuvára jeolous fu ill gafua worse gafu worse (adv.) fuser to spoil fuscer to bother fuder to curse furser to pollute fùser to debase fuáser to deteriorate fulser to damage fuecer to get angry fluecer to get irritated fruicer to grow furious fun fault fùn vice fuùn sin dofùna immoral	via beautiful viá pretty vila magnificent vira marvelous vria luxurious viaga somptuous vifa elegant vìfa chic vifia charming videréna eloquent vikaeá admirable viser to adorn viber to garnish viaber to decorate viaser to embellish viraser to dazzle	vua ugly vuá vile
ifa lovable, beloved, dear ifbier to enjoy ifbuer to please ifiber to derive pleasure from ifca pleasant ifcla charming ìfa dear ìfciona gracious ifcra delightful ifra adorable ifla tender ìfala cute ifta nice ifla nice ifrana passionate ìfsrea seductive ifer to love ìfer to like ifcer to be pleased ifcler to be charmed ifcrer to be delighted ifser to please ifsler to charm ifsrer to delight iifper to stroll ifi thanks ifider to thank ifcaler to enjoy	ufa hateful ufla disagreeable ufcea unpleasant ufta mean ufer to hate ùfer to dislike ufuer to despise ufcer to be displeased ovufer to avenge	iva gay ìva joóus ivla glad ìvla content ivra excited ivalsa amused ivca funny ivcla comical ivaser to rejoice ivraser to excite ìvler to satisfy ivalser to amuse ivàlser to entertain ivader to joke ivlaser to content	uva sad ùva melancholy uvla lugubrious uvca dramatic uvcra tragic uvder to complain uvdlier to lament uvceuzer to sigh uvteucer to whine vónùvuser to regret ébuvader to pity uvbaner to move ébuvlacer to have compassion uvalser to bore uvuser to chagrin ùvuser to punish uvluser to afflict

Ordinal vowel codification of hierarchical nouns

Nouns that are related to one another in a hierarchy or organization can be codified using the ordinal feature of vowels. The o vowel (zero value) is used for the topmost element.

job time jab year jeb season jib month jub day jób hour jáb minute jéb second	tob human tab body teb head tib trunk tub arm tób leg	mor universe mar sun mer planet mir earth mur moon

Individual elements can be further subdivided into a secondary classification by the addition of an ordinal vowel to the right of the first vowel:

tub arm tuab shoulder tueb upper arm tuib elbow tuub forearm tuób wrist tuáb hand tuéb fist tuíb palm tuúb finger tuób finger nail	tób leg tóab hip tóeb thigh tóib knee tóub tibia tóób ankle tóáb foot tóéb talon tóíb heel tóúb toe tóób toe nail

A further, tertiary subdivision can be achieved by prefixing an ordinal vowel to the base:

tuúb	finger
atuúb	thumb
etuúb	index
ituúb	middle finger
utuúb	ring finger
ótuúb	little finger

A convenient classification is possible by prefixing an ordinal vowel to the base without any primary or secondary enumeration:

dob	state
adob	empire
edob	kingdom
idob	principality
udob	marquisate
ódob	earldom
ádob	barony
édob	duchy
ídob	dominion
údob	tribe

Forming concepts by compounding ("portmanteau")

New concepts can be formed by compounding simple words. If the generic (final) consonant of the first word matches the classifier (initial) consonant of the following word, the latter is suppressed for convenience and ease of pronunciation:

dom (city) + mep (road) ⇒ domep (boulevard)

pat (bird) + tub (arm) ⇒ patub (wing)

teb (head) + bók (pain) ⇒ tebók (headache)

In cases where two ordinated nouns with the same classifier and generic consonants are combined, the vowels are combined:

mil (water) + mal (gas) ⇒ mial (vapor)

When you wish to form a word composed of words of the same consonantal classification, and the ordinal vowel is o, the o is replaced with the ordinal vowel of the determinant:

edob (kingdom) + deb (leader) ⇒ edeb (king)

udob (principality) + deb (leader) ⇒ udeb (prince)

Two singleton words often join by replacing the generic (final) consonant of the first word with the generic consonant of the second word, producing a melded concept somewhat like portmanteau words in English ("breakfast" + "lunch" "brunch").

tob (man) + nof (cloth) ⇒ tof (clothes)

tóáb (foot) + nov (tissue) ⇒ tóáv (sock)

teb (head) + nof (cloth) ⇒ tef (hat)

tib (trunk) + nof cloth) ⇒ tif (vest)

tób (leg) + nof (cloth) ⇒ tóf (pants)

tuób (hand) + nof (cloth) ⇒ tuóf (glove)

teib (nose) + nov (tissue) ⇒ teiv (handkerchief)

Making nouns and pronouns "feminine"

The "feminine" counterpart of a noun or pronoun is obtained by post-yodifying the ordinal vowel (i.e. adding a y glide):

masculine	feminine
taf suit	tàf dress/outfit
tóáv sock	tóâv stocking
tef pants	tèf skirt
néf carrying case	nêf purse
it he	ìt she
tob man	tòb woman
apet horse	apèt mare
tad husband	tèd wife

Codifying nuances of words

There are several ways of deriving related words with slightly different nuances from the original word:

The l extender is used for a comparatively stronger sense, while the r extender is used for an even stronger (strongest) sense:

absolute	comparative	excessive
ga more	gla very much	gra too much
úzbaer squeeze	úzbaler pinch	úzbarer crush
buer give	buler grant	burer bestow
ika full	ikla packed	ikra superabundant
aker win	akler vanquish	akrer triumph
dier ask	diler beseech	direr demand

The post-yodifying y extender is used for what usually amounts to a diminutive connotation:

normal	mitigated
vager want	vàger wish
fuf pipe	fùf tube
nas price	nàs cost
tep mind	tèp spirit
din story	dìn tale
cin image	cìn mark
ciun sign	ciùn signal
sen action	sèn act

Pre-yodification of a root vowel often imparts an intensified sense to the word. In any even, the normal and pre-yodified forms are usually related semantically. Compare:

normal	intensified
bok malady	bók pain
pan motion	pán jump
beer to remain	béer to detain
aper to get on	áper to get up
pet animal	pét reptile
otata unholy	ótata diabolical
vua ugly	vúa dirty
go less	gó least
ga more	gá most
ze in the middle	zé though
ijer to begin	íjer to open

Noun-forming derivational suffixes

Summary

Here is a list of suffixes that are added to word bases to form derived nouns:

suffix	meaning	base	derived noun
et	subdordinative	ted father	tedet son
an	deadjectival nominalizer (-itude, -ity, -hood, -ness)	iva happy	ivan happiness
en	deverbal nominalizer (-ing, -tion, -ance)	azvader to confirm	azvaden confirmation
on	general abstract nominalizer	c- to be	con thing
un	nominalizer of result	nú- to produce	núen product
at	person (-er)	óga young	ógat youngster
ut	agent (-ist)	ces- to build	cesut builder
tut	expert (-ologist)	mem earth	memtut geologist
tun	science (-ology)	mil water	miltun hydrology
in	doctrine (-ism)	tot god	totin theism
ar	instrument	p- to go	par vehicle
ir	machine	vís- to clean	vísir vacuum cleaner
ur	aparatus	magc- to burn	magcur stove
am	building	tel- to eat	telam restaurant
em	space	vab grass	vabem prairie
im	room	magél- to cook	magélim kitchen
án	collection	nac money	nacán fund
a	genetive/ablative case (of/from)	at I	ata my
u	dative/locative case (in/at/on/to)	tam house	tamu at home
i	pluralizer	dén book	déni books
ag	augmentative	tam house	tamag palace
àg	augmentative affective	tam house	tamàg nice big house
ág	augmentative pejorative	tam house	tamág big ugly house
og	diminutive	tam house	tamog hut
òg	diminutive affective	tam house	tamòg cottage
óg	diminutive pejorative	tam house	tamóg shack
ob	infantile	tob human being	tobob child

Details

Following is a detailed description of the nominalizing derivations suffixes:

The -et suffix

The -et suffix is used to form nouns of the same nature, lineage, or composition of a lesser importance:

ted father	tedet son
fab tree	fabet bush
nac money	nacet change
fub branch	fubet shoot
táb grandfather	tábet grandson

The -an suffix

The -an suffix is used to form a noun of quality or state from an adjective or noun:

ama hot	aman heat
iva beautiful	ivan beauty
fia good	fian goodness
ted father	tedan fatherhood
dat friend	datan friendship
odat enemy	odatan enmity

The -at suffix

The -at suffix is used to form the word for a person described by the adjective base.

iktila drunk	iktilat a drunkard
iva happy	ivat a happy person
ofísa hypocritical	ofísat hypocrite
tuja dead	tujat dead person

The -ut suffix

The -ut suffix is used to form the agent for the action described by the verb base "one who does x" or the fabricator of something described by the noun base "one who makes x":

kobier to steal	kobiut thief
tóáfser to make shoes	tóáfsut shoemaker
teaper to visit	teaput visitor
deuzer sing	deuzut singer

The -tut suffix

The -tut suffix is used to form the specialist -ologist or student of something:

tun science	tut scientist
memtun geology	memtut geography
dad language	dadtut linguist

The -ob suffix

The -ob suffix is used to form the child or younger version of something:

tob man	tobob child
apet horse	apetob pony
rapat lion	rapatob lion cub
tot god	totob son of god

The -ar suffix

The -ar, ir, or -ur suffix on a verb base is used for an instrument/tool, machine, or apparatus, respectively.

álber to lift	álbur elevator
álber to lift	álbar lever
álbir to lift	álbir fork lift
víarer to sweep	víarar sweeper
ilújer to plug	ilújar faucet
kácanerto transform	kácanur transformer
drecer to write	drecar pencil

The -en suffix

The -en suffix is used on a verb base for the verbal noun -ing, -ence, -ment, -tion:

ecer to exist	ecen existence
iber to receive	iben reception
béer to detain	béen detention
otamser to demolish	otamsen demolition

The -un suffix

The suffix -un is used on a verb base for the concrete result of an action:

vyarer to sweep	vyarun sweepings
gorfer to tear	gorfun a tear, a rip
teacer to see	teacun view
zéfser to make glass jewelry	zéfsun glass jewelry

The -án suffix

The suffix -án is used on a noun base for collections or groupings:

fab tree	fabán forest
cir machine	cirán machinery
meb mountain	mebán mountain range
tolar food dish	tolarán dishes
mep road	mepán network
aco hundred	acoán century
dún word	dúnán glossary
tam house	tamán block (of houses)
màr star	màrán constellation

The -ag suffix

The -ag suffix is used on a noun base for augmentatives "big ...":

tom residence	tomag palace
mapil storm	mapilag tempest
mep road	mepag highway

The -àg suffix

The suffix -àg is used on a noun base for affectionate augmentatives "big old...":

tam house	tamàg big old house
cim chair	cimàg big old chair

The -ág suffix

The suffix -ág is used on a noun base for pejorative augmentatives "big ugly...":

apet horse	apetág nag
pem car	pemág jalopy
teb head	tebág blockhead
tob man	tobág brute
pot animal	potág beast
tòb woman	tòbág hag

The -og suffix

The suffix -og is used on a noun base for diminutives "little...":

tam house	tamog cottage
dén book	dénog booklet

The -òg suffix

The suffix -òg is used on a noun base for affectionate diminutives "sweet little...":

épet dog	épetòg doggie, pooch
tòb lady	tòbòg little old lady
tèbos kiss	tèbosòg peck

The -óg suffix

The suffix -óg on a noun base for pejorative diminutives "dirty little..."

tebzan face	tebzanóg mug
tob man	tobóg wretched fellow

The -in suffix

The suffix -in is used on a word base for a philosophy or doctrine -ism:

òtota godless	òtotin atheism
adoba republican	adobin republicanism
fob vegetable	fobin vegetarianism
ísfrana utilitarian	ísfranin utilitarianism

Adjective-forming derivational suffixes

Summary

suffix	meaning	base	derivative
-a	relating to	moj night	moja nocturnal
-aa	past participle	tuj- to die	tujaa dead (also: tuja)
-ea	present participle	abdab- to dominate	abdabea dominant
-èna	like	tobob child	tobobèna childish
-èa	tending to	da- to talk	daèa talkative
-oa	future participle	tuj- to die	tujoa moribund
-wua	-able, -ible	tel- to eat	telwua edible
-àa	-ous, -y, -ful, having	maf cloud	mafàa cloudy
-òa	-less	maf cloud	mafòa cloudless
-ika	-ful, full of	nac money	nacika rich
-uka	-less, devoid of	nac money	nacuka poor

Note: -àa/-òa is synonymous with -ika/-uka. The latter is a new addition to Unilingua author Agapoff's original grammar.

Details

The -a suffix

The ending -a is used to mean having to do with, in the state of. This is the most common way to form an adjective from a noun:

tej life	teja vital
tuj death	tuja mortal, dead
moj night	moja nocturnal
tob man	toba human
yab up	yaba upper

In Agapoff's original work on Unlingua, the termination a was also used to form the past passive participle of verbs (ex: tuja = dead, ota = unknown). In this work, the proposed termination for past passive participle is waa or more simply, wa (ex: tujwa = dead, otwa = unknown). See #Verbs for more on this.

ter to know	twa known (Ca twa ad meir ce yaza. It was known that the earth is flat.)
fiser to improve	fiswa improved (Fiswa nyun improved product)
ifer to love	ifwa loved, beloved, dear (Ifwa ted... Dear Father...)

The -éna suffix

The ending -éna on nouns is used to give the idea of like, having the nature of:

tobob child	tobobéna childish, infantile
ted father	tedéna paternal, fatherly
bilíg cheese	bilígéna cheesy

The -éa suffix

The ending -éa is used on verb bases to mean tending to:

tuser persuade	tuséa persuasive
oceser destroy	oceséa destructive
abdaber dominate	abdabéa dominating
daer talk	daéa talkative

The -ea suffix

The ending -ea is used on verb bases to form the present participle '-ing, -ant':

tejer live	tejea living, alive
tujer die	tujea dying
abdaber dominate	abdabea dominant

The -wua suffix

The ending -wua is used on verb bases to mean able to be ...ed '-able':

teler eat	telwua edible
teacer see	teacwua visible
tiler drink	tilwua potable

The -àa suffix

The ending -àa is used on noun bases to mean full of, having, carrying... '-ous, -y'. This comes from -à, meaning with. It is synonymous with -ika 'full', presented further on.

meg rock	megàa rocky
miek sand	miekàa sandy
meb mountain	mebàa mountainous

The -òa suffix

The ending -òa is used on noun bases to mean devoid of, without, un-...ed. This comes from -ò, meaning without. It is synonymous with -uka 'empty', presented further on.

taéb hair	taébòa hairless, bald
tec meaning	tecòa meaningless
toc feeling	tocòa numb

The -ika suffix

The ending -ika full is used on noun bases to mean full of '-ful, -ous, -y'. This suffix is synonymous with -àa.

ilpaan wave	ilpaanika wavy
nas money	nasika rich
mil water	milika watery, aqueous
voz color	vozika colorful

The -uka suffix

The ending -uka empty is used on noun bases to mean the devoid of '-less'. This suffix is synonymous with -òa and the opposite of -ika and -àa.

nas money	nasuka poor
voz color	vozuka colorless, bland
teuc taste	teucuka tasteless, insipid
nánut population	nánutuka unpopulated, deserted

Adverb-forming derivational suffixes

The -à suffix

Change the adjectival ending -a to -à to form an adverb:

yufa proud	yufà proudly
teacèa visible	teacèà visibly
uva sad	uvà sadly

Use -à on noun bases to form an adverbial postpositional phrase mean with...:

ìfcion grace	ìfcionà with grace
at me	atà with me
úf pride	úfà with pride

The -ò suffix

Use -ò on a noun to mean without...:

nas cost	nasò cost-free
seuc noise	seucò noiselessly
et you	etò without you

The -è suffix

Use -è on a noun to mean by, by way of, through, via...:

pam plane	pamè by plane
ìt her	ìtè by her
ésag hard work	ésagè through hard work
Paris Paris	Parisè via Paris

Verb-forming derivational suffixes

Summary

ending	meaning
er	infinitive
cer	intransitive stative verb infinitive ("to be/become")
ser	transitive dynamic verb infinitive ("to do/make")
per	intransitive verb of motion infinitive ("to go")
ber	transitive verb of gesture infinitive ("to put")

Details

The -er suffix

The suffix er is used on noun bases to form a verb infinitive.

noun	verb
tej life	tejer to live
tuj death	tujer to die
túj sleep	tújer to sleep
ij beginning	ijer to begin
íj opening	íjer to open
tíj wakening	tíjer to waken
új closing	újer to close
tém residence	témer to reside
drén print	dréner to print

The -cer and -ser suffixes

The ending -cer be/become is used to create intransitive verbs from nouns and adjectives where the intransitive form contrasts significantly with the transitive form. If the adjective is a base, the -a ending is dropped unless 1) the resulting consonant combination would be difficult; or 2) the meaning is literal as opposed to metaphorical, in which case the dropped -a version is taken as metaphorical. For example, aga big becomes either agacer, meaning literally to become big, or agcer, meaning metaphorically to grow, as in Vab agce ga igà adjobu mamile. The grass grows faster when it rains.

The ending -ser do/make/act/cause is employed to form transitive verbs. In a few cases like teacer/teaser, the opposition of -cer vs. -ser is semantic in nature. In these cases, -ser imparts a more dynamic meaning. In a few other cases, -ser is used to form the causative form of a verb, meaning to make/have/cause/let someone do something.

adjective	intransitive verb	transitive verb
aga big	agacer to get big	agaser to magnify
aga big	agcer to grow	agser to grow
ígza sour	ígzacer to grow sour	ígzaser to make sour
íva free	ívcer to go free	ívser to liberate
teab eye	teacer to see	teaser to look
man light	mancer to shine	manser to illuminate
ábta vertical, upright	ábtacer to stand up	ábtaser to erect
ázta incumbant, reclined	áztacer to lie down	áztaser to lay down
óbta sitting, settled	óbtacer to sit down, settle	óbtaser to set down

The -per and -per suffixes

The ending -per is used for intransitive verbs of motion (going).

The ending -ber is used for transitive verbs of gesture (putting):

base	intransitive verb	transitive verb
áb up	áper to rise	áber to raise
ón apart	ónper to go apart	ónber to separate
ob off	oper to get off	ober to take off
eb at	eper to stop	eber to stop
ika full	ikper to fill up	ikber to fill up

Forming numbers

Cardinal numeric adjectives

The cardinal numeric adjectives 0-9 are formed from the ordinal vowels. The tens are formed with the extension consonant l, the hundreds with the consonant c, the thousands with r, the millions with ml, and the billions with mr.

Numbers composed with aro (1,000), amlo (1,000,0000), and amro (1,000,000,000) retain the o and are spelled separately from the rest of the number with a space.

number	numeral adjective
0	o zero
1	a one
2	e two
3	i three
4	u four
5	ó five
6	á six
7	é seven
8	í eight
9	ú nine
10	alo ten
11	ala eleven
12	ale twelve
13	ali thirteen
14	alu fourteen
15	aló fifteen
20	elo twenty
21	ela twenty-one
22	ele twenty-two
30	ilo thirty
31	ila thirty-one
100	aco one hundred
101	aca one hundred one
123	aceli one hundred twenty-three
200	eco two hundred
1000	aro one thousand
1089	aro ílú
2348	ero iculí
10000	aloro ten thousand
12487	aleru ílé
1000000	amlo one million
6000000	ámlo
6058720	ámlo ólíro écelo

Ordinal numeric adjectives

The ordinal numeric adjectives are formed by adding -a to the cardinal number:

cardinal	ordinal
a 1	aa first
e 2	ea second
i 3	ia third
alo 10	aloa tenth
aci 103	acia one hundred third (pron: a-CI-a)

Ordinal numeric substantives

When ordinal numbers are used substantively, the letter t is appended for persons and the letter c for things:

English	Mirad
The first shall be last.	Aati co ujnati.
The second in the series.	Eec anána.

Collective numeric substantives

Collective (or: multiplicative) substantives of the cardinal numbers are formed by adding on.

cardinal	collective
a one	aon single/whole/unit/solo
e two	eon double/couple/pair/duo/twosome
i three	ion triple/trio/threesome
u four	uon quadruple/foursome/quartet
ó five	óon quintuple
é seven	éon sevenfold
é seven	jubéon week
alo ten	alon tenfold
alo ten	jabalon decade
ale twelve	aleon dozen
aco hundred	acon hundredfold
aco hundred	aconè percent
aco hundred	jabacon century
aro thousand	aron thousandfold
aro thousand	aroni thousands

Collective numeric prefixes

Prefixes having a collective (or: multiplicative) numeric meaning are expressed as:

cardinal	collective	example
a one	an- single, mono-, uni	anzúc unicycle
e two	en- double, bi-, di-, duo-	enzúc bicycle
i three	in- triple, tri-	inzúc tricycle
u four	un- quadruple, quad-, tetra-	unkum tetrahedron
ó five	ón- quintuple, penta-	óngun pentagon
alo ten	alon- tenfold, deca-	alonjab decade
aco hundred	acon- hundredfold, hecato-, cent-	aconjab century
aro thousand	aron- thousandfold, kilo-	aronkín kiloliter

Fractional numeric substantives

Fractional numeric substantives are formed by adding on to the corresponding fractional numeral. The on is dropped in prefixed forms of the fractions:

cardinal	fraction	prefix	example
a one	àon unit, whole	à- holo-	àcin hologram
e two	èon half	è- semi-, demi-	ètot demigod
i three	ìon third	ì- terci-	ìgana terciform
u four	ùon quarter	ù- quatri-	ùser to quarter
alo ten	alòon tenth	alò- deci-	alòser to decimate
aco hundred	acòon hundredth	acò- centi-	acònog centrigrade
aro thousand	aròon thousandth	arò- milli-	aròkík milligram

Frequentative numeric adverbs

Adverbs of frequency are formed with the root jig, meaning frequency, rate:

cardinal	frequency
o zero	ojigu never
a one	ajigu once
e two	ejigu twice
i three	ijigu thrice, three times
co hundred	acojigu a hundred times
od what	odjigu? how often, at what rate?
ge same	gejigu at the same rate, as often
ga more	gajigu more often
go less	gojigu less often
ud this	udjigu this often
id that	idjigu that often
gla much	glajigu very often
glo little	glojigu infrequently
glà rather	glàjigu rather often

Numeric adjectives of order or rank

nap order, rank

cardinal	order
o zero	onapa zeroth
a one	anapa primary, first, original
e two	enapa secondary, second-ranking
i three	inapa tertiary, third-ranking
u four	unapa quaternary, fourth-ranking'
za front	zanapa front-ranking, ahead
zo back	zonapa behind, trailing
ja before	janapa former, foregoing
jo after	jonapa next, following
ij beginning	ijnapa first, original
uj end	ujnapa last, final
lo un-	lonapa random, unordered

Numeric adjectives of degree

nog degree, grade, stage

cardinal	degree
a one	anoga primary
e two	enoga secondary
i three	inoga tertiary
u four	unoga quaternary

Numeric adjectives of base or bit

Add -na:

cardinal	base	grouping
o zero	ona zero-based	onet zero, null
a one	ana unary, only	anet unit
e two	ena binary	enet bit
i three	ina ternary	
u four	una quaternary	
ú eight	úna octal	únet octet, byte
alo ten	alona decimal	
alé sixteen	aléna hexadecimal	alénet 16-bit byte

Numeric prefixes

If cardinal numeric morphemes are used as prefixes, -n is added, unless the base to which it is being attached already begins with that letter:

root	numeric adjective
kunid edge	enkunida double-edged
nid line	anida single-lined
nag dimension	enaga two-dimenesional
nég space	enéga double-spaced
tep mind	antepa single-minded
neg level	enega split-level
mep way	anmepa one-way
voz color	anvoza monochrome
can form	ancana uniform
tooc sex	entoocifa bisexual
tot god	antotina monotheistic
izan direction	enizana bidirectional

Numeric Expressions

Distance/size measurements (zák meter)=

(zág is width, ág is length, ag is size, íban is distance, ábag is height, óbag is depth, gán is girth):

measurement	example
zák meter	It ca á záki íb. He was 5 meters away.
arozák kilometer	Ce eli arozáki bú dom. It is 23 km. to (until) the city.
aroyzák millimeter	Cizo alo aroyzáka nid. Draw a ten mm. line.
acozák centimeter	Odgan acoyzáki ága ce? How many cm. long is it?

