Wikipedija mtwiki https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Il-Pa%C4%A1na_prin%C4%8Bipali MediaWiki 1.39.0-wmf.23 first-letter Medja Speċjali Diskussjoni Utent Diskussjoni utent Wikipedija Diskussjoni Wikipedija Stampa Diskussjoni stampa MediaWiki Diskussjoni MediaWiki Mudell Diskussjoni mudell Għajnuna Diskussjoni għajnuna Kategorija Diskussjoni kategorija Portal Diskussjoni portal TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Gadget Gadget talk Gadget definition Gadget definition talk 0 1439 279089 267946 2022-08-14T15:34:43Z Dans 2060 /* Kronologija, Lista tax-xogħlijiet, Mużewijiet */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{wikifikazzjoni}} {{Infobox bijografija}} '''Antonio Sciortino''' ([[Ħaż-Żebbuġ]], [[25 ta' Jannar]], [[1879]] - [[10 ta' Awissu]], [[1947]]) huwa skultur Malti li xogħlu jirrefletti ħafna movimenti artistiċi fosthom ir-realiżmu, l-influwenza ta' [[Auguste Rodin]] u l-[[Futuriżmu]]. Studja u ħadem [[Ruma]], l-aktar fl-akkademja Brittanika. L-iskultur żviluppa stil originali li ġibdet l-ammirazjoni ta' ħafna u ġabitlu ordnijiet ta' xogħol mir-[[Russja]], il-[[Brażil]] u l-[[Stati Uniti|Istati Uniti]]. Sciortino kien direttur tal-[[Akkademja Brittanika]] ta' l-Arti f'Ruma ([[1911]]-[[1936]]), u mill-[[1937]] sa mewtu kien kuratur fil-Mużew ta' l-Arti Malta.<ref name="src">Dan l-artiklu jibbaża f'parti kbira fuq Claude Busuttil 1997 - partijiet qosra huma meħudin verbatim, pero ħafna fatti ġew mqabbla u mqassra, u żidt ukoll ħafna informazzjoni oħra.</ref>. == Bijografija, Xogħlijiet u Stil == [[Stampa: sciortino1.jpg |thumb|right|400px|Sciortino ''Les Gavroches'', ritratt: L. Sapiano]] Sa minn meta kien għadu tifel ta' l-iskola, Sciortino wera ġibda lejn l-iskultura. Il-ħabib tiegħu Pawlu Grech jiftakru jnaqqax bil-mus fuq xi biċċa [[Ġebla_tal-ġir|ġebla]] figuri ta' nies u annimali<ref name="gc"> Ġużè Cardona ltaqà ma Pawlu Grech meta dan kellu ħamsa u tmenin sena. Cf. Cardona, J. The Maltese Sculptor with a world reputation, f'The Sunday Times of Malta, Awissu 17, 1958, p.14.</ref>. It-talent tiegħu ġie mħeġġeġ kmieni minn zitu, Vittorina Sciortino u minn [[Lazzaro Pisani]], li kien pittur ta' fama stabbilita f'Malta <ref name="pis">Fost xogħlijiet oħra, għamel il-pittura tas-saqaf fil-knisja ta' San Pawl Nawfraġju tal-Belt. </ref>. Kien propju bl-inkuraġġiment ta' Pisani li Sciortino iddeċieda li jidħol fl-iskola ta' l-arti fil-Belt [[Valletta]] fejn, għal sentejn, ħa t-taħriġ meħtieġ. Il-familja [[Gerald Strickland|Strickland]] għenet lil Sciortino jikseb borża ta' studju mingħand il-Gvern għal kors f'[[Ruma]], fejn ta' tnejn u għoxrin sena mar jissokta l-istudji tiegħu. Ruma huwa studja fl-''Istituto Reale di Belle Arti'' u għal sentejn tħarreġ fl-inġinerija u l-arkitettura monumentali. Wara li kiseb diploma bl-ogħla unuri, fetaħ studju ta' l-arti f'via Margutta 33, fil-qalb tat-tradizzjoni artistika Rumana. Kien propju hawn li ironikament Sciortino ddeċieda li jinqata' mit-tradizzjoni imitattiva u jaqbad stil artistiku personali. ''Il filosfo'' ([[1902]]) huwa xogħol ta' studju fl-iskultura li bih stabilixxa ruħu bħala artista oriġinali kif ukoll ġibed l-attenzjoni tal-kritiċi ta' l-arti. Din l-iskultura flimkien ma' studju ieħor magħruf bħala ''Testa di Vecchio'' ġew esibiti f'wirja bl-isem ''Promotrice di Roma''. Fl-iskultura ''Studio di Donna'' ([[1904]]) Sciortino tbiegħed mid-drawwa prevalenti tar-rappreżentazzjoni femminili kif kienet trattata mill-iskulturi Franċiżi u ppropona adattament ispirat mill-istil Grieg. Fl-istess sena Sciortino ħadem ''Les Gavroches'', xogħol