Weight measurements (kík gram)

(kín is weight, kíncer is to weigh):

measurement	example
kík gram	Odgan kíki id kínce? How many grams does that weigh?
arokík kilogram	At vage u arokíki vâba. I want five kg. of grain.
aròkík milligram	Mez kínce e aròkíki. The crystal weighs two milligrams.

Volume measurements (nék liter)

(néd is volume):

measurement	example
nék liter	Odganu néki it ébe? How many liters does it hold?
aronék kiloliter	At vage u aronéki vâba. I want five kilos of grain.
arònék milliliter	Ézbo e arònéki mila. Insert two ml. of water.

Math expressions

(gaber to add, gober to substract, garer to multiply, gorer to divide, gecer to equal):

Mirad	English
A gab a gece e.	One plus one equals two.
U gob a gece i.	Four minus 1 equals three.
E gar u gece ó.	Two times four equals eight.
Alo gor e gece á.	Ten divided by two equals five.
E veg e gece u.	Two to the second power equals four.
E nod u.	Two point five (2.5)
U gab a èon or u a èonà	5 1/2

Clock time expressions ( jób = hour)

The international 24-hour clock is used.

Mirad	English
Odjób ce?	What time is it? (lit: Which hour is [it]?)
Ce a jób.	It's one o'clock.
Ce ali jób alá.	It's 1:15 PM.
Ce i jób ilo.	It's 3:30 AM.
Ce ya jób gob alo.	It's ten 'til five. (lit: five hours minus ten)

Calendar expressions

Unilingua	English
Od ce uda jud?	What's today's date?'
Udjub ce alá jiub aroúcúli.	Today is 16 April 1993.
Ted puo jo i jubi.	Father will arrive in two days.
Nunam íjwe yada juebu.	The store opens on Mondays.
Nunam íjwo zoa juebu.	The store opens on Monday (next).
Zajibu mamila gá ádjoba.	Last month it rained the most ever.
Ju zajub!	Until tomorrow!
Gla dropeki swa je jabi aroúco.	There were many wars during the 1900s.
Zoyejubánu juebu at so ivsej.	On monday of next week I will give a party.

Age expressions (jag = age)

Mirad	English
Odjaga et ce?	How old are you?
At ce ele jaga.	I am 22 years old.
At upta úlo jaga tob.	I met a 90-year-old man.

Forming chemical element names

To form words for chemical elements, use the following method: The first letter is the ordinal vowel for the number of electrons. The next letters are:

m for metals

mc for nonmetals

al for gases

il for liquids

electron count	type	Mirad English
47	metal	ulém silver
13	metal	alim aluminum
26	metal	elám iron
15	nonmetal	elómc phosphorus
6	nonmetal	ámc carbon
1	nonmetal gas	amc hydrogen
7	nonmetal gas	émcal azote
8	nonmetal gas	ímcal oxygen
80	metal liquid	ílomil mercury

Codifyng new words based on mnemonics and analogy

Sometimes a word or group of words can have a connection with the meaning of a derived word. Such words are formed from this derived word by changing the generic final root consonant or sometimes other consonants of this word:

teub mouth	< teb head
teud utterance	d say
teuz voice	z precious/art,etc.
deuz song	d speak/write

taéb hair	tab human body
faéb leaf	fab tree
vocaéb petal	voc flower
potaéb mane	pot animal
pataéb feather	pat bird
petaéb fur	pet land animal
upetaéb fleece	upet sheep
pitaéb fin	pit fish

taób skin	tab human body
taóf leather	nof cloth
faób bark	fab tree
fáób rind	fáb fruit
pitaób scales	pit fish
petaób hide, pelt	pet animal

cim chair	bimer to sit
cum bed	bumer to lie
cem table	bemer to sit down at the table

teacer to see	ceacer to appear beacer to keep watch neacer to target teaper to visit izeacer to show váleacer to check óneater to discern ágeacer to contemplate izeader to indicate abeacer to survey ijeacer to notice teader to witness

Forming new words with prefixation

Prefixed elements (sometimes more than one) can be used to form new concepts related to the root word.

Here are examples where morphemes are joined to der to say:

prefixed morpheme	derived concept
ja before	jader to predict
já early	jáder to warn
ja ve before maybe	javeder to guess
jo after	joder to reply
eg again	egder to repeat
oz weak	ozder to whisper/hint
az strong	azder to insist
óz out	ózder to express
zí all around	zíder to broadcast
uj end	ujder to conclude
ka- find	kader to reveal
ko- hide	koder to keep secret
fi well	fider to eulogize
fu poorly	fuder to curse/damn
fia good	fiader to praise
fua bad	fuader to malign
fri wonderful	frider to flatter
fru terrible	fruder to insult
evfia if good	evfiader to critique
av for	avder to favor
ov against	ovder to object/oppose
ava favorable	avader to side with
ova opposed	vader to contradict
av od for what	avoder to question
va veg yes can	vavegder to permit
vo veg no can	vovegder to prohibit
vo va no yes	vovader to contest
az ov strong against	azovder to protest
va yes	vader to affirm/decide
ve maybe	veder to speculate
vo no	'voder to deny'
fiva good yes	fivader to approve
o fi va not good yes	ofivader to disapprove
fu va bad yes	fuvader to condemn
az va strong yes	fivader to confirm
val certainty	valder to certify
vac assurance	vacder to assure
vag want	vagder to mean/express desire
ván truth	váder to swear
vón falsehood	vóder to lie
áva innocent	ávader to vindicate
óva guilty	óvader to indict
áva innocent	ávder to thank
óva guilty	óvder to blame
íva free	ívader to acquit
íva free	ívder to forgive
év judgement	évder to judge
éb between	ébder to discuss
ók surprise	ókder to improvisate
ág long	ágder to ramble
óg short	ógder to summarize
iva happy	ivader to thank
iva happy	ivder to congratulate
uva sad	uvder to complain
uva sad	uvader to apologize
jo uva after sad	jouvder to regret/mourn
ivcan merriment'	ivcder to joke
fu iva bad happy	fuivader to mock
ók surprise	ókder to improvisate
aj past	ajder to evoke
oj future	ojder to promise
naz value	nazder to evaluate
ók surprise	ókder to improvisate
dún name	dúnder to nominate
kua lateral	kuder to remark (aside)
kia sloped	kider to hint
dún name	dúnder to nominate
gra too much	grader to exaggerate
gro too little	groder to underplay
gan quantity	gander to quantify
óva guilty	óvader to accuse
teab eye	teader to testify
cin picture	cinder to predict
kóa fixed	kóder to insist
o not	oder to keep silent
kebi choice	kebider to vote
tata holy	tatader to bless
fún fear	fúnder to express fear
vates belief	vatesder to express belief
vetes doubt	vetesder to express doubt
vika admiration	vikader to express admiration
fíl courage	fílder to encourage
ofíl not courage	ofílder to discourage
ga more	gader to say more/go on
ge equal	geder to agree
oge not same	ogeder to disagree
ék risk	ékder to dare say
ég obligation	égder to be obliged to say
ek play	ekder to pretend
iz straight	izder to say frankly

Forming new adjectival concepts with compounding

New adjectival concepts can be readily formed by compounding a noun or other rootword with an existing root adjective:

tep intellect	aza strong	tepaza smart
tep intellect	oza weak	tepoza dumb
vag will	aza strong	vagaza strong-willed
vag will	oza weak	vagoza weak-willed
vag will	ána together	vagána consensual
vag will	óna apart	vagóna non-consensual
veg possibility	aza strong	vegaza likely
veg possibility	oza weak	vegoza unlikely
tep intellect	kía heavy	tepkía serious
tep intellect	kúa light	tepkúa light-hearted
tep intellect	káa variable	tepkáa scatter-brained
tep intellect	kóa fixed	tepkóa attentive
tep intellect	záa wide	tepzáa fair-minded
tep intellect	zóa narrow	tepzóa narrow-minded
tep intellect	íja open	tepíja open-minded
tep intellect	úja closed	tepúja close-minded
tep intellect	iga fast	tepiga quick-witted
tep intellect	uga slow	tepuga retarded
tep intellect	ána together	tepána like-minded
tep intellect	óna apart	tepóna dissenting
top spirit	íga hard	topíga cruel
top spirit	úga soft	topúga leninent
top spirit	vaa positive	topvaa optimistic
top spirit	voa negative	topvoa pessimistic
top spirit	ába high	topába up-beat
top spirit	óba low	topóba down-beat
top spirit	iva happy	topija jolly
top spirit	uva sad	topuja melancholy
nac money	ika full	nasika rich
nac money	uka empty	nasuka poor
áb up	ága long	ábága tall
ób down	ága long	óbága deep
áb up	óga short	ábóga short (vertically)
ób down	óga short	óbóga shallow
job time	ága long	jobága long (duration)
job time	óga short	jobóga short (duration)
mep way	iza straight	mepiza direct
mep way	uza crooked	mepuza convoluted
váb rule	aza strong	vábaza strict
váb rule	oza weak	váboza lax
dab government	ava for	dabava pro-government
dab government	ova against	dabova anti-government

Word Classifiers

The following are common combinatory morphemes used to distinguish or classify entities. Many of them are abbreviated forms. If you were to produce a list of word rhyming with any of these morphemes, you would have a list of words that all fit within a similar taxonomic category. For example, all Unilingua words ending in pyot refer to wild animals. All those ending in il are liquids.

classifier	meaning
am	building
em	place
im	room
ém	container
ut	agent
j	time
jig	rate
nog	degree
bén	manner
caun	kind
can	shape
gan	quantity
pat	bird
pet	land animal
pót	wild animal
pét	reptile
pelt	insect
peit	amphibian
piit	crustacean
pit	fish
fab	tree
fáb	fruit
vob	plant
vab	grass
vol	vegetable
voc	flower
voz	color
ar	instrument
par	vehicle
ir	machine
ur	motor
er	verb
ez	gem
tun	science
tut	scientist
il	liquid
el	food
él	semi-solid
ol	solid
of	material
uf	cylinder
án	collective
ber	put
per	go
cer	be
ser	do
un	result
en	process
an	state
on	abstract thing
in	doctrine
ub	apendage
eb	head
euz	sound
dren	document

Word Families

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Doing / making (ser)

ser to do/act	seud agent seem agency sen action aasen initiative seyn act seun business seunud businessman seon fact seoj case sej event sejet incident seb boss sem studio casem factory jeser continue ánser to cooperate gèser to copy jaser to prepare zòser to undo igser to hurry up ojser to plan egser to redo aanser to unify seser to have (sth) done sener to activate senan activity senen activation
aser to act	as action asud actor alser to operate als operation alsud operator alsea operational arser to effectuate
saer to execute	saen execution saud executor saena executive saler to accomplish sal accomplishment
iser to have an effect	is effect ois zero effect ujis purpose
user to cause	us cause usa causal ùser to motivate ùs motive ùsen motivation ùsea motivating ùsena motivational ulser to influence uls influence ulseá influential us và is cause and effect
eser to function	es function esea functioning esena functional esud functionary esem office
éser to work	ésem worksite éset job éser to work ésud worker éstut engineer ésán handiwork éscén process ésnic salary ésnicud salaried emploée ésep strike ésepud striker oyés unemployment oyésud jobless person oésea lazy ésjub workday oésjub holiday ánés collaboration ánésa collaborative ánésud collaborator
sier to result	siun result osiun lack of result
suer to occasion	suler to provoke sul provocation suleá provocative sulud provocateur
seer to behave	seen behavior seena behavioral seler to conduct oneself séer to busy onself séler to practice séner to profess
íser to use	ís use ísud user írser to exploit írs exploitation írseá exploitative fiíser to put to good use fuíser to misuse
úser to serve	ús service úsud server fiúser to benefit fuúser to serve poorly úrser to be a slave to úrs slavery úrsud slave

Being/becoming (cer)

cer to be	cat creature, cyd subject
acer to become	
ocer to be nonexistent	ocun nothing, ocuner to annihilate
icer come about, happen	ic event, ijicer to originate, ujucer to end up, ujuc fate, destiny, fuic misfortune
ucer to make, create, cause	ucud creator, ucun a creation, ucunán (all of) creation, uceá creative
ecer to exist	ece there is/are, ecea available, ecen existence, oecea nonexistent
àcer to have, own, possess	àcun possession, àcud (owner), àca own, utàc property, àser to make available
òcer to lack, need	òc gap, òcea lacking, òser to deprive, òcler to need, òcleá necessary
can form, shape	caner to form, canòa shapeless, fucana malformed, canen formation, ózcan aspect, ficaner to reform, kácaner to transform, canáner to compose, áncaner to constitute, candrener to formulate
caun type,kind	aacaun prototype, vicaun model, vácaun original, utcaun example, ajcaun precedent
caser to fabricate	casem factory
ceser to build	cesen construction, cesud builder, cesem building site, oceser to destrò, ocesen destruction, oceseá destructive
cun thing (concrete)	cunán reality, ocuner to anihilate
acun element	acana elemental, acunéna elementary
con matter (abstract)	gícon problem, kocon secret, kacon revelation, kécon case, égcon crisis
cin picture	tecin figure, cìn mark, zocìn trace, utcìn character, pencìn track, ciun sign, siunet signal, mancin photograph, mancinar camera
cén fashion	utcén genre, secén procedure
cún object	cúnet article, cúfi effects

Putting (ber)

	ber to put	
	bler to carry	brer to haul
aber to put on	eber to stop	ober to take off
áber to raise	éber to contain	óber to lower
baer to lean on	beer to hold	boer to hold up
barer to press (down on)	beler to keep	boler to support (from below)
báer to lift	béer to block	bóer to hang
báler to rouse	béler to hold back, retain/conserve'	bóler to suspend
álber to elevate	élber to hold steady	ólber to lower
	ézber to insert	ózber to extract
	ézbler to carry in	ózbler to carry out
obaer to relieve	obeer to release, let go	oboer to drop
obaler to relax	obeler to abandon	oboler to shirk
	obéer to yield	
		obóer to depend
úzbaer to squeeze	úzbeer to embrace	úzboer to smash
úzbaler to pinch		
	obéer to release	
iber to receive		uber to send
bier to take		buer to give
íber to take away		úber to bring near
zíber to diffuse	zeyber to transpose	
zíbler to carry around	zèbler to carry across, transport	
biner to pull	bener to hold	buner to push
ézbiner to draw in	ézbener to hold in	ézbuner to push in
úbiner to attract	úbener to hold near	íbuner to repel
ózbiner to extract	ózbener to hold out	ózbuner to expel
ábiner to pull up	ábener to hold high	ábuner to push up
ónbiner to yank apart	ónbener to hold apart	ónbuner to shove apart
ánbiner to attract	ánbener to adhere	ánbuner to combine C
vabier to accept		vabuer to volunteer;
zébirer to yank through		zéburer to stab (shove through)
kebier to choose		kebuer to disperse
vobier to refuse		vobuer to deny
embier to occupy		embuer to give way
gorcbier to take part		gorcbuer to give out shares
pitbier to fish		
jobier to borrow		jobuer to lend
émbier to replace		émbuer to resign
ánabier to collect		ónabuer to scatter
		buér to remit
		buler to accord
		bùler to attribute
		bùrer to concede
zòbier to take back		zòbuer to give back
ifbier to welcome		ifbuer to offer
		vegbuer to delegate
		ifbuler to consacrate
		ifbùler to dedicate
		ifburer to sacrifice
nucbier to bù		nicbuer to sell
nacbiler to expend		nacbuler to allocate
		ifburer to sacrifice
		bluér to confer
		zíbuer to distribute
obier to relinquish		obuer to deprive
bin receipts		bun donation
		ivbun gift
baner to gesticulate		boner be calm
baaner to shake		booner to be still
banler to shake		
bànler to shudder		
baneter to rock	baaneter to vibrate	
abaner to caress		
albaner to wipe		
ovbaner to resist		
		bos quiet
		obos trouble
		bòs quiet
		obòs worry
		óbos care
		óbós anxiety
	bén manner	
		búer to reach (out to)
		búner to touch
		brúner to contact
	bemer to maintain	

Going (per)

	per to go	
aper to get on	eper to stop	oper to get off
paer to stand	peer to stay	poer to hang
áper to get up	éper to intervene	óper to get down
álper to rise/ascend	élper to block	ólper to sink'/descend'
âlper to climb up	ôlper to bow	
árper to soar		órper to tumble
áprer to scamper up	... ...	óprer to collapse
páer to jump	péer to stand still	póer to drop
páner to leap	péner to seize	póner to dive
párer to shoot up	pénuer to attack	pórer to plummit
iper go (away)		uper to come
emiper to emigrate		emuper to immigrate
igiper to flee	igeper to stop suddenly	iguper to rush (toward)
jauper to come before, precede		jouper to come after, succeed
aíper to off with/take along		aúper to come along with/bring along
		zoâuper to pick up (and bring back)
zoíper to go back		zoúper to return (come back)
íper to go away		úper to approach
ílper to escape		úlper to come home
íbemper to go in exile	... ...	... ...
pier to depart		puer to arrive
jopier to get a headstart		jopuer to arrive ahead of/beat
igpier to flee		
piler to quit		
cper to carry		
ézcper to import	zècper to transport	ózcper to export
zòciper to take back	zícper to propagate	zòcuper to bring back
zàper to advance	zàper to cross	zòper to retreat
ánper to go together		ónper to separate
izper to head (straight)		uzper to veer, turn
zíper to tour		zúper to rotate
japer to precede	jeper to go along	joper to follow
zaper to go in front	zeper to go in the middle	zoper to go in back
ézper to enter	zéper to go through	ózper to exit
igper to run	zoigper to chase after	ugper to amble
ízper to pass up	uzper to curve	úzper to go around
kiper to limp	képer to stagger	'kuper to avoid, sidestep
egézper to reinter	azézper to invade	egózper to reemerge
ifper to stroll	ifpoper to tour	ifpiper to cruise
	zéper to penetrate	
poper to travel	képoper to shuttle back and forth	zípoper to travel around
papier to take off (flying)	paper to fly	papuer to land
pepier to ride off	peper to ride	pepuer to park
pipier to set sail	piper to sail	pipuer to dock
tôaper to walk, step	tuáper to crawl	tôuper to tiptoe
pan motion	pen seizure	pon rest
paz dance		
paner to move	pener to seize	poner to rest
pazer to dance		
opaner to freeze	opener to release	oponer to stir
paaner to shake	peener to catch	pooner to stay
apaner to massage	paaneter to vibrate	
alpaner to rub		
ópaner to reverse		
kipaner to stumble		kupaner to slide
ónpaner to break		
papaner to soar	pepaner to skate	pipaner to swim
ovpaner to block		
paneter to balance		
puner to throw	punrer to hurl	pùner to launch
púner to bump into		
prúner to crash into		
apéner to hit	apéneter to batter	
apêner to tap		
apénler to beat		
ópéner to knock down		
ónpéner to break		
ónpêner to crack		
ónpléner to smash'		
ónpléner to burst		
ónpréner to explode		
pénuer to attack	ovpénuer to counter-attack	opénuer to defend
páner to leap (up)	péner to lunge	póner to dive
ézpáner to jump in	zépáner to jump through	ózpáner to jump out
zàpáner to leap forward	zèpáner to leap across	zòpáner to leap backward
pénarer to whip	páneter to skip	peneter to step
	pòn respite	pos peace

Saying/talking (der, daer)

dier to ask	der to say	duer to propose
updier to invite	ebdier to discuss	
dider to question	doder to be silent	duder to answer
vader to affirm	veder to quibble	voder to deny
váder to swear		vóder to lie
ávder to excuse	évder to judge	óvder to accuse
fivader to approve		fuvader to condemn
fider to praise		fuder to curse
avder to advocate		ovder to oppose
frider to glorify		fruder to blaspheme
		fúder to offend
		flúder to insult
		frúder to outrage
		ufúder to threaten
		fuébder to dispute
azder to shout	egder to repeat	ozder to whisper
jader to predict	jeder to narrate	joder to recount
ivder to thank		uvder to complain
ijder to introduce		ujder to conclude
fiader to recommend		fuader to criticize
ajder to evoke		ojder to foretell
tider to understand		tuder to explain
ágder to elaborate		ógder to summarize
diler to beseech	deler to announce	duler to submit
direr to require	dèler to declare	
	daer to speak	
	ágdaer to ramble	
	ébdaer to converse	fuébdaer to quarrel
dad language	daun speech	dod silence
din history	dìn story	diin recitation
dún name	zadún first name	abdún last name
dun word	dlun phrase	drun sentence

Writing/reading (drer, déder)

drer to write	védrer to correspond, dúndrer to sign, abdrer to inscribe, gèdrer to copy, ézdrer to register, zèdrer to transcribe, tuúdrer to type, tuúdra typewritten, tuúdrud typist, cindrer to draw, drecìn letter (of the alphabet), dresìna literal, drecìnán alphabet, drecìnána alphabetical drecìnánser to alphabetize, dra written, odra unwritten
droer to erase	droun erasure, droar eraser
dren script	, dreud writer, drenet article, drenetán series of articles, ébdren letter, ébdrenán mail, tuádren manuscript, jadren preface, jodren postscript, dedren prose, candren formula, vádren spelling, védren correspondence, vidrenán literature (belles lettres), drenán scripture, dreden report, cunándren program
drèn text	drèna textual, óbdrèn subtext, zúdrèn context, zúdrèna contextual
déder to read	dédud reader, dédudán readership, zídéder to scan, déd lecture, dédim lecture hall, dédar scanner
dén book	dénám book collection, dénánam library, dénunam bookstore, déngorc chapter, dénifud bookworm, dénabkum bookcover, dénembelar bookmark, déndúnán bibliography, dénet booklet, dindén storybook, novel, tiundén textbook
dreun document, file	dreunán dossier, documentation, dreuner to document, file '
drec note	drecer to note, dodrec bulletin
drecin drawing, design	dreciner to draw, drecinud designer, drecinam design studio
drez poem	drezán poetry, drezet verse, drezut poet, drezéna poetic
dreván grammar	drevána grammatical, drevánut grammarian
dréner to print	drén print, drénar printer, drénam printshop, jubdrén newspaper, jubdrénán the press, jubdrénud journalist, jobdrén magazine, cindrén illustration, zídrén poster, zídrénet prospectus, drénet ticket, ózdréner to publish, ózdrénam publishing house, dréncìn type, character (of a font), dréncìnán font, dréncìnánam foundry
drar pen	drear pencil, dril ink
dof cardboard	
daf card	mircindaf map, ekdaf playing card, ébdrendaf postcard, dafán stack of cards
def paper	defán stationary, defánam stationary shop, defet scrap of paper, defcasam paper mill
dáf notebook	dáfet book (of tickets, etc.), agdáf register
dúf sheet (of paper)	dúfbuar sheetfeeder
dúv page	dúván ream of paper, mirmepán dúv web page, zàdúvper to page forward

Society (dot)

dot society	dota societal, dotcer to socialize (intr.) dotin socialism, dotinat socialist odota savage, barbaric, odotan savagery, barbarism, odotat savage, barbarian dotús social welfare dotvàcan social security dotbén custom, more (n.) dotbéna customary ajdotbén tradition ajdotbéna traditional dotcén civilization, dotcéner to civilize
dat friend	data friendly, datcer to befriend, datan friendship dàt girlfriend daat buddy, daater to buddy around, daatan buddyship ifdat sweetheart, ifdatan romance, ifdata romantic odat enemy, odata inimical, ovdata hostile, ovdatan hostility datibut host, dàtibut hostess, datibéa hospitable, datibéan hospitality datupud guest, visitor, datupudim guestroom, datupudem reception area, datuper to be a guest, to visit, datup' visit
det comrade, companion, associate	detan comraderie, association, detcer to associate àdet companion, àdetan company
dit citizen	dita civil, ditan citizenship, ditán citizenry ditbén civility doita civic
dut sir, Mr.	dùt madam, Mrs., dután messieurs dutet master, lad dùtet miss, mademoiselle, young lady duut sire ditús civil service
dout bourgeois	douta bourgeois (adj.), doutan bourgeoisie, doután bourgeoisie (coll.)
aut person	auta personal autbén personality agaut personnage, v.i.p. aután group, autána collective autgran crowd, autgrana crowded, autgrancer to form a crowd
aut individual	auta individual, autan individuality anuta private, anutan privacy aután group
áud commune	áuda communal, áudan community, áudana comunity-related áudin communism, áudinat communist
áut collective	áuta collective áutan collectivity áutser to collectivize, áutin collectivism, áutinat collectivist
át everyone	áta everyone's
tán people	tána popular, tánikcer to populate, tánikca populated, tánika populous, tánukser todepopulate, also: tánòser to depopulate, tánuka unpopulated, deserted táncág population, táncágtut demographics tân populace tánin populism, táninat populist tánifa popular, tánifan popularity, tánifser to popularize, otánifa unpopular tánbén custom, tánbéna customary

State (dob)

realm	chief	female counterpart
dob state	deb leader	
adob empire	adeb emperor	adèb empress
edob kingdom	edeb king, monorach	edèb queen
idob principality	ideb prince	idèb princess
udob marquisate	ideb marquis	idèb marquise
ódob earldom	ódeb count	ódèb countess
ádob barony	ádeb baron	ádèb baroness
édob duchy	édeb duke	édèb duchess
ídob domain	ídeb lord	ídèb lordess
údob tribe	údeb tribal chief	
tándob republic	tándeb president (of the republic)	

Government (dab)

dab government	daber to govern dabdren ordnance daba government dabzem government center, capital andab autocracy nacdab plutocracy abdaber to dominate, abdabin imperialism, dabovper to revolt, dabovpen revolution dabtun politics, dabtut politician
daab administration	daaber to administer daaba administrative
deb chief, leader	deber to lead, command andeb dictator, autocrat deban leadership debán leadership (coll.) debveg authority, debvegdren authorization debòser to depose debovper to rebel, debovpud rebel, debovpen rebellion, vodebder to prohibit, vodebden prohibition, debden order
doob nation	dooba national dooban nationality doof flag
dub minister	duba ministerial, dubam ministry ózdub ambassador, ózdubam embassy ózdubet consul, ózdubetam consulate'
dek combat	deker to combat dekpan fight, dekpaner to fight, dekpanud fighter dopek battle, dopekem battlefield dropek war, dropeker to wage war, dropekud warrior, dropekéna bellicose
damem metropolis	damema metropolitan obdamam colony, obdamemser to colonize, obdamemsud colonialist
domem territory	domeam province/state, domeameb governor domeem department (eg. of France), domeemeb prefect domeim canton domeum commune
dom city	doma urban, domaser to urbanize dombén polity úzdom suburb, domag metropolis debdom capital, midom port, domgon district, domgob quarter, domeb mayor, domam mayor's office, domab municipality, domaba municipal dòm town doam borough doem village doim hamlet domcin cityscape
domep boulevard	domèp avenue domeap street domeep lane mepet alley gacmep intersection omep impasse, cul-de-sac, deadend ábmep highway igmep expressway abzèmep bridge, overpass obzèmep underpass zémep tunnel ízmep bypass, detour úzmep beltway ébdoma mep interstate highway (lit: intercity road)
domém square	domzúm circle

Knowing (ter)

tier to study tiud student titam school atitam elementary school etitam high school ititam college tin doctrine, -ism	ter to know oter to ignore keter to be curious jàter to guess egter to recognize vater to be sure veter to wonder voter to doubt ten knowledge, information	tuer to teach tuud teacher tutam institute tutamán university tut expert, scholar, scientist tun science, -ology
ticer to learn ticun lesson	tecer to perceive, sense tecun data	tucer to instruct tucun instruction
tiser to agree	teser to think tújteser to dream ijtes idea jotes afterthought	tuser to convince
akteser to remember		okteser to forget
vateser to assume	veteser to suppose	voteser to discount
váteser to believe	véteser to wonder, weigh	vóteser to doubt
ánteser to agree		ónteser to disagree
avteser to favor	evteser to quibble	ovteser to oppose
fiteser to thank		futeser to regret
jàteser to plan		jòteser to reflect
kateser to recall	keteser to search one's memory	koteser to forget (deliberately)
keter to be interested	keten curiosity, ketea curious, ketenàa interesting, ketenukser to interest, oketer to be uninterested	
	tújteser to dream	
tep mind	tepa mental	tepén attitude,aztepa intelligent, vátepa wise, tepbén method, tepbéna methodical, otepa imbecile
tèp spirit	tèpa spiritual	agtep genie
tez culture	teza cultural	óbtez subculture, tezser to cultivate
tén industry	téna industrial	joténa post-industrial,téntun technique, téntuna technical
tun science	tuna scientific	tut scholar
tin doctrine	tina doctrinal	tinéna doctrinaire
tún idea	túna ideal	túncer conceive of, túnca conceptual, túnán ideology, túnánud ideolog
tekóer to pay attention	tekóa attentive	otekóa inattentive

Family (tod)

tod family	toda familial tòd home, tòda domestic todana familiar
tad spouse, husband	tàd wife tadán household tadcer to get married, tadca married, tadcen marriage, tada marital otadca unmarried, otadcat bachelor tadòcat widower, tadòcàt widower, tadóncer to divorce, tadóncat divorcee, tadónc divorce tadán husband and wife team, jatad fiance, jatàd fiancee tadceat groom, tàdceat bride, tàdceata bridal tadet brother, tadeta fraternal, tadetan fraternity, tadetán fraternity (group), tàdetán sorority tàdet sister taodet brother-in-law taódet sister-in-law
ted parent, father	teda parental, paternal tèd mother, tèda maternal teda tedòa orphaned, tedòat orphan, tedòan orphanhood, tedòcer to be orphaned, tedòatam orphanage tedet son, tedeta filial tèdet daughter teodet son-in-law teódet daughter-in-law
tid uncle	tidéna avuncular tìd aunt tidet cousin tìdet cousin (female)'
tud brother-in-law	tùd sister-in-law tudet nephew tùdet niece
tód father-in-law	tôd mother-in-law tódet son-in-law tôdet daughter-in-law
tád grandparent, grandfather	tádéna grandfatherly tâd grandmother, tâdéna grandmotherly tádet grandson tâdet granddaughter tádán grandparents tádetán grandchildren
téd relative	téda related, tédan kinship tédcer to be related, tédán kin(folks), otéda unrelated
tíd god-parent, god-father	tídet godson tîdet goddaughter'
ajted ancestor	ajteda ancestral, ajtedán ancestry
jat ascendant	
jot descendant	jòtan descendance

Human being (tob)

tob human being
tab body
taab lymph
taaba lymphatic
taabocet lymph gland
taeb muscle
taeba muscular
taib bone
taibán skeleton
taibána skeletal
taibàa bony
taibcer ossify
taibcen ossification
taibòa boneless
taibòser to debone
taob flesh
taoba carnal
egtaobcen reincarnation
taobàa fleshy
taobtelea flesh-eating
potaob meat
potaobtelea carnivorous
taub cartilege
tauba cartilagenous
taób skin
taóbil sweat
taóbiler to sweat
taóbilàa sweaty
petaób hide
taóf leather
taófud leatherer
taóféna leathery
tàab fat
tàaba fat-related
tàabòa fat-free
tàabél lard
tàabil oil
tàbiler to oil
tàabilém oilcan
tàabilàa oily
tàabàa fatty
taéb hair
tàabàa hairy
taébòa bald
taébòcer to go bald
taébòat bald person
taébòan baldness
taébòser to depilate
taêb fuzz
taêbàa fuzzy
pataéb feather
pataébán plumage
petaéb mane
pitaéb scales
pitaébàa scaly
taéf wig
taíb nerve
taíba nervous
taíbaanea nerve-rattling
taíbzem nerve-center
tap physique
tapa physical
íztapa metaphysical
taptun physiology
taptut physiologist
taf suit [of clothes]
tàf dress
teb head
tebném cranium
tebnéma cranial
teboc brain
teboca cerebral
ábteb forehead
óbteb chin
obteb neck
obteba cervical
zaobteb throat
zoobteb nape
tebzan face
tebzana facial
tebzanábs face-lift
tebzanòa faceless
teab eye
teaba ocular
teabéb eyebrow
teabil tear
teabiler to weep
teabéb eyebrow
fateab eyelid
fateabéb eyelash
zeteab pupil
anteaba one-eyed
teac sight
teacer to see
oteaca blind
oteacan blindness
oteacat blind person
oteacacer go blind
oteacaser to blind
teacoker gain one's sight
teacoker lose one's sight
teacar eye glasses
teas look
teaser to look
igteaser to glance
ágteaser to stare
uzteaser to look askance
izteaser to look directly in the eye
teabzúen eyeball
teaczéc eye socket
teeb ear
teeba aural
fozteeb ear lobe
teec hearing
teecer to hear
teeca auditory
teecier to listen
teeciud listener
teeciudán audience
teecien audition
teeciar listening device
oteeca deaf
oteecser to deafen
oteecseá deafening
oteecat deaf person
oteecan deafness
teecar hearing aid
ózteeb outer ear
teib nose
teiba nasal
teibil snot
teibila mucous
teiv handkerchief
ózteiber to sneeze
teic smell
teicer to smell
teica olfactory
treic odor
treicàa odorous
fiteic fragrance
futeic stink
teiz perfume
teicier to sniff
teiceucer to snore
teibzéc nostril
teob cheek
zeteob cheekbone
teobéb beard
teobébàa bearded
teobébòa beardless
teub mouth
teuba oral
teubil saliva
teubiler to salivate
ózteuber to spit
teubíjer to yawn
ézteuber to swallow
teubob lip
teuboz smile
teuboc kiss
teuboba labial
teud shout
teuder to scream
teuc taste
teucer to taste
fiteuca delicious
futeuca nasty-tasting
teumib palate
teumiba palatal
teubéb mustache
teubébàa mustachioed
teubab tongue
teubaba lingual
teubaber to lick
éztèbaber to suck
teubeb gum
teubib jaw
teubiser to chew
teupib tooth
teupiba dental
teupibut dentist
teupibutam dentist's office
teupicer to bite
teupicoger to nibble
oteupiba toothless
teupibán denture
tef hat
tefet cap
tefud haberdasher
tefam haberdashery
tep mind
tepa mental
tepcan sentiment
tepcana sentimental
tes thought
teser to think
ágteser to ponder
tesa cognitive
tesen cognition
teseá conceivable
oteseá inconceivable
tesoker to forget
otesokeá unforgetable
tesaker to remember
ter to know
oter to ignore
ota unknown
otea unaware
tuer to teach
tuna scientific
tut scientist
tuen teaching
tuena didactic
tuut teacher
tuután academe
tun science
tuun lesson
tier to learn
titam school
atitam grade school
etitam high school
ititam college
tiud student
tiudán student body
tiun study
tiuna scholastic
tiunán studies, scholastics</i
tin doctrine
tina doctrinal
tez culture
teza cultural
ten knowledge
tena awareness-related
teá known
tea aware
tean awareness
trer to recognize
tren cognizance
treá recognizable
trea cognizant
éztrer be conscious
éztren conscience
éztrea conscious
oéztrea unconscious
otra incognito
otrea incognizant
tec perception
tecer to perceive
teceá perceptible
tecpan emotion
tecpana emotional
tecpanea emotive
tecpanean emotivity
tecpaneá excitable
tecpaner to emote
tib trunk
zetib waist
tetibgan waist size
zotib back
zotiba dorsal
zotibók back pain
tiab chest
tilab breast
tilabil, bil milk
tilabiler to lactate
tilabila lactic
tilabilbier to milk
tilabilbuer to give milk
tilabiléna milky
tieb lung
tieba pulmonary
tieser to breathe
éztieser to inhale
óztieser to exhale
tiebok pneumonia
tieboser to cough
tiib heart
tiiba cardiac
tiibil blood
tiibiler to bleed
tiibilàa bloody
tiibiloker to lose blood
tiibilotila blood-thirsty
tiibila sanguinary
tiibilánam bloodbank
tiibuf artery
tiibufa arterial
tiibufog arteriole
zòtiibuf vein
zòtiibufa venal
tiub belly
tiuba ventral
tiùb abdomen
tiùba abdominal
zetiub navel
zotiub buttock
tiób kidney
tióba renal
tióbok kidney disease
tióbil urine
tióbiler to urinate
tióbilem urinal
tióbila urinary
tiáb penis
tiába penile
tìáb vagina
tìába vaginal
ébtiába sexual
tiábcan phallus
tiábcana phallic
tiábòser to castrate
tiábòcat castrato
tiáv condom
tikob esophagus
tikoba esophageal
tikab stomach
tikaba gastric
tikeb liver
tikeba hepatic
tikebok hepatitis
tikebil bile
tikib pancreas
tikiba pancreatic
tikub instestine
tikuba instestinal
tikubil feces
tikubila fecal
tikubiler to defecate
tikubuj anus
tikubuja anal
tikubujbok proctitis
tub arm
tuba brachial
tuab shoulder
tueb upper arm
tuib elbow
tuiber to elbow
tuub forearm
tuób wrist
tuáb hand
tuába manual
tuácer to handle
tuábier to grasp
tuábuer to lend a hand
tuúpúner to slap
ébtuáber to clasp/shake hands
tuápaner to clap/applaud
tuálpaner to massage/knead
tuásiner to sign
tuádotsiner to wave [hello/goodbye]
tuáf glove
tuáfém glove compartment
tuáfud glover
tuéb fist
tuépaner to pound
tuúb finger
tuúba digital
atuúb thumb
etuúb index
etuúber to point
ituúb middle finger
utuúb ring finger
ótuúb little finger
tuúcer to feel
tuúca tactile
tuúceá palpable
tuúpaner to tap
tuúdrer to type
tuúdrar typewriter, keyboard
tuúbuj finger tip
tulob fingernail
tulocer to scratch
tulop claw
tuloper to claw
tuúb palm
tuúpaner to slap
tulib knuckle
tulipaner to knock
tób leg
tóab hip
tóaper to sit
tóeb thigh
tóib knee
tóiper to kneel
tóub shin
tôab foot
tôabektun podiatry
tôabektut podiatrist
tôaper to walk
tôapud pedestrian
tôapem sidewalk
tôapar walker
igtôaper to run
igtôapem racetrack
tôapúner to kick
tôapaner to stomp
tôabar pedal
tôaf shoe
tôafser to cobble
tôafsud shoemaker
tôafsam shoemaker's shop
tôafber to shoe
tôafba shod
apetôaf horseshoe
tôafmacil shoe polish
tôafnífet shoelace
tôafodet shoetack
tôeb heel
tôepaner to supplant
tôib sole
tôub toe
tôuper to tiptoe
tólob toenail
toba human
tobaser to humanize
otobaser to dehumanize
toban humanity
tobin humanism
tobina humanistic
tobinat humanist
iftoba humanitarian
iftoban humanitarianism
tobán mankind
tobéna human
toob male
tooba masculine
otoobaser to emasculate
tooban masculinity
toòba feminine
toòban femininity
tooc sex
tooca sexual
toocan sexuality
otooca asexual
entooca bisexual
hátooca pansexual
getooca homosexual
getoocan homosexuality
getoocat homosexual [person]
tos instinct
tosa instinctual
toséna instintive
top soul
toptun psychology
toptuna psychological
toptut psychologist
topéna animate
topénaser to animate
topénasen animation
otopéna inanimate
topòa soulless
tòb woman
tòba female
eóntòba effeminate, quasi-female
tòbéna feminine
otobéna unwomanly
tòbet girl
tòbeténa girlish
tòbetan girlhood
tòbán womankind
tobob child
toboba infantile
toboban infancy
tobéna childish
tobobòa childless
tobobikam child care center
tobet boy
tobeténa boyish
tobetan boyhood
tobog kid, midget
tobòg kiddie
tobóg brat
tobag giant
tobagéna gigantic
tobág monster
tobágéna monstrous
toc sense
toca sensorial
tocan sensation
tocer to sense
toceá sensible
tocea sensitive
boc organ
boca organic
bocán organism
bocet gland
boceta glandular

Bodily functions (tab...er)

body part	body function
tab body	óbtaber to bow, stoop áztaber to prostrate oneself ábtaber to stand erect
teb head	óbteber to duck tebciner to nod
tep mind	ter to know, etc. [see Mental Activities]
teab eye	teacer to see teaser to look teabiler to weep zóteaber to squint ágteaser to stare igteaser to glance igteacer to glimpse teabciner to wink teabigíjer to blink
taéb hair	taébòcer to bald
taób skin	taóbiler to sweat taóboker to shed
taíb nerve	taíser irritate iftaíser to tickle taícer to itch
teeb ear	teecer hear teeser listen
teib nose	teicer to smell teiser to sniff teiseucer to snore teibiler to run at the nose teibilpuner to sneeze teibukser to blow the nose
teub mouth	teubiler to salivate teubilpuner to spit ézteuber swallow teubíjer to yawn teuder to shout
teubob lip	teubocer to kiss éztèbober to suck teubozer to smile teucozer to laugh
teubab tongue	teubaber to lick teucer to taste
teubib jaw	teubiser to chew
teipid tooth	teupicer to bite
tilab breast	tilabiler to lactate
tikab stomach	tikabilpuner to vomit
tieb lung	tieser to breath éztieser to inhale óztieser to exhale tiebil phlegm tiebukser to cough
tiib heart	tiibiler to bleed
tiób kidney	tióbiler to urinate
tuab shoulder	tuaber to shoulder
tuib elbow	tuiber to elbow
tuáb hand	tuábier to grab tuábuer to hand tuáser to manipulate ébtuáber to shake hands tuáciner to wave tuápéner to slap tuápéneter to pat tuálpaner to massage
tuúb finger	tuúcer to feel tuúpéneter to tap tuúdrer to type iztuúber to point ivtuúcer to tickle tuúbginer to poke tuúser to strum, fiddle
tôab foot	tôapéner to kick tôaper to walk igtôaper to run kitôaper to hobble
tôob knee	tôocer to kneel tôoper to crawl
tôeb heel	tôepéner to stomp
tôub toe	tôuper to tiptoe
tulob nail	tuloser to scratch

Bodily fluids and other liquids (tab...il)

object	fluid
tab body	tabil humor
teab eye	teabil tear
teib nose	teibil mucus, snot
tilab breast	bil milk (tila dropped)
teub mouth	teubil saliva, spit
tiib heart	tiibil blood
tiób kidney	tióbil urine, piss
tikeb liver	tikebil bile
tikub intestine	tikubil feces, shit
taób skin	taóbil perspiration, sweat
tieb lung	tiebil phlegm, sputum
tobij seed	tobijil semen
mam sky	mamil rain
vafáb grape	vafil wine (vafáb shortened to vaf)
voz color	vozil paint
dr- write	dril ink
mag fire	magil petroleum
mag fire	maagil fuel
mag fire	maegil gasoline
mag fire	maigil kerosene
meg rock	megil cement
magmeb volcano	magmebil lava (fire mountain liquid)
án together	ánil glue
mel ground	meil mud
tel food	telil soup
ovob cereal	ovobil meal, porridge
bil milk	biel cream
fáb fruit	fábil juice
afáb apple	afábil apple juice
ufáb prune	ufábil prune juice
lafáb orange	lafábil orange juice
afáb apple	afil cider (afáb shortened to af)
kafáb olive	kafábél olive oil
vol vegetable	volél vegetable oil
levol beet	levolil beet juice
fab tree	fabil sap
ávob hop	ávil beer (ábov shortened to áv)
levaf ...	levafil liqueur
level sugar	levil syrup (el < tel food, il < til drink)
tul plate	tulil sauce
m- nature	mil water
mil water	miil liquid
óm ice	ómil dew
óm ice	ómbiil ice cream
t- human/animal	til drink
bek treatment	bekil medicine
bok illness	bokil poison
mag fire	magil fuel
cafaéb tea leaf	cafaél tea (-b organism to -l liquid)
cefáb coffee bean	cefál coffee
	él oil
	fél wax
apelat bee	apelatel honey (-el food)
apelat bee	apelatél wax (-él oil)
c metaloid	cil acid
ílom 80-electron metalloid	ílomil mercury
mam sky	mal air (mam shortened to ma)
mal air	meal gas
mal air	mial vapor
amc 1-electron metalloid	amcal hydrogen (-al gas)
ímc 8-electron metalloid	ímcal oxygen
émc 7-electron metalloid	émcal azote

Health (bak)

bak health baka healthy baker to be healthy bakcer to heal' bakser to cure baktun hygiene baktut hygienist bakam sanatorium bakat healthy person baktel health food baktelam health food place baak sanitation baaka sanitary obaaka unsanitary baakser to sanitize tabak physical health tebak mental health bàk safety bàka safe bàker to save bàkser to make safe bàksud savior obàk danger, peril obàka unsafe, dangerous obàkser to endanger	bek treatment, remedy, cure beka clinical beker to treat bekcer to heal [intr.] bekser to heal [tr.] bekler to cure, to remedy beklacer to be cured bektun medecine (practice of) bektut doctor bekam clinic, hospital, care facility bekim hospital room bekat patient bekut care-giver, nurse bekil medecine, drug bekel pill bekila medicinal bekilam pharmacy bekiler to medicate tebektun psychiatry tebektut psychiatrist bekleá curable obekleá incurable obekeá untreatable fubek mistreatment, abuse fubeker to mistreat, to abuse	bok illness boka sick boker to be sick' bokcer to fall ill bokser to sicken' boktun pathology boktut pathologist boktuna pathological bokus pathogen bokam hospital bokamber to hospitalize bokat patient book fatigue booka tired bookcer to grow tired bookser to tire bookseá tiresome bokil poison bokiler to poison bokiléna poisonous obokilam detox facility ombok cold teibok influenza, flu vúrbok infection ambok inflammation tebok mental illness teboka mentally ill tebokam insane asylum tebokat mentally ill person tebook boredom tebooker to bore tebookcer to grow bored tebookca bored oboker to cure, to heal, to save obokut savior, healer egbokcer to relapse
bik care bikea careful biker to care for biktun nursing biktut nurse bikam care facility bikat care patient bikof bandage bikofer to bandage obik lack of care obiker to leave uncared for tebiker to care (about) otebik apathy, lack of concern otebiker to be unconcerned about obikea careless otebikea unconcerned, apathetic igéga bik urgent care igéga bikim emergency room	buk wound buka wounded buker to wound bukcer to be wounded bùk sore buket scratch buketer to scratch bukof patch bukofber to patch up bukat trauma patient, victim buuk harm buuker to harm buukeá harmful buukòa harmless buukék danger	bók pain bôk ache bôkcer to ache bóker to hurt (someone) bókcer to be in pain bókeá painful bókòa painless bókòsil painkiller bôker to ache bóokcer to suffer brók agony bróker to torture brókeá torturous brókcer to agonize tebók anguish tebókcer to anguish

Clothes (tof)

body part	heavier material	lighter material	
tob man	tof apparel	tov underwear	
tab body	taf suit	pontav pijama	
teb head	tef hat	tev scarf	
teib nose	teif nose cover	teiv handkerchief	
teób neck	teóf tie	teóv collar	
tuab shoulder	tuaf shawl		
tib trunk	tif vest		
zetib waist	zetif belt	zetiv sash	
tiab chest	nefiaf sweater	tiav shirt	
tiub belly	tiuf corset	tiuv underpants	
tilab breast		tilav brassiere	
tiáb penis		tiáv loin cloth	
tób leg	tóf pants		
tôab foot	tôaf shoe	tôav sock	
tuáb hand	tuáf mit tuáfém pocket	tuáv glove	
tiúb tail	tiúf train		

Habitation (tom)

tom habitation	tomer to live, tomud inhabitant tòm home, tòma domestic toem place of residence toom accommodation, lodging, toomer to accommodate tomet apartment, tometán apartment building tomof tent utom property tomtun architecture, tomtut architect, tomtuna architectural tombuer to lease,tombuud landlord, dren tombuena lease tombier to rent, let, tombiud renter, lessee tomnoc rent tombel housekeeping, tombelud concierge ábtom hi-rise
tém residence	témer to reside témud resident téma residential vegdren témuda resident's permit otémud non-resident
tam house	tameb master of the house taam villa agtam chateau ivagtam palace ogtam cottage tamet cabin ogtamet hut potam hotel, igpotam motel zútam tower azcatam castle tamán housing complex tamózem yard tameézem courtyard abtamac roof zatam facade telam restaurant epam station tilam bar tuzam museum dénam library titam school tutam institute nunam store cesam factory avolam bakery bikam hospital totam church spanam gym milbam bathhouse pemtam garage beelam warehouse vobésam farm
tàm building	tàmser to build, otàmser to demolish, otàms ruins, tàmsud builder tamcer to found, tamc foundation mamtàm skyscraper
tem space	abtem attic obtem basement ágtem gallery pemepem parking lot ponem rest stop ifekem playground dropekem battleground maparem airport ózem yard, outdoors ázem flat space úbem neighborhood íbem the far side kum side abem top obem bottom zam front zom back zem middle zém indoors kunadam frontier kim slope ábem upstairs óbem downstairs zém tunnel zèm bridge ifpem promenade mimkum beach ifpopem resort tujémem cemetery tatem shrine zúm zone ubem destination ibem origin pum destination pimstarting point epem station ijem starting point ujem endpoint
tim room, chamber	miltim bathroom éstim bureau datim salon, living room zótim hall, corridor tjujim bedroom telim dining room magelim kitchen tilim bar zatim lobby zotim antechamber áktim waiting room timet cubicle, cabin, roomette

Places and containers

The "place" suffixes am, (e)m, im, ém, and éb are short for and recall tam house, tem space, tim room, ném box, and céb container.

Buildings (-tam, -am)

t- human-related	tam house
nun merchandise	nunam store
nac money	nacam bank
apelat bee	apelatam beehive
pancin cinema	pancinam moviehouse
tel food	telam restaurant
til drink	tilam bar
tier to study	titam school
tuer to instruct	tutam institute
tata holy	tatam church
dénán book collection	dénánam library
cuzán art collection	cuzánam museum
bekil drug	bekilam pharmacy
ep stop	epam station
pon rest	ponam hotel
bek treatment	bekam clinic
bok illness	bokam hospital
bik care	bikam nursing home
bak health	bakam sanatorium
avol bread	avolam bakery
dez show	dezam theatre
daz dance	dazam dance studio
cefál coffee	cefálam café
belud guard	beludam guardhouse
apet horse	apetam stable
koer to hide	koam shelter
def paper	defam stationery
túj sleep	tújam dormitory
voc flower	vocam floristry
par vehicle	param garage
pat bird	patam nest
vab grass	vabam grange

Places and spaces (-tem, -em)

t- human-related	tem hall
ep stop	epem stopping point
tij birth	tijem birthplace
és work	ésem factory
ek play	ekem playground
dropek war	dropekem battlefield
koer to hide	koem hideaway
pier to depart	piem departure point
puer to arrive	puem arrival point
ab on	abem top
ob under	obem' bottom
áb up	ábem upstairs
ób down	óbem downstairs
éb between	ébem interstice
éz in	ézem interior
óz out	ózem exterior
ib from	ibem origin
ub to	ubem destination
ij start	ijem starting point
uj end	ujem endpoint, goal
úb near	úbem vicinity
íb far	íbem distance
za before	zam front
zo behind'	zom back
ze middle'	zem center
ák wait	akem waiting area
úz around	územ environment
zú round	zúm zone
uka empty	ukem vacant lot
kua lateral	kum side
kua lateral	kuem sidelines
kia oblique	kiem slope
kes trial	kesem proving ground
vab grass	vabem prairie
áza flat	ázem plain
íja open	íjem open area
zé through	zém transit area
zè across	zèm crossing/bridge
záa wide	zám expanse
zóa narrow	zóm tight spot
pon rest	ponem rest area
tapek sport	tapekem sports arena
ifzíp tour	ifzípem tourist site
ánup meeting	ánupem meeting venue
tujém coffin'	tujyemem cemetery
ézmelben burial	ézmelbem burial ground
tata holy	tatem shrine
tesbeler to memorialize	tesbelem memorial (site)
nun merchandise	nunem marketplace
hea which	hem where?
háa every	hám everywhere
héa any	hém anywhere
hoa no	hom nowhere
hua this	hum here
hia that	him there
gea same	gem the same place
teler to eat	telem refectory
ób under	óbtem cellar
úja open	újtem court
ága long	ágtem gallery
áb above	ábtem attic
zaóz front outside	zaóztem front porch
zaéz front inside	zaéztem lobby
tier to study	titem study hall
tuer to teach	tutem class

Rooms (-tim, -im)

t- human-related	tim room
tjujer to sleep	tjujim bedroom
teler to eat	teltim dining room
mageler to cook	magelim kitchen
és work	ésim bureau
mil water	miltim bathroom
tata holy	tatim chapel
vi nice	vitim salon
ák wait	áktim waiting room
za front	zatim lobby
zo back	zotim backroom
daer to talk	datim parlor
tapek sport	tapektim exercise room
teacibar t.v.	teacibarim t.v. den
mover to smoke	movim smoking den
ón apart	óntim compartment
éz in	éztim chamber
zóa narrow	zótim corridor/hall
tuer to teach	tutim classroom
cim chair	bimer to sit
cum bed	bumer to lie down

Enclosures (-tém, -ném, -ém) and containers (-céb, -éb, -éf)

t- human-related	tém residence
aza strong	azém safe
koer to hide	koém shelter
pon vacation	poném suitcase
mog ash	mogém ashtray
óm ice	ómém ice chest
voc flower	vocém flower bed
voc flower	vocéb flower pot
il liquid + neer reserve	ilneéb tank
il liquid	iléb bottle
il liquid	ilcéb carafe
til drink	tiléb glass
til drink	tilcéb cup
el food	elcéb pot
tol food	toléb casserole
áz flat+tol consumables	áztoléb pan
telil soup	teliléb bowl
ber put	bém position
tab body	tabém posture
tes thought	tesbém method
tep mind	tebém attitude
eber to stop	ebém situation
uka empty	ukém slot, vacancy
nac money	nacém cashbox
noz jewel	nozém jewelry box
n- commercial	ném box
nac money	nacéf purse
n- commercial	néf bag
néf weave	néfém basket
faof wood	faoféb barrel
mak electricity	nakéb battery

Building structures and furniture (com)

moc floor [stage]	amoc ground floor emoc second floor imoc third floor obmoc basement abmoc penthouse ébmoc mezzanine mocpar elevator (also: álbur)
mac wall	abmac roof obmac foundation ézabmac ceiling ézobmac floor uzabmac vault abzamac balcony abkumac ledge macsud mason mactén masonry (industry) macán masonry ózmac outer wall ézmac inner wall úzmac fence mefa mac brick wall macet fence ónsmac partition màc screen
mec door	mecag entrance-way zamec threshold
mic window	micet ticket window, porthole micof blinds micov curtain abmic sunroof micog skylight
muc stairs	mucnog step mùc ladder zúpea muc escalator mucim stairwell igózpen muc fire escape
com item of furniture	comber to furnish comán furniture comser to make furniture comsud furniture maker milcom sink comiper to move
cam closet	telarcam buffet tofcam clothes closet déncam bookcase macam cupboard comoc shelf tovcam linen closet ècam alcove
cem table	drecem desk cèm pulpit cemném drawer cemof table cloth cemób table leg cemet board úscemet serving tray tilcem bar cágcem counter cemaper to sit down at the table (also: bemer)
cim chair	cìm seat agcim armchair ágcim couch ciim bench ècim stool tôabcim footstool cimub arm rest cimzom seat back baanetcim rocking chair zoólbcim recliner milnef cim bucket seat cimbier to occupy a seat cimbuer to seat (someone) cimober to unseat cimaper to sit down (also: bimer)
cum bed	cuam cushin cuàm pillow cuem mattress cuav bedspread cuev sheet cuef cover cuim box springs cumnán litter cumaper to go to bed, lie down (also: bumer)

Food (tol)

tol foodstuffs	toler to feed tola alimentary tolcéb pot toléb casserole áztoléb pan tolam grocery store, market, tolamud grocer tolar eating utensil, tolarán dishes tolnún produce, groceries
tel (prepared) food	teler to eat otel hunger, otelcer to hunger, otela hungry, otelag famine, oteltujer to starve (to death) telun edible (item) vitelyd gourmet vitelea gourmand telam restaurant, telamet cafe, telamseb restauranteur telém buffet teléb plate, telébar serving tray telar fork, telarán place setting, cutlery telim kitchen telten culinery telsur cooker telsud cook telseb chef telil soup, teliléb soup bowl magtelur stove teleá edible, oteleá inedible
teluz taste	teluzer to taste tèluz savor, tèluza savory, tèluzer to savor oteluz disgust oteluza disgusting oteluzer to be disgusted
til drink	tiler to drink otil thirst otilcer to thirst otila thirsty otilag draught tilam bar tilamag brasserie tiléb glass tilcéb bowl tìlcéb cup tilar spoon tilarag soup spoon tilarog teaspoon tileá potable, otileá non-potable omtil refreshment, soft-drink
tul dish, served food	tulán meal atulán breakfast, atuláner to eat breakfast etulán lunch, etuláner to lunch itulán dinner,ituláner to dine jatul appetizer jotul dessert ébtul snack tuléb platter tulil soup tulánag banquet tuldren menu tulusud waiter, tulusudán wait staff, tulusdeb head waiter, maitre d' , tulúsnac (restaurant) tip tuljób mealtime
-ol/ól (solid)	taol meat,taolam butcher shop, taolud butcher, taolil stew, úgtaol beef steak, ápetaol sausage, ápetól ham mimol salt, mimolika salty vavol salade, greens avol bread, avolet bread crumb, abavol crust, avolek flour, avolam bakery, avolud baker ébcavol sandwich cabavol slice of bread ázavol pancake, flatbread, pizza úzavol wrap, burrito góavol crepe leavol pastry leávol cake aleavol brioche umleavol cookie umcavol cracker, biscuit uzleavol croissant afleavol fruit pie taoleavol meatpie leavolser to make pastry leavolsud pastrymaker leavolam patisserie
-el/él/ál (semi-solid)	eopel beef, gocra eopel ground beef, gocra eopel ébcavol hamburger uopel mutton ápel pork él oil kafabél olive oil gevobél corn oil magél cooking oil tàal fat, grease mageler to cook magéler to fry level sugar, levela sweet, leveler to sweeten, lèvel candy, levil syrop, lèvelud confectioner, lèvelam confectionary elcéb pot ápel pork, ápelán pork meats, ápelam pork butchery
-il (liquid)	iléb bottle tuil sauce tulil soup vafil wine ígvafil vinegar afil cider ávil beer levafil liqueur bil milk, bilam dairy, bilíg cheese, bilúg butter bilúgl yoghurt abil cream fáblevil compote fábil fruit juice taobil gravy, jus levil syrup apelatil honey
mag-	mageler to cook, magelur cooker magiler to boil, magilur boiler màgiler to broil, màgilur broiler magler to roast, maglúr roaster abmagler to grill, abmaglur grill magéler to fry, magélur frier magoler to bake, magolur oven magler to roast, maglur roaster magtelur stove magsur burner
gopar knife	

Time (job)

job time	joba temporal ponjob vacation ógjob short while, ógjoba temporary ívjob leasure ágjob longtime, ágjoba chronic jejoba chronic zé job over time ádjob eternity, ádjoba eternal gonjoba part-time jobúgc delay, jobúgser to delay, jobúgca delayed jobigc haste, jobigcer to hurry kóca (jonabca) jobem appointment jobnabs schedule jobdaf schedule				
joob period	joòb era, epoch joobag eon joobog short period jooba periodic jooban periodicity joobà periodically odjobu? when? udjobu now idjobu then ádjobu always ódjobu never édjobu whenever gedjobu at the same time ogedjobu some other time údjobu sometime				
jab year	jaba annual cojab century, cojaba secular jabij new year jabuj year's end jabdén yearbook jabzòp anniversary				
jeb season	jeba seasonal jeab spring jeeb summer jeib autumn jeub winter				
jib month	jiba monthly ijib trimester ájib semester jiab January jieb February jiib March jiub April jiób May jiáb June jiéb July jiíb August jiáb September jilob October jilab November jileb December				
jub day	juba daily éjub week, éjuba weekly juab Monday jueb Tuesday juib Wednesday juub Thursday juób Friday juáb Saturday juéb Sunday ponjub holiday ívjub day off ádjubu every day, ádjuba daily jubdén diary jubdrén newspaper, jubdréna journalistic, jubdrénud journalist zojub yesterday udjub today zajub tomorrow ivjub feast, ivjuber to feast, ivjuber to celebrate tijub birthday agtijub Christmas zòtujub Easter				
jób hour	jóba hourly jóbar clock tíjóbar alarm clock tubjóbar wrist watch jóbándaf schedule				
jáb minute	jâb moment, jâba momentary				
jéb second	jêb instant, jêba instantaneous				
maj daytime	maja diurnal ijmaj dawn imaj morning ujmaj dusk umaj evening èmaj noon joèmaj afternoon fimaj good day! fiumaj good evening!	ádmaju every morning	udmaju this morning	zomaju yesterday morning	zomaju tomorrow morning
moj night	moja nocturnal èmoj midnight fimoj good night! ádmoju every night udmoju tonight	
jud date	judrer to date jojudrer to postdate jajudrer to antedate judar calendar judaf calendar judén datebook odjudu on what date	udjudu on this date	idjudu on that date	
jàg age	jaga old, jagat elder, jagan old age, jagat bikam elder care facility, jagcer to age, jagca aged, ágcea ageing joga young/new, jogan youth (state), jogat youth (person), jogatán youth (coll.), egjogser to rejuvenate/renew, joganéna youthful gajàga elder gojàga younger gejàga of the same age, as old (as) jéga adult jega middle aged jòga adolescent ojéga minor gájàga eldest gójàga youngest glajàga antique, ancient glojàga brand new, very young odjàg how old?	

Time expressions

expression	example
ja before	Yujo mani ja et pio. Turn out the lights before you leave.
je while	Tobob tuja je tújá. The child died while sleeping.
jo after	Jo teacera mavi it igípa. After seeing the flames, he fled.
ji since	Aita tijé ga fià ji dropek úja. We have been living better since the war ended.
ju until	Ju et agco, et ho tido. Until you grow up, you won't understand.
já early	Ga já ga fi. The earlier the better.
jé on time	Valco puer jé. Be sure to arrive on time.
jó late	Ho puo já! Don't arrive late!
zojubu yesterday	Hè mamila zojubu? Did it rain yesterday?
udjubu today	Iyt deuzo udjubu. She is going to sing today.
zajubu tomorrow	At ikso dén zajubu. I will finish the book tomorrow.
zomoju last night	Hè et fi túja zomoju? Did you sleep well last night?
udmoju tonight	Udmoju ho eco màri mamu. Tonight there will be no stars in the sky.
zamoju tomorrow night	Tijuba vitul aco zamoju. The birthday feast will occur tomorrow night.
jazojubu the day before yesterday	Vab gorfàa jazojubu. The grass had been mowed the day before yesterday.
jozajubu the day after tomorrow	Avolam íjco jozajubu. The bakery will open the day after tomorrow.
jà already	Uvà eta ted jà pia. Sadly, your father has already left.
gaj still	Hè pati gaj tijea? Are the birds still alive?
jù yet	Hè et jù teuca hia pancin? Have you seen this movie yet?
aju in the past	Uti sá hubén aju. People used to act that way in the past.
eju at present	Eju ait ukce mil. At present, we are out of water.
oju in the future	Et fi to oju. You'll know better in the future.
ji idjob since then, thenceforth	Ji idjob eca hoga sejeti. Since then, there have been no further incidents.
jo udjob from now on, henceforth	Jo udjob at éso ga tepazà. From now on I will work more diligently.
ju idjob until then	Ju idjob at ho teacàa ídcuni. Until then, I had not seen such things.
ju udjob until now, up to now, so far	Hot ózpa ju udjob. Nobody has emerged so far.
iju first	At vagó iju ivader et av updier at. I would first like to thank you for inviting me.
jò next	Jò ait teeco drez Sekspira. Next we shall hear a poem by Shakespeare.
uju finally	Elánidpar uju pua. The train has finally arrived.
gloja recently	Iit gloja tadca. They recently married.
glojo soon	Jobipar co him glojo. The taxi will be here soon.
glaja a long time ago	Hua pancin ózpa glaja. That movie came out a long time ago.
glajo a long time hence	Dropek ujco glajo. The war will come to an end a long time from now.
gója just	At gója ijeaca eta vóon. I just now noticed your error.
úbji just	At úbji ijeaca eta vóon. I just now noticed your error.
úbju almost	At úbju aka. I almost won.
ja ago	Keus aca ja e jub. The accident occurred two days ago.
glaj for a long time	At ésa hum glaj. I worked there for a long time.
gloj for a short time	At ésa him anà gloj. I worked here only for a short time.
ókbénà suddenly, all of a sudden	Yokbénà teuzibar ceusa. Suddenly the phone rang.
igjobu suddenly, all of a sudden	Igjobu teuzibar ceusa. Suddenly the phone rang.
odjobu? when?	Odjobu et sa uda cizun? When did you do this painting?
adjobu when (relative)	At sa cizun adjobu at ca joga. I did the painting when I was young.
ji odjob? since when? for how long?	Ji objob et ce tadca? How long have you been married?
ju odjob until when?, how long	Ju odjob et drecéo eta dén? How long will you be writing your book?
idjubu then, at that time	Et ca via idjubu. You were beautiful then.
udjubu now, at this time	At ése ge tuut udjubu. I work as a teacher now.
ádjubu always, all the time	Iyt ádjubu teubòze. She always smiles.
údjubu sometime	Iyt egteapo údjubu. She'll visit again someday.
ódjubu never	Ata épet ódjubu épede. My dog never barks.
ju ádjub forever	Iit áke beer tadca ju ádjub. They hope to remain married forever.
édjubu ever, anytime	Et vege teaper édjubu et vage. You can visit anytime you like.
údjubu sometime	At teapo et údjubu úboju. I will visit you sometime in the near future.
ogedjubu some other time	Et égo uper ogedjubu. You'll have to come some other time.
ídjubu at such a time	Ait ége doer ídjubu. We must be silent at such a time.
gedjubu at the same time	Yad e nidpari pua gedjubu. Both trains arrived at the same time.
vo...gaj no longer, anymore	At vo vage gaj teacer et. I don't want to see you any longer.
odjopi? how often?	Odjopi et pe pancinu? How often to you go to the movies? (jop instance in time)
ajop once	Et ége utmilabaner ajop jubè. You must bathe once a day.
ejopi twice	At vísa par ejopi. I washed the car twice.
glajopi often	Ait deuze ánà glajop. We often sing together.
glojopi seldom	At glojopi teaca ídcun. Seldom have I seen such a thing.
gaijopi sometimes, at times	Iyt ceace geijopi jó. She sometimes shows up late.
ojop never	At ojop vóde. I never lie.
ídjop so often	Et ídjop abdabe ébdaen. You dominate the conversion so often.
gejopi as often	Upo gejopi vé et vage. Come as often as you like.
gajopi more often	Ata ted datupe gajopi vé ja. My father visits more often than before. (vé than)
gojopi less often	At zípe gojopi udjubi. I travel less often these days.
géjopi quite often	Nun ce géjopi nasaga. The merchandise is quite often expensive.
grajopi too often	Et tile grajopi. You drink too often.
grojopi too infrequently	At ózpe tam grajopi. I get out of the house too infrequently.
gájopi as often as possible	Et ége milaber voci gájopi. You should water the flowers as often as possible.
gójopi as seldom as possible	At ázte maru gójopi. I lie in the sun as seldom as possible.

Beginning and ending (ijer, ujer)

The following table shows j (time) words that forms parallels on the basis of the i ⇒ u ordinal vowel opposition:

ijer to begin	ujer to end
ij beginning	uj end
ija initial	uja final
tijer to be born	tujer to die
tij birth	tuj death
tija natal, born	tuja mortal, dead
tijser to birth	tujser to kill
majij dawn	majuj dusk
tobij ovum>	
vabij seed	
patij egg	
magijer to spark	magujer to extinguish
manijer to light	manujer to turn off
esijer to set in motion	esuj to terminate
tesij idea	
jabij new year's	jabuj year's end
íjer to open	újer to close
íj opening	új close
íja open	úja closed
íjar key	újar lock
íjem passageway	újem dead end
íjofer to unfold	újofer to fold
íjden introduction	újden conclusion
tíjer to wake	tújer to sleep
tíj wakefulness	túj sleep
tíja awake	túja asleep
aj past	aju in the past, then	ajer to delay	taj former life	ja before	já early
ej present	eju at present, now	ejer to wait	tej life	je during	jé on time
oj future	oju in the future	ojer to preempt	toj afterlife	jo after	jó late
ij beginning	iju in the beginning, at first	ijer to begin	tij birth	ji since	
uj end	uju in the end, at last	ujer to end	tuj death	ju until	

Natural phenomena (mor, mar, etc.)

mor universe	mora universal,
mòr cosmos	mòra cosmic, mòrtun cosmology
mar sun	mara solar, marnad sun ray
màr star	màra stellar, màrán constellation, màránag galaxy, màrtun astronomy
mer planet	mear Mercury meer Venus meir Earth meur Mars meór Jupiter meár Saturn meér Uranus meír Pluto
mir world	mira global amir north, amira nordic omir south, omira southern imir east, imira oriental umir west, umira occidental emir equator, emira equatorial
mur moon	mura lunar mùr satellite muar comet muer meteor muerog meteorite
mol nature	mola natural, omola artificial
mul matter	mula material, multun physics mulet particle amul atom amulán molecule amulet atomic particle amula atomic, amulzem nucleus, amulzema nuclear emul electron imul proton umul neutron umulet neutrino ámul quark
mal air	mala aerial màl gas maal atmosphere mael troposphere mail stratosphere maul ionosphere maól exosphere malp airwave
mam sky	mama celestial, mamnad horizon, mamèzún rainbow, mamceus thunder mamevan weather mamevantun meteorology
maem space	maema spatial, paem spacecraft, maempopud astronaut
map wind	maap gust maep breeze maip puff mapag cyclone mapaget storm maper to blow maiper to puff
maf cloud	maaf stratus maef nimbostratus maif cumulus mauf cumulonimbus maóf stratocumulus màaf allocumulus maéf allostratus maíf cirrocumulus maúf cirrostratus malof cirrus óbmaf nimbus mafàa cloudy mafòa cloudless
mel ground, earth	mela terrestrial, meltun geography ánmel continent, ánmela continental ónmel island, ónmela insular
mem country	meam region meem land meim countryside memcin scenery memud peasant ázmem plain ázmeam valley ázmeem dale ukmem desert ènukmem steppe vabem prairie vabemet meadow ébmem isthmus ézmelber to bury
mep way	mèp route meap road meep path meip lane, track meup pass mepet alley uzmep detour izmep bee-line kumep sidewalk domep highway óbmep subway
meb mountain	mebán mountain chain ázmeb plateau miekmeb dune magmeb volcano, magmeba volcanic, magmebil lava mèb mount meab hill meabet hillock
met garden	zamet front yard, zomet back yard, kumet side yard, vocmet flower garden
med park	potmed zoo, fabmed arboretum, pemed parking lot
mom underground	moma subterranean mompar subway momesem mine, momesud miner
mob precipice	mòb abyss moab canyon moeb ravine moib cave moub ditch
mop tunnel	
mim sea	mima marine mimag ocean miam lake miem pond miim marsh mióm swamp ézmim bay midom port mimkum shore mimázkum beach mimuzkum gulf ébmim strait mimpop ocean cruise mimbok seasickness mimanar lighthouse
mit basin	
mip river	mipa fluvial, miper to flow, run miap river miep stream miip brook mipet tributary igmip torrent, igmipa torrential ébmip canal mipkum riverbank mimzèmep bridge mipugar dam mipàa riparian
mil water	mila aquatic óbmila underwater mamil rain mamiler to rain mileter to drip, milet drop, miletog droplet, mileteá drippy umilóbiner to drown [intr.] milpóer to drown [intr.] miltujer to drown, miltujat drowning victim, miltuj drowning milper to swim milber to water, irrigate milpón waterfall milabaner to wash [tr.], utmilabaner to bathe, milaban bath, milabanim bathroom, milabanam bathhouse, milabaném bathtub miltim bath, washroom milcom sink ilper to flow, ilp flux, current iligper to gush, stream ilaper to float, ilapar flotation device ilukser to flush, iluksar toilet ilikser to flood, iliks inundation gámiluper to flood, gámilup flood ilóper to downpour ilzíber to spray ilpúner to squirt ilpáner to gush iloker to leak, ilok leak ilpéner to splash tiibiloker to bleed ilzéper to leak, ilzép leak ogilzéper to trickle, ogilzép trickle zoílper to back up with water, zoílp reflux ilpan wave ilpanet ripple ilápóper to undulate, ilápóp undulation, wave action mimupip tide, mimupipa tidal mimbin tide, mibina tidal mimpán surf, mimpánud surfer, mimpán faof surfboard ilbuner to pump, ilbunar pump milbiner to pump, draw water, milbinar pump, milbinéc well ilaber to pour utmilzíber to take a shower milbím spring tilcom drinking fountain milbíc fountain mimper to navigate, sail, mimpar ship mimpoper to sail, travel by sea, mimpop cruise, sea voyage, mimpopud sea voyager, mimpopar cruise ship
ima wet	imcer to get wet,imsrer to drench, ìmser to dampen, iman wetness, ìman humidity, olimsar dehumidifier
uma dry	uman dryness, umser to dry, umsar dryer, umca dried
ama hot	aman heat, amanàg temperature, àma warm, àman warmth, amser to heat, amsar heater
oma cold	oman cold, òma cool, omser to cool, omsur refrigerator, òmser to refresh, òmsea refreshing, òmsun refreshment
óm ice	óma frozen, ómser to freeze, ómsur freezer óom frost, óoma frosted, óomcer to frost over, olóomser to defrost, ovóomil antifreeze
man light	maer to shine manet glimmer, maneter to glimmer manser to light up maníjer to turn on the light manújer to turn off the light manager to illuminate màna clear, mànser to clarify, mànan clarity lomàna opaque manig sparkle, maniger to sparkle kumaner to reflect zòmaner to mirror, zòmanar mirror
mag fire	magar match, magam fireplace magser to burn, magsar burner magcer to burn (intr.), magca burned, magcun a burn mageler to cook, magelud a cook, magelun cuisine, magelar oven, magelur frying pan magújer to extinguish a fire, magújud fireman, magújam' fire department magil petroleum magìl napth maagil fuel maegil gasoline maigil kerosene
mav flame	maver to flame, maveá flammable, mavser to inflame, mavsen inflammation, mavugea flame retardant
mak electricity	maka electrical, makser to electrify, makéna electronic, maktun electronics, makveg electric power, makvegam electric power plant
mov smoke	mover to smoke, movikca smoke-filled, movet plume
mon dark	mona dark, moncer to grow dark, monser to darken (tr.) otmon shadow, otmonéna shadowy mòn shade, mòna shady, obscure, mònan obscurity
meg stone	megéna (made of) stone, megàa rocky, megunkum cinder block megag boulder megog pebble meag marble meeg slate meig granite meug clay meóg clay meág chalk meég limestone meíg alabaster meúg rubble stone mealog sandstone megóg gravel mieg pebble mameg coal maameg anthracite èmameg coke maemeg peat maimeg lignite
mek dust	mék powder méik paste mékar mill mékam mill meil mud
mef brick	abmef tile
mev porcelaine	
mez gemstone	amez diamond emez topaze imez ruby ómez sapphire ámez amethyste vamez emerald mezán jewelry, mezánam jewelry shop

Money (nac)

naz value	nazer to be worth, nazika valuable, nazuka worthless, nazder to evaluate, nazter to esteem, utnaz merit, utnazer to deserve, utnazika meritorious, onazteá inestimable, nazta esteemed
nas price	nasaga expensive, nasoga cheap, nasán rates, nasuka priceless nàs cost, nàser to cost, nàsaga costly, nàsòa cost-free, nàsán costs, nàsder to cost out
'nac money	nacet change, nacetéb coin purse, nacdref check, jonacdref bill, nacán capital, ánac funds, ánàc sum, nactun finance, donactun economy, nacam bank, nacika rich, nacuka poor, úsnac gratuity, tip, nasak profit, nacok loss, gornacdren stock, gornacdrenam stock market, yebkyanac commission, nacyeg debt, nacyegaya indebted, nacyeger to owe money
noc expense	nocer to spend, nòc fee, funoc waste, finoca generous
nec savings	necer to save, necán savings, cágdin necána savings account, funeca stingy, nècer to economize
nuc payment	nucer to pay out, nucbier to buy, nucbiud buyer, nucbiudán clientele, dobnuc tax, nucvegeá solvable, jobnuc credit, jobnucud creditor, jobnucdaf credit card, januc prepayment, zònucer to reimburse
nic income	nicer to collect, cash, nicán revenue, nicbuer to pay for, nicbuud vendor, ésnic salary, ésnìc wage, tutnic honorarium, égnicag tribute, dobnic pension, dotnic allowance, donic annuity, ésnicud wage earner, jonic debit, jonicud debitor, jonicdaf debit card, zònicerto recover

Merchandise (nun) and materials (nof)

nun merchandise	nunam store, nunàm boutique, nunamet shop, nunamán shopping center, nunem market, nunud merchant, nunébkán commerce, nundel advertisement, nunemtun marketing, nuler to acquit,
noz jewel	nozud jeweler, nozam jewelry shop, nozán jewelry, nozika bejeweled, tuóz bracelet, obtez necklace, tuúz ring, tiaz broche, teez earring, tez crown, teiz nose ring, nozkobilud jewel thief
nof material	nofser to weave, nofsar loom, nofán textiles
tof clothes	taf suit tif vest, etc.
nov linen	nòv sheet novet rag milnov towel milnovet handtowel milov wash cloth
naf cloth	naaf drape/curtain, naafán drapery naef canvas naif velvet nauf net
nef knit, yarn	nefser to knit, yarn neef lace
nif thread, wire	nifser to thread, wire nìf string nifet filament nifar needle nivar pin, ánifer to sew, ánifur sewing machine, ániftén couture, nifòa wireless, maknif electrical cord
náf knot	náfser to knot
níf cord	nífet lace nífetog braid
néf sack, bag	ném box, némag case, poném suitcase, áznéfem basket
nóf film	nóv ribbon
núf button	núfec buttonhole (zéc hole)
fuf pipe	fùf tube tilfuf drinking straw tiibuf artery (fub branch)
zúf post	zúfet column, pimzúf mast, zézúf cross-beam
zúv stick	zúvet cane, ágzúv pole
faof board	faocéb barrel (fab tree + nof material + céb container)
mez crystal	meg stone + naz value
zéf glass	zév glass cinzéf mirror, cimzéf window pane (zéteaser see through + nof material)
utaéf wool	upet sheep
apeéf silk	apeét worm
favof cotton	favob cotton plant
fivof hemp	fivob hemp plant
fuvof jute	fuvob jute plant
favov cotton wool	favob cotton plant
taóf leather	taób skin + nof material
taéz fur	taéb hair + naz value

Measures and dimensions (nag)

nog degree	anoga primary enoga secondary inoga tertiary unoga quaternary henoga to what degree, how? nogper to step, zànogper to advance, progress, step ahead, zònogper to step back, regress, ábnogper to step up, be promoted, advance, óbnogper to step down, be demoted, nogà by degrees nòg grade, step, nogéna gradual, ujnògper to graduate, ujnògpud graduate noog stage, level, status, enooga bi-level, two-staged, ábnooga high-status, dotnoog social status, class, óbdotnooga low-class, kódotnoog caste
nag dimension	anaga one-dimensional enaga two-dimensional inaga three-dimensional glanaga multi-dimensional nàg measure, size', nàger to measure, genàga commensurate, onnàgeá immeasurable, zenayga moderate, ozenayga immoderate, zenaygaser to moderate, naygar meter (measuring device), nayga metric, naygpar taxi
neg level	genega even, ogenega uneven, odd, glanega multiplanar, negar level (planing device), enega bi-level, ébnega interplanar
nég space	néga spatial, onég void, glanéga spacious, ónanég interval, ónanégser to space out, tomnég Lebensraum, cf. néb container
nib row, rank	nibser to arrange, nibcer to adapt, niber to array, oniber to disarray, óniber to topple, nibémer to dispose, ábniba high-ranking
nip order, turn, sequence, queue	nipber to order, onip disorder, onipber to mess up, nipba ordered, orderly, neat, sequential, onipba out of sequence, out of order, messed up, Heta nip ce? Whose turn is it?, jonipa next, janipa prior, niper to queue up, to line up, to get in order, zínipber to sort, vánip proper order, order
nud column	nuda columnar, nibnubi coordinates, nibnubcan grid, matrix, row-column format
nod point	zenod mid-point, center, zénod hub, intersection, ábnod high-point, climax, apex, óbnod low-point, nadir, ijnod starting point, ujnod endpoint, butt, terminal, drenod period, dot
ned surface, plane, face	neda superficial, planar, záned stretch nedet facet, glaneda multifaceted
nid line (cf. nif wire)	nida linear, teacnid light of sight, nidber to align, obnider to underline, nidar ruler, elánid rail, jopnid track, kunid edge, border, rim, zyunid circumference, boundary, zyeiznid perpendicular (line), zyeiznida perpendicular, mamnid horizon, yaztanida horizontal, yabtanida vertical, kinid diagonal, zeynid transversal, kinida diagonal, zenid midline, nidcer to line up, queue up, form a line, iznid straight line, geizana nid parallel line, ébnida interlinear, drenid line of text, zanid front-line, frontier, forward line, óznid limit, íbnid limit nìd ray, radius, nìdcer to radiate, marnìd sun ray, nìda radial niid trait
néd volume (cf. néb container)	nédàa voluminous, zúnéd sphere gekumnéd cube
cag number	caga numeric, cager to number, cág count, cáger to count, cáag calculation, cágar computer, cáagar calculator, cágud accountant, cágán account
nan time (frequency)	anan one time enan twice glanan often, glanana frequent glonan seldom henan how often?

Geometry

kín weight	
azan strength	
igan velocity	
íban distance	
izan direction	
ágan length	
záan width	
óban depth	
ában height	
zúan girth	
bar pressure	
kítan gravity	
gáan thickness	
ígan solidity	
zeban density	
maan brightness	
nangan frequency	egan repetition, nan time(s)
jag age	
voz color	
gan quantity	
fin quality	
cág number	meaning count; number is cag
nog degree	
nébgan volume	nég volume, meaning a solid
végan ratio	
nas cost	
naz value	
zènidgan diameter	as a line: zènid
zúnidgan circumference	
ènzègan radius	as a line: nìd
nag dimension	
neg level	
nib row	
nip order	also: turn, sequence
nub column	(on a grid)
can shape	
néd volume, solid	zúnéd sphere, gekumnéd cube, zúfnéd cylinder, defábnéd cone, aginéd cone
nid line	kunid border, zúnid contour, zénid transverse, zéiznid perpendicular, kinid diagonal, áztanid horizontal, ábtanid vertical, zenid midline, iznid vector, uznid curve, curved line, geizana nid parallel
gun angle	gegun right angle, gagun obtuse angle, gogun sharp angle, igun triangle, ugegun rectangle, uogegun rhomboid
nod point	zenod midpoint, zúnod turning point, zénod intersection
kum side	ágkum hypotenuse, abkum topside, obkum bottom, gekuma equilateral, ekuma bilateral, glakuma multilateral, ugekum square
ned plane	eneda biplane, glaneda multifaceted
zúc circle	èzúc semi-circle, zûc oval
zúfuf cylinder	
gin tip, point	aginéd cone

Instruments and Machines (-ar, -ir, -ur)

The -ar suffix is used for instruments and devices in general. The -ir suffix is used for machines, while -ur is used for motors and engines. The distinction is only made when necessary.

Vehicles (par)

zíp travel	zíper to travel, zíptam hotel, zípem travel destination, zìpud traveler, ifzíp tourism, ifzípud tourist, zípdren passport, zípmep itinerary, zípém suitcase or zípa ném suitcase
par vehicle	para vehicular, parupip traffic, pareper to park, parepam garage, parepem parking lot nunpar truck éspar truck nunparet van makabnifpar tram(electrified overhead wire car) binifpar trolley, cable car (pulled cable car) elánidpar train (iron rail car), elánidpar epam railway station nidpar train ágpar train gorsémpar train (compartmented vehicle) dompar bus (city vehicle), dompar epam bus station, bus stop dompar epem tánpar bus (people vehicle) zípar bus (roundabout vehicle) ébdompar motorcoachintercity behicle) paret cart wheelbarrow curezúcpar motorcycle, parizber to drive/pilot, parizbud driver/pilot, parizbuda vegdren driver's license, pilot's license jobnucpar taxi, cab
mamp flight	mamper to fly, mampud aviator, mampen aviation
mampar airplane	mamparam hangar, mamparem airport, mamparet small plane, memparag jumbo jet, zípuda mampar passenger plane, nunkína mampar cargo plane, dropeka mampar warplane, zúptuba mampar helicopter ("rotating wing plane")
memp ride	memper to ride
mempar car	memparam carport, garage, meparem parking lot, nàga mempar taxi
mimp sea voyage	mimper to sail, mimpena maritime
mimpar ship	mimparem marina, mimparof sail, óbmimpar submarine, mimparud mariner, mimpartim ship cabin, mimzíp cruise, mimpareb ship captain, nunmimpar cargo ship
maimpar hydroplane	
meampar funicular	
mompar subway	momparem subway station, mompar zémep subway tunnel

Tools

c- object	car tool carán toolset tuábcar handtool éscar work tool carném toolbox egcarser to retool, repair egcarsud repair technician	
c- object	càr instrument càrán instrumentation càréna instrumental càrcer to be instrumental	
c- object	cur device curán equipment curbàser to equip dopcurán ordnance	
c- object	cúr apparatus, system cúra systemic cúraser to systematize	
c- object	cir machine cirán machinery cira mechanical cirud mechanic ciraser to mechanize	
c- object	cír motor, engine círàa motorized círàser to motorize	
c- object	cìr mecanism	
p- go	par vehicle, car para vehicular parupip traffic parepam garage parepem parking lot círpar motor vehicle círezúcpar motorcycle (also: círezúc motorbike)	
goper to cut	gopar knife goparer to stab	
ígfagoper to saw	ígfagopar saw	
gofer to shear	gofar scissors, shears	
grorber to shave	grorbar shaver, razor	
úzbaler to pinch	úzbalar pliers úzbalaret tweezers	
zúfod screw	zúfodar screwdriver	
apéner to hit	apénar hammer apénarer to hammer	
mamil rain	ovmamilar umbrella	
póner to fall	ovpónar parachute	
mar sun	ovmarar parasol	
biner to pull	binar handle	
mobser to dig	mobsar excavator	
uklan hollow	uklar shovel	
zéc hole	zécbar bore	
nofázer to iron	nofázar iron nofázenfaof ironing board	
aman heat	amsar heater	
oman cold	omsar refrigerator	
óm ice	ómsar freezer	
ánifer to sew	ánifur sewing machine	
nif thread	nifar needle nivar pin	
mék powder	mékar mill, grinder	
taéb hair	taébar comb taébarer to comb	
vícer to clean	vícar brush, sweep 'vícarer to brush, sweep	
albaner to wipe	albanar mop albanarer to mop	
álber to lift	álbur elevator	
teler to eat	telar fork	
tiler to drink	tilar spoon	
iber to receive	ibar receiver	
uber to send	ubar transmitter	
íjer to open	íjar key, opener	
azújer to lock	azújar lock	
céb container	cébíjar opener (for cans, bottles, etc.)	
dopa military	dopar weapon doapar gun dopur rifle igdopur machine-gun dopir canon doapir bazooka	
mageler to cook	magelar cooker	
magiler to boil	magilar boiler	
magler to roast	maglar roaster, oven	
abmagler to grill	abmaglar grill	
tel food + éber to hold	telébar platter	
telarán dishes	telarán milbar dishwasher	
il liquid + újer to close	ilújar faucet	
mip river + ugser to brake	mipugsar dam	
mil water + ukser to flush	miluksar toilet	
drer to write	drar pen drear pencil	
uga slow	ugsar brake	
úgcra elastic	úgcrar spring	
eker to play	ekar toy	
cág count	cágar calculator cágir computer	
mancin photo	mancinar camera	
panmancin movie	panmancinar movie camera	
ceus sound	ceusdrar recorder	
ceus sound + iber to receive	ceusibar radio	
cin image + iber to receive	cinibar television	
teuz voice + iber to receive	teuzibar telephone	
mak electricity + cyefet cell	makcéfet teuzibar cellphone	
nif wire	onifa teuzibar wireless phone	
pan motion	paneá teuzibar mobile phone	
tuúb finger + drer write	tuúdrar keyboard, typewriter	
tun datum + káls conversion	ébtunkálsar modem	

Animals (pot)

All animal terms contain the notions of mobile (p) and organism (t).

Summary

pot	animal (in general)
pót	wild beast
pat	bird
pet	animal (land)
pét	reptile
pelt	insect
pit	fish

Domesticated animals (pet)

male	female	child	home	noise	other
pot animal	pòt female animal	potob baby animal	potmet zoo	poder to make an animal noise	potun zoology potuna zoological potmet zoo potuj hunt, potujud hunter, potujer tohunt potaéb mane poteub muzzle poteib snout potub paw potuúb claw tiúb tail teúb horn tampot pet, poténa animalistic, potán animalia, potan animality
apet horse	apèt mare	apetob foal	apetam stable	apeder to neigh	apeta equine apetapen equitation apetigpek horse race aopet gelding
epet bull	epèt cow	epetob calf	epetam bull pen	epeder to snort, epèder to moo	epeta bovine eapet buffalo eopel beef
ipet ass	ipèt she-ass	ipetob donkey		ipeder to bray, hehaw	iapet mule
upet ram	upèt ewe	upetob lamb		upeder to bleat	uopet sheep, uopetbelud shepherd utaef wool íopel mutton
ópet goat	ópèt nanny-goat	ópetob kid			ópetbelud goatherder ótaéf goat's hair
ápet hog	ápèt sow	ápetob piglet	ápetam pigpen	ápeder to squeal	ápeta porcine ápetôafud 'pig's foot ápel pork ápetól ham ápetaol sausage
épet dog	épèt bitch	épetob pup	épetam doghouse	épeder to bark	épeta canine, êpetob puppy
ípet cat	ípèt she-cat	ípetob kitten	ípetam cathouse	ípeder to meow, îpeder to purr	ípeta feline, ípetobán litter
úpet rabbit	úpèt doe rabbit	ípetob baby rabbit	úpetam rabbit cage		úpetôafud rabbit's foot úlpet hare
tapet monkey	tapèt female monkey			tapeder to make monkey noises	taapet chimpanzee, tapetag ape
gapet elephant		gapetob elephant cub			gapeit hippopotamus
gepet rhinoceros					
vapet stag, hart	vapèt doe, hind	vapetob fawn			
vepet deer					
vipet roebuck					
vupet chamois					
vópet llama					
vápet antilope					
vépet gazelle					
vípet elk, moose					
fapet camel	fapèt she-camel				
fepet dromadery					
kapet squirrel					
kepet polecat					
kipet badger					
kupet otter					
kópet weasel, stone marten					
kápet beaver					
képet ermine, stoat					
sapet hedgehog					
sepet porcupine					
sipet mole					
zapet tortoise					zapeit turtle zataób turtle shell
klapet rat		klapetob baby rat	klapetam rat's nest		
klepet mouse		klepetob young mouse		klapeder to squeek	klepetar mouse (computer device)

Wild animals ( pyot )

male	female	child	home	noise	other
ápót boar					
rapót lion	rapôt lioness	rapótob lion cub	rapótam lion's den	rapóder to roar	
repót tiger	repôt tigress	repótob tiger cub	repótam tiger's den	repóder to growl	
ripót leopard	ripôt female leopard	ripótob leopard dub			riapót panther riepót jaguar riipót puma riupót lynx
rupót wolf	rupôt she-wolf	rupótob wolf cub	rupótam wolf's lair	rupóder to howl	rupóta lupine
rópót fox	rópôt vixen	rópótob fox cub	rópótam foxhole		
gápót hyena	gâpót she-hyena	gápótob baby byena		gápóder to laugh like a hyena	gáapót jackal
tapót orang-utang					
tepót bear		tepótob bear cub	tepótam bear cave	tepóder to growl (like a bear)	

Reptiles (pyet) and amphibians (pyeit)

male	female	child	home	noise	other
pyet reptile					pyeta reptilian
gapyet crocodile					gaypyet alligator
gepyet cayman					
kepyet lizard					
lopyet snake				lopyeder to hiss	lopyeper to slither
lapyet boa					
lepyet cobra					
lipyet viper			lipyetam viper's nest		
sipet mole					
apyeat bat			apyeatam bat's cave		
epyeat vampire					
fapyet grass snake					
fepyet slug					
fipyet leech					
vapyet snail					vapyel escargot vapyetigyena sluggish, at a snail's pace, vapyeper to move at a snail's pace
apyeit toad			apyeitam toadstool		
epyeit frog					epyeiper to leapfrog
ipyeit tree frog					

Insects (pelt)

male	female	child	home	noise	other
pelt insect					peltán swarm, ovpeltil insecticide, peltujsil insecticide, pelteleat insectivore, pelper to crawl around
kopelt vermine					
kapelt louse					kapeltika lousy
kepelt flea					ovkepeltof flea collar, kepeltika flea-bitten
kipelt bug					ovkipeltil bug spray
apelat bee			apelatam beehive	apelader to buzz	apelatil honey, apelatél wax, apelatán swarm of bees
epelat wasp			epelatam wasp's nest		
ipelat horsefly					
upelat fly					ovupelatar fly-swatter
ópelat mosquito					ovópelanef mosquito net
lapelat maybug					
lepelat beetle					
tapelat cicada				tapelader to chirp	
gapelat butterfly					ápelaper to flit about
fapelt ant			fapeltam anthill		fapeltán swarm of ants
peét worm					peétéc wormhole
apeát silkworm					

Birds (pat)

male	female	child	home	noise	other
pat bird			patam bird's nest	pader to chirp	patijob egg, patijser to hatch, patper to fly, patpier to fly off, pateub beak, patub wing, pataéb feather, patulob claw, patésun aviculture, patém farmyard, patán poultry
apat rooster, cock	apàt hen	apatob chick	apatam chicken coop	apader to crow	apàtog chicken
epat duck, drake	epàt hen	epatob duckling		epader to quack	epatob duckling
ipat turkey	ipàt turkey hen			ipader to gobble	
upat goose					upatijob goose-egg
ópat guinea-fowl					
ápat pigeon	ápàt dove		ápatam pigeon house	ápader to coo	
rapat eagle		rapatob eaglet			
repat vulture					
ripat kite					
rupat buzzard					
rópat hawk					
rápat falcon					rápatud falconer
fapat raven					
fepat crow					
fipat' magpie					
gapat ostrich					
gepat peacock					
dapat stork					
dapait heron					
depat marabou					
depait crane					
zapat swallow					
zepat martinet					
tapat parrot				tapader to parrot	
tepat budgie					
vapat nightingale					
vepat yellow canary					
'vipat canary					
vupat chaffinch					
vápat robin					
fapat thrush					
fepat warbler				fepader to warble, yodel	
fipat sparrow					
sapat partridge					
sepat quail					
sipat woodcock					
supat lark					
sópat pheasant					
sápat grouse					
lapait swan					
apait cormorant					
epait gull					
gapait penguin					gapaiper to strut like a penguin

Fish (pit)

pit fish	pitán school of fish, pitub fin, pitaéb scale, pitésun pisciculture, pitun ichthyology, pitut ichthyologist, pitpin fishing, pitpinud fisherman
rapit shark	
repit dolphin	
ripit sperm whale	
rupit walrus	
rópit porpoise	
rápit swordfish	
répit tuna	
rípit sturgeon	
rúpit cod	
lapit ray	
lepit turbot	
lipit salmon	
lupit sole	
capit herring	
cepit barbel	
cipit anchovie	
cupit gilt-head	
apit sardine	
epit perch	
ipit pike	
upit carp	
ópit tench	
ápit gudgeon	
épit stickleback	
ípit marline	
gapit whale	
vapit eel	
apiet seal	
epiet sea-lion	

Crustaceans (piit)

piit shellfish	
apiit lobster	
epiit crayfish	
ipiit prawn	
upiit crawfish	
ópiit prawn	
ápiit shrimp	ápiitpin shrimping
lapiit crab	lapiitpin crabbing
apiét oyster	piétaób shell, piéz pearl, piètésun ostreiculture
epiét mussle	
ipiét clam	ipiétpinud clamdigger

Vegetation (fob)

Summary

fob	vegetation
fab	tree
fáb	fruit
vob	plant
vol	legume
voc	flower
voz	color
vab	grass

Trees and fruits

fob vegetation	fobtun botany, fobtut botanist, fobéstun agronomy, fobésun agriculture, fobésuna agricultural, fobésud farmer, fobésem farm
fab tree	fàb shrub, fàbet bush, fàbán shrubery, fabán forest, fabánésun forestry, fabánésud forester, fabánàca forested, fabánet woods, fabánog grove, copse, fàbánet scrub, fàbán thicket, fabmed orchard
fib trunk	
fub branch, limb	fubet twig
faéb leaf	faébán foliage, faébet bud
fáb fruit	fábéna fruity, fábél jam, fâbél jelly, marmalade, fábóm sherbet, fábtul fruit cocktail, fábzeb pit (of fruit), fâob peel
fób root	radicule, fóbober to deracinate
faob wood	faoba wooden
faab sap	
faób bark	
afab apple tree	afáb apple, afabet boxer tree
efab pear tree	efáb pear, efabet spindle-tree
ifab cherry tree	ifáb cherry, ifabet privet
ufab prune tree	ufáb prune
ófab apricot tree	ófáb apricot
áfab peach tree	áfáb peach
éfab quince tree	éfáb quince
ífab walnut tree	ífáb walnut
úfab hazelnut tree	úfáb hazelnut
alofàb blackberry vine	alofáb blackberry
lafab orange tree	lafáb orange
lefab mandarin tree	lefáb mandarin
lifab lemon tree	lifáb lemon
lufab grapefruit tree	lufáb grapefruit
fefab date tree	fefáb date
fifab banana tree	fifáb banana
fufab cononut tree	fufáb coconut
fófab pomegranite tree	fófáb pomegranite
fífab fig tree	fífáb fig
vafàb grape vine	vafáb grape, vafàbem vineyard, vafábil grape juice, vafil wine, vafilsam winery, ígvafil vinaiger, vafilifud oinophile
cafàb tea plant	cafaéb tea leaf, tea, cafil tea (drink), cafilam tea house
cefàb coffee plant	cefáb coffee bean, coffee, cefil coffee (drink), cefilam cafe
cifàb blackcurrant bush	cifáb blackcurrant
cufàb raspberry bush	cufáb raspberry
cófàb currant bush	cófáb currant
sifàb pepper plant	sifáb pepper, sifáber to pepper, sifábika peppery
kafab olive tree	kafáb olive, kafábél olive oil
rafab oak tree	rafáb acorn
refab beech tree	refaob beechwood
rifab chestnut tree	rifáb chestnut
rufab plane tree	
rófab poplar tree	'rófaob poplar wood
ráfab birch tree	ráfaob birchwood
réfab locust tree	
rífab chestnut tree	fífáb chestnut
rúfab willow tree	rúafab weeping willow
ralafab lime tree, linden	ralafáb lime
ralefab maple tree	ralefaob maplewood
ralofab elm tree	ralofaob elmwood
dofab evergreen tree	dofáb cone
dafab fir tree	
defab pine tree	defáb pine cone, defaéb pine needle, defaob pine (wood)
dufab cypress tree	dufaob cypress wood

Plants, vegetables, grains, and legumes

vob plant	vober to plant, vobem plantation, vobud planter, vobier to harvest, vobijob harvest (time), vobésam farm, vobyesud farmer
vab grass	vabem grassland, prairie, vabema rural, vabgorcer to mow, vabemet lawn, vabán grass (lawn), vabij germ, vabóg moss, vabib crop, harvest, vabiber to reap, vabam barn
veb ear, tuft, spike	
vib stem	
vaob hay	
vub blade, sprig, twig	
váb seed	vábet seedling, váber to seed
vâb grain, bean	
vulob thorn, spine	vulobika thorny
ovob cereal	
avob wheat	avol bread, avolek flour
evob rye	
ivob barley	
uvob buckwheat	
óvob oat	óvolek oatmeal
ávob hop	ávil beer
évob rapeseed, colza	
ívob rice	
gavob sunflower	gaváb sunflower seed
gevob corn, maize	geváb kernel, gevobek cornmeal
givob tobacco	givoc cigar, givocet cigarette, givov tobacco smoke
favob cotton	faváb cottonseed, favof cotton fabric
fevob flax	
fivob hemp	fuvov marijuana, pot
fuvob jute	
zavob strawberry bush	zaváb strawberry
cavob fern	
cevob thistle	
civob nettle	
savob mushroom	
zevob basil	
zivob thyme	
zuvob rosemary	
ováb legume, bean	
aváb green bean	
eváb lentil	
iváb pea	
uváb broad bean	
óváb lima bean	
vol vegetable	volinud vegetarian, volem vegetable garden, volcer to vegetate
lovol tuber	
lavol potato	
levol beet	level sugar, levela sweet
livol radish	
luvol carrot	
lávol artichoke	
lóvol turnip	
favol leek	
fevol onion	
fivol shallot	
fuvol garlic	
pavol cabbage	
pevol cauliflower	
bavol tomato	bavil tomato juice
bevol eggplant	
bivol squash	
buvol cucumber	ígza buvol pickle
bávol artichoke	
bóvol gherkin	
vavol lettuce	
vevol spinach	
vivol sorrel	
vuvol dandelion	
vávol watercress	
vóvol chicory	
gavol pumpkin	
gevol melon	
givol watermelon	
zavol parsley	

Flowers and colors

voc flower	voca floral, vocer to flower, vocen flowering, vocud florist, vocán bouquet, vocaéb petal, vocém flowerbed, vocésun horticulture
avoc lily	avoza white
evoc narcissus	evoza yellow
ivoc poppy	ivoza red
uvoc rose	uvoza pink
óvoc cornflower	óvoza blue
ávoc hydrangea	ávoza mauve
évoc lilac	évoza lilac
ívoc violet	ívoza violet
úvoc carnation	
lovoc daisy	
lavoc lily of the valley	
levoc jonquil	
livoc geranium	
luvoc forget-me-not	
lávoc tulip	
lévoc dahlia	
lóvoc hyacinthe	
elavoc iris	
elevoc primrose	
elivoc chrysanthemum	

Colors (voz)

Change -oza to -òza to get -ish as in whitish (avòza).

Change -oza to -óza to get dark ... as in dark red (ivóza).

	voz color	vooz tint, hue
	avoza white	from avoc lily
	evoza yellow	from evoc narcissus
	ivoza red	from ivoc poppy
	uvoza pink	from uvoc rose
	óvoza blue	from óvoc cornflower
	ávoza mauve	from ávoc hydrangea
	évoza lilac	from óvoca lilac
	ívoza violet, purple	from ívoc violet
	vaza green	from vab grass
	moza black	from mon darkness or moj night
	maza sky blue	from mam sky or maj day
	èmoza gray	from è half + moza black
	meza khaki	from mel soil
	lafáza orange	from lafáb orange
	rifáza maroon	from rifáb water chestnut
	rífyza brown	from rífáb chestnut
	vápeza beige	from vápet antilope

Some Cross-thematic Analogies in Vocabulary

human	tree	grass	food	material
taob	faob	vaob	taol	faof
flesh	wood	hay	meat	board
human	tree	plant	fruit	fish	cloth
taób	faób	vaób	vâob	piétaób	taóf
skin	bark	husk	rind	shell	leather
human	tree	plant	flower	bird	fish
taéb	faéb	vaéb	vocaéb	pataéb	pitaéb
hair	leaf	twig	petal	feather	scale
human	tree	plant	bird	fish	government	animal
tub	fub	vub	patub	pitub	dub	petub
arm	branch	blade	wing	fin	minister	forepaw
society	human	work	plant	fish
deb	teb	seb	veb	piteb
chief	head	boss	tuft	fish-head
form	gesture	knowledge	action	society	citizen	people	person	past+person	person	life	speech
cén	bén	tén	sén	dotcén	ditbén	udánbén	utbén	ajutbén	utcén	tijbén	dabén
style	manner	profession	tradecraft	civilization	civility	custom	habit	tradition	genre	lifestyle	dialect
t-d	t-z	d-c	d-z	s-c	s-z	c-z	c-s
teud	teuz	deuc	deuz	seuc	seuz	ceuz	ceus
shout	voice	accent	song	noise	melody	tone	sound
t-c	t-s	b-c	t-p	t-d	c-c	iz-c	n-c	ij-c
teacer	teaser	beacer	teaper	teader	ceacer	izeacer	neacer	ijeacer
to see	to look	to watch	to visit	to witness	to seem	to show	to aim	to perceive
mar	mag	man	mak	maz	mav	mal	mam	map	maf	maj
sun	fire	light	electricity	sparkle	flame	air	sky	wind	cloud	day
mer	meg	mek	mez	mef	mev	mel	mem	meb	mep	mej	med	met
planet	rock	dust	gem	brick	porcelain	soil	land	mountain	road	noon	park	garden
ij	tij	patij	tobij	atobij	vobij	tesij
beginning	birth	egg	embryo	germ	seed	idea

Grammar

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Spelling

The author of Unilingua, Agapoff, uses a double quote to signal capitalization and thus dispenses with all majuscules. In this Mirad textbook, however, majuscules (upper case graphemes) are used and capitalization adheres to the American English model.

In this book, the mostly Cyrillic single-grapheme characters used by Agapoff for yodified vowels are replaced with the following system:

Pre-yodified vowels, that is, those preceded by a y-glide sound, take an acute accent:

plain vowel	pre-yodified vowel
a	á (ya)
e	é (ye)
i	í (yi)
o	ó (yo)
u	ú (yu)

Post-yodified vowels, that is, those followed by a y-glide sound, take a grave accent:

plain vowel	post-yodified vowel
a	à (ay)
e	è (ey)
i	ì (iy)
o	ò (oy)
u	ù (uy)

Circum-yodified vowels, that is those that are both preceded and followed by a y-glide sound, take a circumflex accent:

plain vowel	circum-yodified vowel
a	â (yay)
e	ê (yey)
i	î (yiy)
o	ô (yoy)
u	û (yuy)

A pre-yodified vowel always begins a new vowel syllabic nucleus, whereas a post-yodified vowel ends a vowel syllabic nucleus.

Upper-case vowels take the yodifying accents just as the lower-case values do (thus Á, È, Ô, etc.

Punctuation

The punctuation marks in Mirad are the same as in English. For example, a question mark (?) is used at the end of a sentence or sentence fragement to signal an interrogation.

Nouns

Structure

All nouns in their base form end in a consonant. This distinguishes them from adjectives and conjugated verbs, which end in a vowel.

Pluralization

Nouns are made plural by adding the suffix -i.

singular	plural
tob man	tobi men
dat friend	dati friends
car instrument	cari instruments

Femininization

Although nouns do not have inherent gender, the feminine or female-related counterpart of a noun can be formed by post-yodifying the ordinal (inner) vowel, that is, by adding the grave accent ` to the vowel. If the vowel is already pre-yodified (with an acute accent), then the the acute accent is replaced with a circumflex (^) (circum-yodification) to show that it is both pre-yodified and post-yodified.

male-related	female-related
tad father	tàd mother
tob man	tòb woman
tóáv sock	tóâv stocking
epet bull	epèt cow

Case Tagging

Nouns can take the following case endings, which are shortcuts for prepositional phrases:

case ending	category	base	cased form
-a	genetive/possessive/relative/ablative [origin]	tob man	toba of the man, human (adj.), man's, from the man
-u	locative/dative [destination]	tam house	tamu to the house, (at) home, for the house
-à	comitive [accompaniment]	at I, me	atà with me
-è	instrumental [means]	és work	ésè through / by / via work
-ò	privative ["without"]	tec meaning	tecò without meaning, senseless

Examples of the genetive/possessive case:

Meira zem ce gra ama. = The earth's core is very hot.

Ata ted tome íbà. = My father lives far away.

Ed et te dad ifana? = Do you know the language of love?

Examples of the locative/dative case:

Pu tamu! = Go home!

Ít peé tamu. = She is staying at home / in the house / home.

At teaco et uda moju. = I'll see you this evening. (= at this evening)

Buu dén atu! = Give the book to me!

Ev ud ce atu? = Is this for me?

Examples of the comitive case:

Upu atà! = Come with me!

Ud ca ekpan tija tujà. = This was a life-and-death struggle.

At ubeé uda ébdren ifanà. = I am sending you this letter with love.

Examples of the instrumental case:

Et vege nacikcer anà esè. = You can get rich only through work.

It aksa koenè ván. = He succeded by hiding the truth.

Ágpar pa Parisè. = The train went through Paris.

Examples of the privative case:

Et vò vege akser nacò. = You cannot succeed without money.

Tij ifanò vò naze ser. = Life without love is not worth living.

Od et su atò? = What would you do without me.

Pronouns

Forms

All animate pronouns (those referring to people) end in t in their base form, while all inanimate pronouns (those referring to things) end in d in their base form. Pronouns can be singular or plural. All plural pronouns take the plural suffix i.

animate	animate
singular	plural
ot? who?, whom?	oti? who all?
at I, me	ati we, us
et you	eti* you (pl.), you all
it he, him, that person	iti they, these persons
ìt she, her	ìti they (fem.)
ut this person, he	uti those persons, they
ót nobody, no one	óti none
át everyone, everybody, each person	áti all
ót another, someone else	éti others
ít such a person	íti such people
ét whoever, anyone	óti any
út someone, somebody	úti certain people
oát not a single person, nobody, no one	
get the same person	geti the same ones
oget someone else	ogeti others
gat another one	gati several
singular	plural
od what	odi what things
ad that (relative), the one	adi the things that
id that	idi those things
ud this	udi these things
ód nothing	ódi nothing
ád everything, each	ádi all things
ód something else, another	édi other things
íd such a thing	ídi such things
éd whatever, anything	édi any
úd something	údi some things, certain things
oád not a single thing, nothing	oádi none
ged the same thing	gedi the same things
oged something else	ogedi other things
gad another one	gadi several things

Note: Agapoff prefers ait, eit, iit for ati, eti, and iti.

Inflection

All pronouns can take cases, just as nouns do:

genetive/possessive ("of") ablative ("from") adjectival	dative ("to/in/on/at") locative	comitive ("with")	instrumental ("by/through/via")	privative ("without")
ata my, of me, from me	atu to me	atà with me	atè by me	atò without me
eta your, of you, from you	etu to you	età with you	etè by you	etò without you
ita his, of him, from him	itu to him	ità with you	itè by him	itò without him
ìta her, of her, from her	ìtu to her	ìtà with her	ìtè by her	ìtò without her
atia our, of us, from us	atiu to us	atià with us	atiè by us	atiò without us
ota whose?, of whom?, from whom?	otu to whom	otà with whom	otè by whom	otò without whom
áta everyone's	átu to everyone	átà with everyone	átè by everyone	átò without everyone
oda which, of what, from what	odu to which, at which, in which	odà with what?	odè by what?, how?	odò? without what?
ida that, of that, from that, those	idu to that, at that, in that	idà with that	idè by that, thus	idò' without that
uda this/these, of this, from this	udu to/at this, therefore	udà with this	udè by this, thus	udò without this
áda every, each, all	ádu to everything, in everyting	ádà with everything	ádè by everything, by all means	ádò without everything
óda not, not a	ódu to nothing	ódà with nothing	ódè by nothing	ódò without nothing
oáda not a single, no	oádu in not a single one, to none	oádà with nothing	oádè by nothing, in no way	--
éda any, whichever	édu to anything	édà with whatever	édè by whatever, however	édò without whatever
úda some, a certain	údu at a certain thing	údà with something	údè by something, somehow	údò without something
geda same, the same	gedu to the same thing	gedà with the same thing	gedè by the same thing	gedò without the same thing
ogeda different, the other, another	ogedu to another thing	ogedà with another thing	ogedè by something else	ogedò without another thing

Possessive Pronouns

Any of the above pronominal adjective forms can be substantivized by adding -c. The resulting possessive pronouns can then take the plural affix and case endings.

singular	plural
atac mine	ataci mine
etac yours	etaci yours
itac his	itaci his
ìtac hers	ìtaci hers
atiac ours	atiaci ours
etiac yours	etiaci yours
itiac theirs	itiaci theirs
ìtiac theirs	ìtiaci theirs
utac one's	utaci one's
otac? whose?	otaci whose
átac everyone's	átaci everyone's
ótac nobody's	ótaci nobody's
odac? which one	odaci which ones
ódac the other one	ódaci the other ones
udac this one	udaci these
idac that one	idaci those
ádac each one	ádaci all of them
édac any one, whichever one	édaci whichever ones

Any of the above substantival pronouns can take case endings:

Mirad	English
ataca	of mine
otacà	with whose
átacu	to everyone's
udacò	without this one

Examples:

Mirad	English
Uda tam ce atac.	That house is mine.
Oda déni et dédaé?	Which books have you read?
Ída tej aju vò teacâe.	Such a life has not been seen before.
Buu atu udi!	Give me those!
Áda tej nazace.	Every life counts.
Ádac nazace.	Each one counts.
Áta tej nazace.	Everyone's life counts.
Átac nazace.	Everyone's counts.
Áda évcunuti kode.	All lawyers lie.
Áti kode.	All of them lie.
Át kodeé.	Everyone is lying.
Ád ce kod.	Everything is a lie.
Mar ce zem áda.	The sun is the center of everything.
Ót ége kaer if ádu.	One can find pleasure in everything.
If ége uper bi éd.	Pleasure can come from anything.
Ud ce ga fia vél id (or: ga fia idu).	This is better than that.
Od ce eta dún?	What is your name?
At vage éd et vage.	I want what(ever) you want.
At vò ta ev it upo.	I didn't know whether he would come.
At ta ad it upo.	I knew (that) he would come.
Ad tej ce gúa vò vege vodé.	That life is hard cannot be denied.
Ev it íztejo vò twe.	Whether he will survive is unknown.
At vò te ev it íztejo.	I don't know if he'll survive.
Ad ìt sa ce ota seun.	What she did is nobody's business.
Atac ce ga aga vé etac.	Mine is bigger than yours.
Odac ce etac.	Which one is yours?
Édac cu fia atu.	Whichever one would be fine for me.
Otac ce ud?	Whose is this?
Otaci ce udi?	Whose are these?
Ev et co ata dat?	Are you going to be my friend?
Oádad ifca atu.	I did not like a single one.
Odè ìt tujswa?	How (by what) was she killed?
Otà et pa?	With whom did you go?
...otacò ait vò vegu íztejer.	...without whose we could not survive.
Odu et sa id?	Why (for what) did you do it (that)?
Iti údè kaa mep.	They somehow found the way.
Ébdren drwa atà otè?	The letter was written to me by whom?
Ota tamu et peé?	To whose house are you going?
Otacu et peé?	To whose are you going?

Correlatives

By "correlatives" is meant a set of functional words in the languages than can be arranged in a matrix, all sharing a set of "deictic" or "specifier" prefixes. For example, the English words "which, what, where, why, when, how, who, whether, etc." can be considered part of a matrix of correlatives, because they all ask a question about topics such as "place", "time", "manner", and are therefore called "interrogative correlatives." The situation is similar in Unilingua. Note, however, that some of the correlative words in the chart below are slightly different from those invented by the original author of Unilingua.

Deictic morphemes (specifiers)

category	deictic morpheme
interrogative	od- which, what
relative	ad- the, the one which
proximal	ud- this
distal	id- that
intensive	íd- so, such a
generic	úd- some, a certain
distributive	ád- all, every, each
indeterminate	éd- any, whatever
negative	ód- no, not any
identical	ged- same, selfsame
non-indentical	oged- different, other

Dimensional Classifiers

The above deictic morphemes combine with the following dimensional classifiers to form a whole matrix of functional deictic correlatives:

category	classifier	short version
person	-t	
thing	-d	
place	-em	m
time	-job	j
manner/means	-è	
quality/kind	-én	
quantity	-gan	
degree	-nog	
frequency	-jig	

Matrix of Deictic Correlatives

thing	person	adjective	place	time	manner	kind	frequency	quantity	degree
od what	ot who	oda which	odmu where	odju when	odè how	odéna what kind of	odjigu how often	odganu how much	odnogu how
ud this	ut this person	uda this	udmu here	udju now	udè this way	udéna this kind of	udjigu this often	udganu this much	udnogu to this extent
id that	it that person, he	ida that	idmu there	idju then	idè that way, thus	idéna that kind of	idjigu that often	idganu that much	idnogu to that extent
íd such a thing	ít such a person	ída such, such a	ídmu at such a place	ídju at such a time	ídè in such a way, so	ídéna such a	ídjigu so often	ídganu so much	ídnogu so
úd something	út someone	úda some, a certain	údmu somewhere	údju sometime	údè somehow	údéna some kind of	údjigu sometimes	údganu some	údnogu somewhat
ád everything	át everyone	áda every, each	ádmu everywhere	ádju every time, always	ádè in every way	ádéna every kind of	ádjigu at all times	ádganu all of	ádnogu completely
éd whatever, anything	ét whoever, anyone	éda whichever, any	édmu wherever, anywhere	édju whenever, anytime	édè however, in any way	édéna whatever kind of	édjigu however often	édganu however much, any	édnogu to any extent
ód nothing	ót nobody	óda no, not a	ódmu nowhere	ódju never	ódè in no way	ódéna no kind of	ódjigu not once	ódganu not any, no	ódnogu not at all
ged the same thing	get the same person, self	geda the same, the very	gedmu at the same place	gedju at the same time	gedè in the same way	gedéna the same kind of	gedjigu as often	gedganu, ge as much	gednogu, ge to the same degree, as
oged something else	oget someone else	ogeda the other, another	ogedmu elsewhere	ogedju at another time	ogedè elsewise	ogedéna another kind of	ogedjigu at a different frequency	ogedganu not as much	ogednogu otherwise

Basic deictic adjectives / Determiners

category	determiner	example
indefinite/unary	a a	a tam a house
definite/relative	ada the	ada tam the house, ada tami the houses
interrogative	oda which	oda dén which book, oda déni which books
proximal	uda this, these	uda pat this bird, uda pati these birds
distal	ida that, those	ida pat that bird, ida pati those birds
negative	óda no	óda mep no road, óda mepi no roads
totalative	áda every, all, each	áda mep every road, áda mepi all roads
indeterminate	éda any, whichever	éda voz any color, éda vozi whichever colors
intensive	ída such a, such	ída dún such a name, ída dúni such names
partitive	úda some, a certain, certain	úda tob some man, úda tobi certain men
identical	geda same	geda dún the same name
non-identical	ogeda different, other	ogeda dún different name, another name
quasi-identical	gèda similar	gèda ceus a similar sound
superior	ga more	ga nac vé at more money than I
equal	ge as much, as many	ge job vé et vage as much time as you want
inferior	go less, fewer	go és less work
majorative	gla a lot, much	gla if a lot of fun
quasi-majorative	glà a goodly portion of, several	glà jubi several days
excessive	gra too much, too many	gra tel too much food
maximal	gá most	gá poti most animals
sufficient	gé enough, quite a bit	gé job enough time
minorative	glo very little, very few	glo auti very few individuals
insufficient	gro too little, too few	gro ék too little effort
minimal	gó the least	gó ék the least effort

Note: Nouns in Mirad are not normally accompanied by a definite article (the) or an indefinite article (a/an). The word tob can mean man, a man, or the man, depending on circumstances. Where further definition is required, a, the numeric or deictic adjective one, can be used for the indefinite article, while ada, the deictic adjective the can be used for the definite article.

Deitic pronouns

Inanimate pronouns

singular	plural
od? what?	odi? what (things)
ad the thing (that)	adi the things (that)
ud this	udi these
id that	idi those
ád everything	ádi all things
éd anything, whatever	édi any things
íd such, such a thing	ídi such things
ód nothing	ódi none
úd something	údi certain things
ged the same thing	gedi the same things
oged another, something else	ogedi other things
gèlac a similar thing	gèlaci similar things
gac more	gaci more things
gec as much	geci as many things
goc less	goci fewer things
glac a lot, much	glaci many things
glàc a goodly portion	glàci several things
grac too much	graci too many things
gác the most	gáci most things
géc enough, quite a bit	géci quite a few things
gloc very little	gloci few things
groc too little	groci too few things
góc the least	góic as few things as possible

Animate pronouns

singular	plural
ot? who?	oti who (pl.)
at I	ati we
et you	eti you (pl.)
ut this person, this one	uti these
it that person, that one	iti those
át everyone	áti all people
ét anyone, whoever	éti any people
ít such a person	íti such people
ót not a single person, noboby	óti none
út somebody	úti certain people
get the same person, self	geti the same people, themselves
oget' the other person, someone else	ogeti others, other people
ìt that female,she, her	ìti they (f.), them
ùt this female, she, her	ùti they (f.), them
aut person, individual	auti persons, people
out nobody, no one	outi no people, none
	ga auti more people
	ge auti as many people
	go auti fewer people
	gla auti many people
	glà auti several people
	gra auti too many people
	gá auti most people
	gé auti quite a few people
	glo auti few people
	gro auti too few people
	gó auti as few people as possible

Note: As with all pronouns and nouns, the above pronouns can appear in the genetive/ablative/possessive case (-a) or dative/locative case (u). For example: otu to whom, ota whose, áta everyone's, gla autia most people's, ata my, etu to you. The possessive adjective forms can, in turn, be substantivized by adding -c (thing): atac mine, atacu to mine, otac whose, getac the same person's, etc.

Determiners of Place

place
odmu? where?, whither? (also: odma? from where?, whence?)
udmu here (also: udma from here, hence)
idmu there (also: idma from there, thence)
admu at/in/to the place where (relative)
ódmu nowhere
ádmu everywhere
édmu anywhere, whereever
ídmu at/in/to such a place
ogedmu elsewhere (ogedem alibi)
údmu somewhere
gedmu at/in/to the same place (also: gedma from the same place)
gèdmu at/in/to a similar place (also: gèdma from a similar place)

Determiners of Time

time
odju? when? (also: odja whence?, ji odjob since when?, etc.)
udju now (also: udja hence)
idju then (also: idja thence)
adju when, at the time when (relative)
ódju never
ádju each time, everytime, always, ever
édju anytime, whenever
ídju at/in/to such a time
údju sometime
gedju at the same time
ogedju at another time

Determiners of Quality

kind
odéna? what kind of?
udéna this kind of
idéna that kind of
adéna the/what kind of (relative)
ódéna no kind of
ádéna every kind of
édéna any/whatever kind of
ídéna such
údéna some kind of
gedéna the same kind of
gèdéna a similar kind of
ogedéna another kind of

Determiners of Degree

degree
odnogu? how (...big, ...little, etc.)?, to what extent?
udnogu this, to this degree
idnogu that, to that extent
adnogu how, to what degree, to the extent (that...) (relative)
ódnogu not at all, to no extent
ádnogu completely, to the full extent
édnogu however, to whatever extent
ídnogu so, to such an extent
údnogu in some way, somehow
ge, genogu equally, to the same degree, as
oge, ogenogu unequally, to a different extent
gè, gènogu similarly, to a similar extent
ga, ganogu more, to a greater extent
gla, glanogu very, greatly, very much so
gra, granogu too, to too great an extent, overly, extremely
go, gonogu less, to a lesser extent
glo, glonogu slightly, to a small extent
gro, gronogu to too small a degree, under
gá, gánogu maximally, to the greatest extent possible
gó, gónogu minimally, to the smallest extent possible
gé, génogu enough, rather, pretty, sufficiently, quite
ogé, ogénogu insufficiently
fià, finogu to a good extent, well
fuà, funogu to a bad extent, poorly
végà, véga nogu proportionately
vácà, váca nogu to the right extent, properly, duly
vócà, vóca nogu to the wrong extent, disproportionately, unduly
anogu primarily
enogu secondarily
uja nogu ultimately

Determiners of Manner, Means

manner
odè? how?, in what way?
udè this way, thus
idè that way, thus
adè how, in the way that, as
ódè in no way
ádè in every way
édè in whatever way, however
ídè so, in such a way
údè somehow'
gedè in the same way, also
ogedè otherwise
gèdè similarly, likewise

Determiners of Quantity

The noun following the determiner is in the singular if a mass noun (odganu dril how much ink) or in the plural if a countable noun (odganu jubi how many years).

quantity
odganu?* how much, how many
udganu this much, this many
idganu that much, that many
adganu how much, how many, the amount/number that
ódganu no, not any, no amount of
ádganu all
édganu any, however much, however many
ídganu so much, so many
údganu a certain amount of, some, some number of'
ge, geganu as much, as many
oge, ogeganu a different quanity of
ga more
go less, fewer
gla a lot (of), much, many
glà a goodly amount (of), quite a few
glo little, too many
glò barely, scarcely, hardly
gá most
gro too little, too few
gó as little/few as possible
gé a fair amount (of), enough, quite a lot (of)
gê several

* Literally: in what quantity, as in Odganu nac et àce? How much money do you have?. Used substantively, Odganu becomes Odgan, as in Odgan et àce? How much do you have? If followed by a mass noun, gla means much; if followed by a counting noun, gla means many; if followed by an adjective or adverb, it means very. All of the ga...ge...go words are multifunctional in this way.

Determiners of Frequency

frequency (jig = rate, frequency
odjigu? how often?(lit: on how many occasions)
udjigu this often
idjigu that often
adjigu as often as, the rate that
ódjigu never
ádjigu every time
édjigu however often, anytime
ídjigu so often
údjigu with some frequency, sometimes'
gejigu as often
ogejigu at a different rate
gajigu more often
gojigu less often
glajigu (very) often, frequently
glojigu seldom, rarely, not very often
grajigu too often
gájigu as often as possible
grojigu too seldom
gójigu as seldom as possible
géjigu quite often, rather often, frequently enough

Prepositions and relational adverbs

positive		middle		negative	
ab	on, at the top of	eb	between	ob	off, at the bottom of
áb	above, up	éb	amid, among	ób	below, down
bà	with, along	bè	by, via	bò	without
ib	away from	---		ub	toward
íb	far from	---		úb	near to
bi	from, of	be	at	bu	to
bí	starting with, since	---		bú	ending with, up to, as far as
án	together	---		ón	apart
za	in front of	ze	in the middle of	zo	behind
zà	forward	zè	across	zò	back
áz	flush with	éz	in	óz	out
iza	straight	---		uza	roundabout
íz	beyond	---		úz	around, about
zi	right	---		zu	left
zí	all over	zé	through	zúa	round
ja	before	je	during, while	jo	after
jà	ahead (in time)	jè	throughout	jò	back (in time)
ji	since	---		ju	until
av	for	ev	if	ov	against

Compound prepositions

Prepositions can be compounded for more detailed senses:

compound preposition	example
ézbu into	It tôapa ézbu tim. He walked into the room.
ézbi in from	At upa ézbi mamil. I came in from the rain.
ézbe in (location)	Dén ce ézbe ném. The book is inside the box.
ózbu out to	Po ózbu ekem. Go out to the playground.
ózbi out of, out from	It upea ózbi ita ésim. He was coming out of his office.
ózbe out in (as in: out in the backyard)	Potòg ce ózbe mamil. The pet is out in the rain.
ábzè over	Mampar pa ábzè tam. The plane flew over the house.
óbzè under	At tôapa óbzè domep. I walked under the highway.
zèbu across to	At tôapa zèbu ogeda kum. I walked over to the other side.
zèbi across from	It beme zèbi at. He sits across from me.
zòbu back to	Ait pee zòbu Berlin. We are going back to Berlin.
zòbe back at	Ait ce zòbe tom. We are back at home.
zòbi back from	Ait ce zóbi Berlin. We are back from Berlin.
zàbu ahead to	Teaso zàbu eta oj. Look forward to your future.
zàbi ahead of	Ed et ce zàbi at? Are you ahead of me?
ónbi apart from	Pa ónbi ogeti. It went apart from the others.
ánbe together with	Upo ánbe at. Come along with me.
izbu straight to	Po izbu ótotem! Go straight to hell!
izbi straight from	Ìt upa izbi nunem. She came straight from the market.
izbe right at	At ca izbe zem. I was right at the center.
zabi in front of	At ce zabi et. I am in front of you.
zobi in back of	Et ce zobi at.' You are in back of me.
abu onto	Bo dén abu cem. Put the book onto the table.
abe on (at)	Dén ce abe cem. The book is on the table.
obi off of	Bio dén obi cem. Take the book off of the table.
obe on the underside of	Ece úd obe cem. There is something on the underside of the table.
ábu up to	Po ábi eta tim. Go up to your room.
ábe up in	Od ce íd ábe mam? What is that up in the sky?
ábi up from	It upa ábi aaned. He came up from the first floor.
ábè up (via)	At tôapa ábè meb. I walked up the mountain.
óbu down to	Upo óbu momtim. Come down to the basement.
óbe down in	At ce óbe momtim. I am down in the basement.
óbi dowm from	Upo óbi mamtim. Come down from the attic.
óbè down (via)	It igpa óbè meb. He hurried down the mountain.
óbézbu down into	Pa óbézbu mom. He went down into the underground.
úzbu around to	Po úzbu ogeda kum tama. Go around to the other side of the house.
úzbè around (via)	Par pa úzbè tam. The car went around the house.
ízbi past, beyond	Par pa ízbi ait. The car went past us.
ízbu on to	At pa ízbu Kanad. I went on to Canada.

Postpositions / Cases

The following case endings or postpositions are shortcuts for prepositions:

short form	long form
-a of, from	bi
-u to, on, at	bu to or be at / in / on
-à with	bà
-ò without	bò
-è by, via, through, per	bè

For example, the following expressions are equivalent:

short form	long form
be tam bi X at the house of X	tamu Xa
bi dom bu dom from town to town	doma domu
tej bò if life without pleasure	tej ifò
bè Paris by way of Paris	Parisè
bà at with me	atà

Other Prepositional Constructions

vélu regarding, concerning, about, with respect to
gè ov despite
kumu next to, beside, along, on the side of
ón bi apart from
án bu together with
gal in addition to, plus, including, besides
gol minus, except
gar times, multiplied by
gor divided by
zamu...-a in the face of (also: be zamu bi)
cànu ...-a in the guise of
canu ...-a in the form of
debanu ...-a under the auspices of
ûb in the presence of, in the face of
dida ...-è at the request of
iju...-a at the end of
tecu...-a in the sense of
av búun...-a for the sake of
... thanks to
... along the lines of
izanu...-a in the direction of
zág along
kumnidu ...-a on the edge of, on the brink of
genidu ...-a in line with, parallel to
úbanu ...-a in the vicinity of, around
gáanu ...-a in excess of
bi abem...-a off the top of
bi kumnidu...-a from the brink of
dudea...-u in response to
ovbea in opposition to
... in contrast to
lovanu...-a in spite of
oejanu...-a in the absence of
usu ...-a because of
usu ...-a on account of
gè ov notwithstanding
...-è per
zé via
vél than, compared to, relative to
adju ...-a at the time of
admu ...-a at the place of

Using prepositions

Prepositions go between the two elements they link, just as in English. Here are some examples:

Mirad	English
Odju et po bu déntam?(or: déntamu)	When are you going to the library?
Uda bun ce av et (or: etu).	This gift is for you.
Dyen ca ab cem (or: cemu).	The book was on the table.
Upu bay at (or: atà).	Come with me.
Iyt igpa ub titam.	She ran toward the school.
Et co éz gela titim.	You will be in the same class.
Tob tyoyapa ózbi tam.	The man walked out of the house.
Mampar zaymampa ábzè dom.	The plane flew over the city.
Nidpar pa bi him bu hum.	The train went from here to there.
Et voy ibo bun ju zemoj.	You won't receive the gift until midnight.

Prepositions prefixed to verbs

As adverbials, many prepositions can be prefixed to other words, especially to verb bases. The following is a list of per (go) and ber (put) verbs with prepositional prefixes. Note that prepositions ending in b drop the b before the verb bases per and ber.

intransitive		transitive	
aper	get on	aber	put on
eper	stop	eber	stop
oper	get off	ober	take off
áper	rise	áber	raise
éper	intervene	éber	block
óper	descend	óber	lower
iper	go (away)	iber	receive
uper	come	uber	send
úper	approach	úber	bring near
íper	go away	íber	take away
ézper	enter	ézber	bring in
ízper	surpass	ízber	take beyond
zéper	go through	zéber	pull through
zèper	transit	zèber	take across
ánper	meet	ánber	unite
ónper	separate	ónber	separate
izper	go straight/ head (for)	izber	guide
zúper	roll	zúber	turn
ózper	exit	ózber	take out
zòper	return, go back	zòber	take back
zòpuer	arrive back	zòbuer	give back
zateaser	look forward	zoteaser	look behind
zèteaser	look across	zíteaser	look all around
zéteaser	look through	ízteaser	look beyond
ézteaser	look in	ózteaser	look out
ábteaser	look up	óbteaser	look down
ibteaser	look away	izteaser	look straight (ahead)
ziteaser	look left	zuteaser	look right
uzteaser	look askance	úzteaser	look around
avdaer	speak for	ovdaer	speak against

Personal pronouns and pronominal adjectives

Personal pronouns have three persons (represented by the ordinal vowels a (1st), e (2nd), and i (3rd).

The plural forms have the suffix i.

There are also three case forms, which are alternate ways of expressing prepositional relations: Add -a for the genetive/possessive (of, from); -u for the locative/dative (to, at, 'for); -à (short for bà) for with; è (short for bè) for through/by, and ò (short for bò) for without.

Note: These are the same case endings that can be added to any nouns. For example, tamu (to the house), taébò (without hair), teda (father's).

nominative/accusative	genetive/possessive	dative/locative	comitive	instrumental	privative
at (I, me)	ata (my, mine)	atu (to/for me)	atà (with me)	atè (through/by me)	atò (without me)
et (you)	eta (your, yours)	etu (to/for you)	età (with you)	etè (through/by you)	etò (without you)
it (he, him)	ita (his)	itu (to/for him)	ità (with him)	itè (through/by him)	itò (without him)
ìt (she,her)	ìta (her, hers)	ìtu (to/for her)	ìtà (with her)	ìtè (through/by her)	ìtò (without her)
ati (we, our)	atia (our, ours)	atiu (to/for us)	atià (with us)	atiè (through/by us)	atiò (without us)
eti (you [all])	etia (your, yours)	etiu (to/for you)	etià (with you)	etiè (through/by you)	etiò (without you)
iti (they, them (m. or m/f))	itia (their)	itiu (to/for them)	itià (with them)	itiè (through/by them)	itiò (without them)
ìt (they (f.))	ìtia (their)	ìtiu (to/for them)	ìtià (with them)	ìtiè (through/by them)	ìtiò (without them)

Possessive pronouns are expressed with the addition of -c to the genetive/possessive ending:

English	Mirad
This book is mine.	Uda dén ce atac.
Those books are ours.	Ida déni ce atiaci.
Theirs has not arrived.	Itiac vò puaé.
Theirs have arrived.	Itiaci puaé.
Is this yours or mine?	Ev ud ce etac vè atac?
Will you come to mine tomorrow?	Ev et upo atacu zajubu?
Nothing will happen without yours.	ód swo etacò.

Conjunctions

Correlative Conjunctions/Adverbs

positive	neutral	negative
va yes	ve maybe	vo no
và indeed	vè possibly	vò not
và...và both...and	vè...vè either...or	vò...vò neither...nor
av that, so that, for	ev whether, if	ov lest, against
à and	è or	ò but
-à with	-è by, through, via	-ò without
ga more (than)	ge as, equal to	go less (than
gá most	gé enough	gó least
gà also, moreoever	gè even, including	gò except, but
gla very	gle somewhat	glo slightly, little, not very
gra too (much)	gre just, exactly	gro too little

Note: oev = unless; ad means that as the conjunction introducing a factual clause, not to be confused with av meaning so that introducing a subjunctive or unreal clause.

English	Mirad
I do want to go, but I cannot.	At và vage per ò at vò vege.
Do you know whether he's coming.	Ev et te ev it upo?
It will either rain or snow.	Vè mamilo vè màlómo.
If it rains, I'll not come.	Ev mamilo at vò upo.
No, it's not true that he died.	Vo, vò ce váa ad it tuja.
My father and mother are still alive.	Ata ted à tèd gaju tejeé.
Is it true that you were you born here?	Ev et tija udmu?
We did not know (that) you were married.	Ati vò ta ad et ce tadca.
The fact that you work is not the issue.	Ad et ése vò ce kos.
Whether you work or play is more important.	Et vè ése vè eke ce ga kíta.
Unless you go to school you will never learn anything.	Oev et po titamu et ódju tio úd.
In order to learn you must study more.	Av ticer et ége ga tier.
Everyone except you is ready.	Yat gò et ce perfia.
Did you want me to come long?'	Ev et vaga av at àpu?
I want you not to leave.	At vage ov et piu.
Don't tell her what I did.	Ov du ìtu od at sa.
Are you for or against me?	Ev et av è ov at?

Other Conjunctional Expressions

conjunction	example
ad that	Ati ta ad it upo. We knew (that) he would come.
av so that	At egdo id av et tico. I will repeat it so that you'll understand.
avad because	It tuja bi us avad it vò abá ígtef. He died because he was not wearing a helmet.
ju until	Ju et uvdo at vò teapo et. Until you apologize, I will not visit you.
ji since	Ji et pua at cee iva. Since you arrived, I've been happy.
ánad even though, although	Ánad et oka, at gaju fítce et. Even though you lost, I still respect you.
ovad despite the fact that	Ovad et zageda, et vò upa. Despite the fact that you agreed in advance, you didn't come.
igjo as soon as	Igjo ìt pua at gafi teca. As soon as she arrived, I felt better.
váfà ge just as	Váfà ge at jada, ija mamiler. Just as I predicted, it started raining.
ge ev as if	Ìt teubozá ge ev ìt ca iva. She smiled as if she were happy.
ev whether	At vò te ev mamilo. I don't know whether it will rain.
ev if	Et zàpo ev et éko. You will advance if you try.
à and	Et à at ce gá fia. You and I are the best.
è or	Et vege jobier è kobier; ce eta kebi. You can borrow or steal; it's your choice.
kéà ad in the event that	Kéà ad mamilo, aúbio eta mamilovar. In the event that it should rain, bring along your umbrella.
fiákea av in the hope that	It nucbia drénet fiákea av it ako. He bought a ticket in the hope that he would win.
fúnea ov for fear that	It ézpa fúnea ov mamilo. He went inside for fear that it might rain.
ov lest	Bono ov et tíjso lopét. Stay calm lest you awake the snake.
ónad aside from the fact that	Yonad gaijop mamile, doma mamecan ce gla fia. Aside from the fact that it rains occasionally, the city's weather is very nice.
tea ad knowing that	At vage tujer tea ad at po totamu. I want to die knowing that I will go to heaven.

Verbs

Verbs in Mirad are conjugated for tense (present, past, future), mood (indicative, conditional/imperative/subjunctive/jussive), voice (active, passive), and finiteness. The verbal system is perfectly regular and predictable.

The infinitive, which serves as the dictionary lookup form, always ends in -er. The stem, therefore, is the infinitive without the -er ending. For example, the stem of the verb buner (to push) is bun. The stem is used as the base of all conjugated verb forms.

Finite forms

Finite verb forms are modulated for tense based on the three-way vowel distinction a (present), e (past), and o (future).

A fourth ending, u is used for the equivalent of the English conditionals, subjunctives, and imperatives.

Verbs can be further modulated for progressive, anterior (perfect), and imminent senses through compounding.

Endings do not change depending on the subject person. For example, unlike in English where am, are, and is are used in the present depending on the subject, the Unilingua verb cer has one present indicative form of to be for all persons: ce.

Mirad	English
at ce	I am
et ce	you are
it ce	he is
ìt ce	she is
id ce	that is, it is
ud ce	this is
ot ce	who is?
ati ce	we are
eti ce	you (all) are
iti ce	they are
íti ce	they are
oti ce	who are?
át ce	everyone is
ét ce	whoever/anyone is
ód ce	nothing is
apeti ce	horses are

Simple tense forms

The simple tense verb forms are generated by adding the tense markers a, e, o, or the conditional marker u to the stem of the verb. For example, the stem of the verb ter to know is t and the inflected forms of the simple tenses are as follows:

Active voice forms

ending	meaning	example
e	present	It te. He knows.
a	past	At ta. I knew.
o	future	Et to. You will know.
u	conditional	Iti tu. They would know.

Non-indicative forms

The u ending is not only used for the conditional as above, but also non-indicatives moods such as the imperative and and subjunctive. The conditional form without a subject is used for imperatives (direct commands). Positive subjunctives and jussives are expressed with the use of the affirmative jussive conjunction av (for, so that, let) followed by the subject and the verb in the conditional.

pattern	meaning	example
Vu	direct command	Aku! (short for Av et aku!) Win!.
av N Vu	may N V	Av ati aku! May we win!.
av N Vu	let N V	Av it upu. Let him come.
av N Vu	wishes, etc.	At vàge (av) et piu. I wish you would leave.

Negative subjunctives and jussives are expressed with the use of the negative jussive conjunction ov (against, lest) followed by the subject and the verb in the conditional.

pattern	meaning	example
ov Vu	direct command	Ov oku!. Don't lose!
ov N Vu	may N V	Ov ati oku! May we NOT lose!.
ov N Vu	lest N V	Ov it upu. Don't let him come.
ov N Vu	wishes, etc.	At vayge ov et piu. I wish you would NOT leave (lit: I wish lest you leave).

Unreal conditionals are expressed with the conditional conjunction ev (if, whether) followed by the subject and the verb in the conditional (-u) in both the main and subordinate clause..

pattern	meaning	example
ev N Vu, N Vu...	if N were..., N would...	Ev at cu edeb, at ívsu it. If I were king, I would free him.

Illative patterns

Interrogative

Beginning a sentence with the conditional conjunction ev (whether, if) makes the sentence into a yes/no question:

pattern	meaning	example
ev + VP	Is it true that...?	Ev et aka? Did you win?

Negative

Use the negative adverb voy (not) in front a verb to negate it:

pattern	meaning	example
vò + V	negative	Et vò ako. You will not win.
ev + negVP	negative interrogative	Ev et vò akeé? Aren't you winning?

Affirmative

Similary, the positive adverb vay (indeed) is used in various combinations to qualify verbs. Like voy (not), this adverb immediate preceeds the verb form.

ending	meaning	example
vay + V	affirmative	At vay aka. I did win. / I won indeed.

Potential

Used the potential adverb vè (maybe) in front of a verb to qualify it as potential or possible (like English may):

ending	meaning	example
vè + V	potential	It vè ako He may win!.
ev + VP	negative potential interrogative	Ev et vè vò akaú? Might'nt you have won?

Passive voice forms

The passive voice is formed by preceding the tense endings with w.

ending	meaning	example
w+e	present	It twe. He is known.
w+a	past	It twa. He was known.
w+o	future	It two. He will be known.
w+u	conditional	It twu. He would be known.

Progressive aspect forms

The progressive or continuous tenses, which are optional and used only where the distinction is useful, are formed from the simple present forms by compounding with pre-yodified tense vowels.

ending	meaning	example
e+é	present continuous active	At akeé. I am winning. (pronounced: a-KE-ye)
e+á	past continuous active	At akeá I was winning. (pronounced: a-KE-ya)
e+ó	future continuous active	At akeó. I will be winning.
e+ú	conditional continuous active	At akeú. I would be winning.
we+é	present continuous passive	At akweé. I am being beaten.
we+á	past continuous passive	At akweá I was being beaten.
we+ó	future continuous passive	At akweó. I will be in the process of being beaten.
we+ú	conditional continuous passive	At akweú. I would be in the process of being beaten.

Anterior tense forms

The anterior or perfect tenses, which are also optional, are formed from the simple past tense form by compounding with pro-yodified tense vowels.

ending	meaning	example
a+é	present perfect active	At akaé. I have won.
a+á	past perfect active	Ati akaá We had won.
a+ó	future perfect active	Ati akaó. We will have won.
a+ú	conditional perfect active	Ati akaú. We would have won.
wa+é	present perfect passive	Iti akwaé. They have been beaten.
wa+á	past perfect passive	Iti akwaá. They had been beaten.
wa+ó	future perfect passive	Iti akwaó. They will have been beaten.
wa+ú	conditional perfect passive	Iti akwaú. They would have been beaten.

Imminent aspect forms

The so-called imminent tenses are formed from the simple future active tense forms in the same way.

ending	meaning	example
o+é	present imminent active	At akoé. I am going to win.
o+á	past imminent active	At akoá I was about to win.
wo+é	present imminent passive	Et akwoé. You are going to be beaten.
wo+á	past imminent passive	Et akwoá. You were about to be beaten.

Non-finite forms

ending	meaning	example
er	active infinitive	Et áge aker You must win.
wer	passive infinitive	Et vò vagu akwer You would not want to be defeated.
en	active verbal noun	Aken ce ád. Winning is everything.
wen	passive verbal noun	At vò ife akwen. I do not like being beaten.
ea	active present participle	Akea ekut The winning player
aa	active past participle	Akaa ekut The player who won.
oa	active future participle	Tob ce tujoa. Man is mortal (about to die).
ua	active conditional participle	Tob cua deb. The man who would be king.
wea	passive present participle	Akwea ekut The player being beaten
waa	passive past participle	Magelwaa taol Cooked meat.
woa	passive future participle	Teacwoa pancin the film to be seen
wua	passive conditional participle	Oteacwua tob the invisible man
eà	present affirmative gerundive	At teacibso pueà. I will call upon arriving.
eò	present negative gerundive	At ija teò éd. I started without knowing anything.
aà	past affirmative gerundive	Teacaà at pia. Having seen, I left.
aò	past negative gerundive	At pila dom teacaò ád. I left the town without having seen everything.
enè	present instrumental gerundive	Et akso gla ésenè. You will succeed by working hard.

Note: The -ua/wua ending approximates the English -able ending. oteacwua = invisible, íztijua = survivable, ogorwua = 'indivisible, vegua = capable, opanua = immobile. Adding an -n forms the substantive, eg. ogorwuan = indivisibility.

Conditional constructions

In sentences with conditional clauses the conditional clause is in the same tense as the main clause, contrary to the practice in English:

Ev mamilo at co uva. If it rains (= will rain), I will be sad.

Ev mamilaú at caú uva. If it had rained (= would have rained), I would have been sad.

Ev at cu nasika at ga zípu. If I were (=would be) rich, I'd travel more.

Ev et tu dud, (av et) du id atu. If you (= would) know the answer, (= that you would) tell it to me.

Sequence of tenses

Unlike in English, the tense of a consecutive clause is a real tense, not an adjusted tense relative to the main clause:

It da ad it tadco at. He said he would (= will) marry me.

It da ad it teaca it ejipu. He said he had seen (= saw) it twice.

Impersonal constructions

Impersonal verbs are conjugated without the subject personal pronoun:

Mamileé. It is raining.

Amco. It will warm up.

Eco dropek. There will be a war.

Ége av et upu já. It is necessary that you come early.

Ce fia. It's ok.

The verb "to be"

In Mirad, the verb cer (to be) is not suppressed in the present tense as in some languages like Russian or Agapoff's original version of Unilingua. Also, there is no existential distinction as in Spanish between ser and estar. Furthermore, the progressive forms ceá and ceé can be used at times as in some of the examples below:

Ati ce íva! We are free.

At co idmu. I'll be there.

Déni ca ab cem. The books were on the table.

Cayo e jubi ji at ca dopu. It will have been two days since I was in the army.

Cer ey voy cer. To be or not to be.

At caú uva ev et vò upaú. I would have been sad if you hadn't

come.

Et ceé gla fua. You are being very bad.

At vò ceá ivcla.' I was not being funny.

Reflexive constructions

Verbs can be made reflexive by adding the direct object get (self).

At vímila get ja per majtulu. I washed up (washed myself) before going to breakfast.

Tobet tuja get. The boy killed himself.

At teasa get cinzéfu. I looked at myself in the mirror.

Tu get! Know thyself!

Modal or auxiliary verbs

Mirad	English	Meaning	Example
íver	may	permission	Et íve iper. You may leave.
úver	must	requirement	Et úve iper. You must leave.
ûver	should	obligation	Et ûve iper. You should leave.
éger	have to	necessity	At ége iper. I have to leave.
êger	should	obligation	Et êge iper. You ought to leave.
vager	want to	volition	At vage iper. I want to leave.
vaager	long to	yearning	At vaage iper. I long to leave.
vàger	would like to	preference	At vàge iper. I would like to go.
vagrer	be eager to	eagerness	At vagre iper. I am eager to leave.
valter	intend to	intention	At valte iper. I intend to leave.
veger	can	ability	At vege ser id. I can do that.
voger	refuse to	refusal	At voge ser id. I refuse to do that.
áker	expect to	expectation	At áke aker. I expect to win.
áaker	hopeto	aspiration	At áake aker. I hope to win.
éker	try to	attempt	It vò éko iper. He won't try to leave.
ékler	dare to	dare	It vò éklo iper. He will not dare leave.
óker	to be surprised to	surprise	At óka aker. I was surprised to win.
ifer	to love to	love	It ife eker. He loves to play.
ìfer	to like to	liking	It ìfe eker. He likes to play.
ufer	to hate to	hate	It ufe eker. He hates to play.
ùfer	to dislike to	dislike	It ùfe eker. He dislikes playing.
iver	to be glad to	gladness	At ivo iper. I shall be glad to leave.
uver	to regret to	regret	At uva der id. I regretted saying it.
aver	to favor	espousal	At ave iper. I favor leaving.
over	to be opposed to	opposition	At ove eker. I am opposed to playing.

As you see in the examples above, modal verbs are followed by the infinitive form (-er) of the main verb.

Subordinate clauses introduced by ad

The positive complementizer particle ad (the fact that) is used to introduce a subordinate clause:

At ta (ad) it upo. I knew THAT he would come.

At ce vala (ad) et vádeé. I'm sure THAT you are telling the truth.

Ad mamilo ce valan. THAT it will rain is a certainty.

Ata tèd da (ad) iyt co tamu ojo èmaj. My mother said THAT she would be home by noon.

As in English, if the that can be dropped without any loss of meaning, it can be:

At da at dro. I said I'd (= I'll) write.

Et ta it sa id. You knew he had done (= did) it.

Unlike in English, a relative sequence of tenses is not applied. For example, English "I knew he would come." is rendered in Unilingua as "I knew he will come."

Do not confuse the particles ad and av. Clauses following ad are facts, whereas clauses following av are unreal wishes. Av should be thought of as so that.

At pana av it ábtu. I moved so that he could (= would) sit down.

At ta ad it ábto. I knew that he would (= will) sit down.

Subordinate clauses introduced by ev

The conditional complementizer particle ev (whether) is used to introduce a subordinate clause of the type "whether...":

At vò ta ev it upo. I did not know whether he would come.

Ev it upo ca teskía atu. whether he would or would come was not important to me.

Adjectives

Adjectives end in the suffix -a. They are invariable in form:

aga big

oga small

aza strong

oza weak

taba bodily

teaba ocular

tea aware

otea unaware

Adjectives used substantively to describe persons end in -t, while those used to describe things end in -c:

adjective	animate substantive	inanimate substantive
yoga young / new	yogat youth	yogac novelty
tuja dead	tujat dead person	tujac dead thing
fia good	fiat good person	fiac good thing

Adjectives always preceed the noun they modify:

aga tam a big house

yaga drun the long sentence

aza tob the strong man

mona maf a dark cloud

Serial adjectives usually go in the same order as in English:

ujna via jeeba jub the last beautiful summer day

Degrees of Comparison in Adjectives and Adverbs

Summary of Comparison Constructions

Note: vél is a preposition that comes from the verb véler to relate and is used to signal the object against which a relative comparison is being made (than, relative to).

Mirad	English
ga...vél	more...than
ge...vél	as...as
go...vél	less...than
gá...vél	the most...in/of
gé...vél	rather...compared to
gó...vél	the least...in/of

The Comparative of Superiority

More than is expressed by the adverb ga, followed by the adjective, adverb, or verb and the preposition vél (in relation to, than, as) preceding the noun, pronoun, or predicate being compared:

Mirad	English
Ata tadet ce ga aza vél et.	My brother is stronger than you.
At ga ése vél et.	I work more than you.
Ita tedet ga aga vél ata.	His son is taller than mine.
Uda dén ce ga ketlea vél idac.	This book is more interesting that that one.
Mam ce ga aga vél et tese.	The sky is bigger than you think.

The Comparative of Equality

As...as' is expressed by the adverb ge, following by the adjective, adverb, or verb and the preposition vél (in relation to, than, as) preceding the noun, pronoun, or predicate being compared.

Mirad	English
Ìt ge te vél at.	She knows as much as I do.
At ge fi deuze vél et.	I sing as well as you do.
Ata tam ce ge aga vél eta.	My house is as big as yours.
Ece ge tobi vél tobomi.	There are as many grownups as babies.

The Comparative of Inferiority

Less...than' is expressed by the adverb go, following by the adjective, adverb, or verb and the preposition vél (in relation to, than, as) preceding the noun, pronoun, or predicate being compared.

Mirad	English
Ìt go te vél at.	She knows less than I do.
At go fi deuze vél et.	I sing less well than you do.
Ata tam ce go aga vél etac.	My house is less big than yours.
Ece go tobi vél tobomi.	There are fewer grownups than babies.

The Superlative of Superiority

The most...of/in' is expressed by the adverb gya, followed by the adjective, adverb, or verb, and the compared noun or pronoun preceded by the preposition vyel.

Mirad	English
Ud ce gya yobaga miam vyel mir.	This is the deepest lake in the world.
At gya fi deuze.	I sing the best.
Gya fia ticudi vyel ticudyan akbuyo.	The best students in the class will be rewarded.
At ce gya ivat vyel yati.	I am the happiest person of all.

The Superlative of Inferiority

The least...of/in' is expressed by the adverb gyo, followed by the adjective, adverb, or verb, and the compared noun or pronoun preceded by the preposition vyel.

Mirad	English
Uda ticud ce gó tepaza vél áda ticudi.	This student is the least intelligent of all the students.
At gó fi deuze.	I sing the least well.
Gó fia ticudi vél ticudyan uóvfuso.	The worst students in the class will be punished.
At ce gó ivat vél áti.	I am the least happy person of all.

Idioms Using Adjectival/Adverbial Comparison Constructions

Mirad	English	example
ga...ga	the more...the more	Ga mamile ga ilirke. The more it rains, the more it floods.
ga...go	the more...the less	Ga iva at ce ga azà at dae. The happier I am the louder I speak.
go...ga	the less...the more	Go et tile ga fia ce. The less you drink the better.
go...go	the less...the less	Go et ézbue go et ózbie. The less you put in the less you get out.
gá...	as much as possible...	At tele gá ida telamu. I eat as much as possible in that restaurant.
gá veá...	the most possible	Puo gá já veá. Arrive as early as possible.
gó veá...	the least possible	Bookco gó veá. Tire yourself out the least possible.
vòga...vél	no more...than	At tila oga vél jubénà. I drank no more than usual.

Note: vél, as a preposition, originates from a verb, much like the prepositions gal plus and gar times:

verb	preposition
galer to add	gal plus
garer to multiply	gar times
goler to subtract	gol minus
gorer to divide	gor divided by
véler to relate	vél relative to, than

Adverbs

Formation

Adverbs can be formed from adjectives by post-yodifying the adjectival ending, that is, by changing -a to -à, for example:

adjective	adverb
fia good	fià well
ana single	anà only
gía easy	gíà easily

The adverbial ending -à is really the same as the comitive ending, meaning with. So, in effect, nouns in the comitive case are really adverbs. The same holds true for the instrumental ending -è by means of, through, by.

noun	adverb
gúan difficulty	gúanà with difficulty
ágan length	áganè lengthwise, by length
bik care	bikà with care, carefully
at me	atè by me

Similarly, a noun in the dative case (-u) can amount to an adverbial expression.

noun	adverb
uda job this day	udjobu today
oda em which place	od(e)mu where?
tam house	tamu (at) home
mep way	mepu en route

Some words are inherently adverbs:

áb up as in go up

ób down as in come down

zà ahead as in run ahead

zò back as come back

úz around as in spin around

ga more as in eat more

go less as in eat less

ge same, as as in as big or do the same

gla very as in very good

glo not so as in not so bad

và indeed as in He is indeed our leader.

vò not as in He is not our leader.

vè possibly as in It's possibly true.

Comparison

Adverbs are compared in the same way as adjectives:

normal	equalitive degree	comparitive degree	maximal degree
igà quickly	ge igà (vél) as quickly (as)	ga igà more quickly	gá igà as quickly as possible
ugà slowly	ge ugà (vél) as slowly (as)	go ugà less slowly	gá ugà as slowly as possible

Syntax

Adverbs, like adjectively, normally precede the element in the sentence which they modify, however, this rule is a loose one and can be bent without peril in most cases.

Igà upu! Come quickly!'

At anà go te. I know only a little.

Uda tam fià ceswa. This house was built well.

Et vò sa ge fuà. You did not do as badly.

Upu gá ubà. Come as closely as possible.

At vò te ev it pa áb è ób. I don't know whether he went up or down.

Shortcuts

Adverbs formed from adjectives ending in -ia or -ua can be shorted to -i and -u, respectively:

Pu fi! Fare well!'

vi swa beautifully done

ésu gú! Work hard!

Conversation Lessons

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Lesson 1: Greetings (Dotsini)

Mirad	English
Cu baka!	Hello! [Lit: "Be healthy."]
Gè et.	Hi. (in return) [Lit: "Equally you."]
Fijub!	Good day!
Fimaj!	Good morning!
Fiumaj!	Good evening!
Fimoj!	Good night.
Upu và!!	Welcome! [Lit: "Come indeed"]
Et ce odéna?	How are you? [Lit: "You are what-like"]
Et ce odbéna?	How are you? [Lit: "You are in-what-situation."]
At ce baka.	I'm fine. [Lit: "I am well."]
At ce fibéna.	I'm fine. [Lit: "I am in-good-situation."]
At ce ficana.	I'm fine. [Lit: "I am in-good-form."]
Ev coni fipe?	How are things? [Lit: "Are things going well?"]
Yad fipe.	Everything is going well.
Et se odà?	How are you doing? [Lit: "You do how?"]
At se fià.	I'm doing well. [Lit: "I do well."
Vò fia vò fua.	So-so. [Lit: "Not good not bad."]
Naztwe!	Thanks! [Lit: "It is appreciated."][naz = value]
Atu ifca.	You're welcome. [Lit: "It was a pleasure for me."]
À ev et?	And you? [Lit: "And whether you?"]
At gè ce baka.	I'm fine, too. [Lit: "I likewise am healthy."]
Od ce joga?	What's new. [Lit: What is new?"]
Ód.	Nothing.
Eta tod ce odéna?	How is your family? [Lit: "You family is what-way?"]
Ata tod ce ficana.	My family is fine. [Lit: "My family is in good shape."]
Cu baka!!	Goodbye!, Farewell! [Lit: "Be healthy."]
Gè et!!	Goodbye to you, too! [Lit: "Likewise you."]

Vocabulary Notes

bak = health

baka = healthy

cer = to be

cer baka = to be healthy, to be well

Cu baka!! [future/imperative] = Be well! Farewell! Hello!

At ce baka. = I'm fine. (= I am well.)

gè = equally, also, too, likewise

gè at = me too; I, as well

gè fia = equally good, also good

gebénu = in the same situation/manner

ev = Whether?; Is it true that?

od? = What?

odà? = How? (-à = adverbial ending/"with")

odéna? = How?, (Lit: what-wise?)

odbéna? = How? (Lit: what-mannered?)

odcana? = How? (Lit: what-shaped?)

av = for (prep), let, so that (conj.)

Av it bakcu. = Let him be well. [Lit: "So that he be healthy."]

à = and (ò = but, è = or)

vo = no (va = yes, ve = maybe)

vò = not (và = indeed, certainly, vè = possibly, may)

vò fua = not bad

At vè ce boka. = I may be ill.

It và ce ficana. = He is really in good shape.

ód = nothing (ád = everything)

at = I, me

atu = to me, for me

ata = my, mine

et = you

etu = to you, for you

eta = your

it = he, him

itu = to him, for him

ita = his

can = shape, form, condition, state, status

fican = good shape, good form, good condition

ficana = in good shape, well, in good condition

ficana cer / fincancer = to be in good shape, to be fine

fucan = bad shape, bad condition

fucana cer / fucancer = to be in bad shape, to be unwell

odcana = in what shape, how

odcana ce... = How is...

bén = manner, situation

fia = good (fua = bad)

fibéna = in a good situation, fine

odbéna? = in what situation?, in what manner?, how?

ge = equal, same, as

gebéna = in the same situation, unchanged

naz = value

ter = to know

twer = to be known

nazter = to appreciate, to know the value, to be thankful

naztwe. = (It) is appreciated [passive voice], thank-you, thanks

Gla naztwe. = Much appreciated; Thank-you very much.

der = to say (...to [someone] = ...-u)

nazder = to express appreciation, to thank (+ ...-u)

At nazda itu av ita és. = I thanked him for his work.

nazden = thanks, expression of appreciation

Lesson 2: Getting Acquainted

Mirad	English
At vàge [ad] et ijtu ata dat Ivan.	I'd like you to meet my friend, Ivan. [Lit: "I'd like that you be acquainted with..."]
Ce gla if ijter et.	Very pleased to meet you. [Lit: "It is a great pleasure to..."]
Od ce eta dún?	What's your name?
Ata dún ce Maria.	My name is Mary.
Odmu et tome?	Where do you live?
At tome New Yorku/erozáki udma.	I live in New York/two kilometers from here.
Et tome idmu ji od?	How long have you lived there? [Lit: "You live there since what?"]
At tome ida domu ji alo jabi.	I have lived in that city for 10 years. [Lit: I live in that city since...]
Od ce eta és?	What do you do for a living? [Lit: "What is your work?"]
At ése ge biktut. À ev et?	I work as a nurse. And you?
At eju keé és.	I am currently looking for work.
Ev et aé aga tod?	Do you have a big family?
Ata tedeti ce odjaga?	How old are your children? [Lit: "What-aged are..."]
Gajagat ce ale jaga à gajogat ce ú jaga.	The elder is twelve years old and the younger is nine. [Lit: "...is 12 of age...is 9 of age."]
Ev et gè ce tadca (or: tadaá)?	Are you also married?
Vo. At ce tadokca/tadónca/tadoá.	No. I'm widowed/divorced/unmarried. [Lit: "mate-lost/mate-separated/mate-less"]
Odmu et tija?	Where were you born?
At tija úb udem.	I was born near here.
Odju et emkála udmu?	When did you move here. [Lit: "....change location..."]
At pua ji e jabi.	I arrived four years ago. [Lit: "...since four years"]

Vocabulary Notes

ijter = to get to know, to become acquainted with, to meet (for the first time) (ijtat acquaintance)

ifcer/uifcer = to please/be pleased

tomer = to reside, to live, to make one's home

éser = to work

aér = to have

vàger = to wish, to like to (At vàge --er = I'd like to --)

dúncer = to be named, to be called

ser = to do, to make

keer = to seek, to look for (kaer = to find, koer = to hide)

tijer = to be born (tujer = to die)

tadcer = to get married

tadokcer = to be widowed

tadòcer = to be unmarried

emkáler = to relocate, to move (emkóler = to settle down)

puer = to arrive (pier = to depart)

jagcer = to get old, to age (jogcer = to get young)

dat = friend

tad = spouse, mate (tàd = wife, tadca married)

tadokcat = widow(er)

tadóncat = divore(e)

tadoát = bachelor/bachelorette

tedet = offspring, son, daughter, child

tod = family

tom = residence, home = (tomu = at home)

dom = city (domu = in the city, in town)

és = work (ésu = at work)

jag = age (jaga = old, joga = young)

tij = birth (tuj = death, tej = life)

dún = name

job = time

jab = year (jabi = years, e jabi two years, udjabu this year)

ej = the present (eju at present, eja present)

em = place, space (emkáer to relocate)

jagat = young person (gajagat = cadet, younger one)

jogat = old person (gajogat = elder)

if = pleasure (Ca if. It was a pleasure.)

ja = before (jo = after, je = during)

ja ej = ago [Lit: before the present]

ji = since (ju = until)

ji od = since when, for how long (ji e jabi = for two years)

ga = more (go = less, ge = equal)

gla = very, much, many (glo = little, few, slightly)

úb = near to (íb = far from, úbem vicinity)

bu = to (bi = from)

udem = this place (ud(e)mu = here, ud(e)ma from here, od(e)mu? = where?

idem = that place (id(e)mu = there, id(e)ma from there)

udjob = the present (udj(ob)u = now, odj(ob)u? when?)

idjob = that time (idj(ob)u = then, ji id since then)

History & Document Notes

Wikibook History

This book was created on 2005-03-15 and was developed on the Wikibooks project by the contributors listed in the Authors section. The latest version may be found at http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Unilingua.

PDF Information & History

This PDF was created on 2007-07-24 based on the 2007-07-20 version of the Unilingua Wikibook. A transparent copy of this document is available at Wikibooks:Unilingua/Print version. The SXW source of this PDF document is available at Wikibooks:Image:Unilingua.sxw. The template from which the document was created is available at Wikibooks:Image:PDF template.sxw. A printer-friendly version of this document may be available at Wikibooks:Image:Unilingua printable version.pdf.

Authors

Derbeth, GumbaGumba, Hagindaz, Iamunknown, James Shoemaker, Nabo0o, Nikki, Robert Horning, Strait, Thomas Steinel, Tyoyafud, Whiteknight, Wknight8111, anonymous contributors

GNU Free Documentation License

Version 1.2, November 2002

Copyright (C) 2000,2001,2002 Free Software Foundation, Inc.

51 Franklin St, Fifth Floor, Boston, MA 02110-1301 USA

Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies

of this license document, but changing it is not allowed.

0. PREAMBLE

The purpose of this License is to make a manual, textbook, or other functional and useful document "free" in the sense of freedom: to assure everyone the effective freedom to copy and redistribute it, with or without modifying it, either commercially or noncommercially. Secondarily, this License preserves for the author and publisher a way to get credit for their work, while not being considered responsible for modifications made by others.

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4. MODIFICATIONS

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B. List on the Title Page, as authors, one or more persons or entities responsible for authorship of the modifications in the Modified Version, together with at least five of the principal authors of the Document (all of its principal authors, if it has fewer than five), unless they release you from this requirement.

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E. Add an appropriate copyright notice for your modifications adjacent to the other copyright notices.

F. Include, immediately after the copyright notices, a license notice giving the public permission to use the Modified Version under the terms of this License, in the form shown in the Addendum below.

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H. Include an unaltered copy of this License.

I. Preserve the section Entitled "History", Preserve its Title, and add to it an item stating at least the title, year, new authors, and publisher of the Modified Version as given on the Title Page. If there is no section Entitled "History" in the Document, create one stating the title, year, authors, and publisher of the Document as given on its Title Page, then add an item describing the Modified Version as stated in the previous sentence.

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5. COMBINING DOCUMENTS

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In the combination, you must combine any sections Entitled "History" in the various original documents, forming one section Entitled "History"; likewise combine any sections Entitled "Acknowledgements", and any sections Entitled "Dedications". You must delete all sections Entitled "Endorsements."

6. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS

You may make a collection consisting of the Document and other documents released under this License, and replace the individual copies of this License in the various documents with a single copy that is included in the collection, provided that you follow the rules of this License for verbatim copying of each of the documents in all other respects.

You may extract a single document from such a collection, and distribute it individually under this License, provided you insert a copy of this License into the extracted document, and follow this License in all other respects regarding verbatim copying of that document.

7. AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS

A compilation of the Document or its derivatives with other separate and independent documents or works, in or on a volume of a storage or distribution medium, is called an "aggregate" if the copyright resulting from the compilation is not used to limit the legal rights of the compilation's users beyond what the individual works permit. When the Document is included in an aggregate, this License does not apply to the other works in the aggregate which are not themselves derivative works of the Document.

If the Cover Text requirement of section 3 is applicable to these copies of the Document, then if the Document is less than one half of the entire aggregate, the Document's Cover Texts may be placed on covers that bracket the Document within the aggregate, or the electronic equivalent of covers if the Document is in electronic form. Otherwise they must appear on printed covers that bracket the whole aggregate.

8. TRANSLATION

Translation is considered a kind of modification, so you may distribute translations of the Document under the terms of section 4. Replacing Invariant Sections with translations requires special permission from their copyright holders, but you may include translations of some or all Invariant Sections in addition to the original versions of these Invariant Sections. You may include a translation of this License, and all the license notices in the Document, and any Warranty Disclaimers, provided that you also include the original English version of this License and the original versions of those notices and disclaimers. In case of a disagreement between the translation and the original version of this License or a notice or disclaimer, the original version will prevail.

If a section in the Document is Entitled "Acknowledgements", "Dedications", or "History", the requirement (section 4) to Preserve its Title (section 1) will typically require changing the actual title.

9. TERMINATION

You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Document except as expressly provided for under this License. Any other attempt to copy, modify, sublicense or distribute the Document is void, and will automatically terminate your rights under this License. However, parties who have received copies, or rights, from you under this License will not have their licenses terminated so long as such parties remain in full compliance.

10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE

The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised versions of the GNU Free Documentation License from time to time. Such new versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but may differ in detail to address new problems or concerns. See http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/.

Each version of the License is given a distinguishing version number. If the Document specifies that a particular numbered version of this License "or any later version" applies to it, you have the option of following the terms and conditions either of that specified version or of any later version that has been published (not as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation. If the Document does not specify a version number of this License, you may choose any version ever published (not as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation.

External links

GNU Free Documentation License (Wikipedia article on the license)

Official GNU FDL webpage

Chapter

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194 | Unilingua

Chapter 8

196 | Unilingua

GNU Free Documentation License

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2007-07-22T15:10:40