ta' skultura li saħħaħ il-fama tiegħu. Dan il-kumpless tal-bronż juri tlett itfal, f'xogħol li ġie mnebbah minn novella famuża ta' [[Victor Hugo]], ''Les Miserables,'' fejn jiddeskrivi l-ħajja ta' tlett itfal foqra jiġġerrew fit-toroq ta' [[Pariġi]] fi żmien ir-[[Rivoluzzjoni Franċiża]] tal-[[1848]]. Din l-iskultura inġiebet Malta fl-1907 u għadha sal-lum meqjusa bħala l-ewwel xogħol artistiku kbir ta' Sciortino. L-abbozz tal-istatwa llum il-ġurnata jinsab ġewwa '''Buckingham Palace'' wara li ingħata bħala rigal f'isem il-poplu Malti mill-gvern lill-Prinċipessa Eliżabetta waqt li din kienet fuq żjara f'Malta fl-[[1951]]. Il-fama ta' Sciortino ħarġet mill-kapitali Taljana u nfirxet f'ċentri artistiċi oħra fl-Ewropa. Antonio Sciortino rebaħ diversi kompetizzjonijiet internazzjonali li għamlu ismu magħruf fl-Amerka, fir-Russja, il-Ġappun u l-Afrika t'Isfel fejn jinsabu uħud mil-aqwa xogħlijiet tiegħu. Is-sehem tiegħu fil-wirjiet internazzjonali qajjem interess f'Ruma u fir-''Royal Academy'' f'Londra. Dan is-suċċess wassal għan-nomina tiegħu bħala direttur ta' l-Akkademja Brittanika ta' l-Arti f'Ruma (1911), kariga li żamm għal ħamsa u għoxrin sena. Fl-1905 Sciortino rebaħ il-kompetizzjoni għall-monument lil ''[[Sir Adrian Dingli]]'', li inkixef f'April ta' l-1907 fil-preżenza tar-Re [[Re Dwardu VII|Dwardu VII]] u r-Reġina Alexandra fil-Ġnien tal-Mall. Ftit taż-żmien wara ingħatatlu kummissjoni għal skultura li tirrapreżenta ''il lavoratore'' għall-''Casa del Popolo'' f'Ruma. Fl-1909 Sciortino ħadem l-''irredentismo''<ref name="irred">I'd be particularly interested in finding out what was the idea behind Sciortino's ''irredentismo''. There is a paper on that, which I cannot get: E. Cozzani, 'I piu Giovani', in 'vita d'arte', II, vol.III, fs. 17, 1909 p. 257.</ref> li ġiet esibita ġewwa Venezja. Sas-sena 1910 ħadem żewġ xogħlijiet oħra, ''Germinando un Idea'' u ''Remorse''. It-tnejn jirriflettu l-influwenza ta' [[Auguste Rodin]]. Waqt żjara f'[[Pariġi]], Sciortino ħadem bust ta' [[Leo Tecktonius]], kompożitur u pjanist Amerikan. Dan ix-xogħol impressjona lil Rodin, li talbu jaħdimlu forma u li jiltaqa' miegħu personalment. Din il-laqgħa tat bidu lill-ħbiberija dewwiema ta' bejniethom. [[Stampa: LeoTecktonius.jpg |thumb|right|250px| 1911 - Bust tal-pjanista Amerikan ''Leo Tecktonius''. Xogħol maħdum f'għoxrin minuta waqt żjara Parigi u li laqqgħu ma [[Auguste Rodin]].]] Fl-1911, Antonio Sciortino ipparteċipa f'kompetizzjoni internazzjonali għall-monument b'tifkira ta' l-imperatur Russu [[Alessandru II]] (1818-1881). Id-disinni u l-mudelli tiegħu rebħu l-ewwel premju iżda il-premju ma ingħatax għal raġuni formali. Madanakollu, it-[[Tzar Nikola II]], affaxxinat bil-proġett, xtara id-disinni minn jeddu. Fl-1913, Sciortino daħal għal kompetizzjoni għall-bini ta' monument lill-poeta Ukrain [[Shevchenko]]. Id-disinni gew aċċettati u l-iskultur rebaħ l-ewwel post. Dan il-monument, maħdum mill-granit u l-bronż, hu għoli 7.5 metri u jirrapreżenta lill-poeta f'att ta' meditazzjoni bilqiegħda fuq zokk ta' siġra liebes l-ilbies nazzjonali Ukrain. Fuq il-pedestall hemm grupp ta' figuri li jirrapreżenta l-poplu ta' l-[[Ukraina]]. Fl-1914 Sciortino xtaq jidħol mar-[[w:en:Royal Engineers|Royal Engineers]], iżda fuq parir ta' l-eks-gvernatur ta' Malta, [[Lord Grenfell]], baqa' għaddej b'ħidmietu ġewwa Ruma biex jagħti bidu għal xogħol fuq mafkar għall-ewwel gwerra dinjija. Għal tliet snin sħaħ Sciortino kien mehdi bil-ħsieb, tħażżiż u l-immudellar ta' dan il-monument vast u imponenti li kellu jkun magħruf bħala t-'Tempju ta' l-Imperu Ingliż għall-Eroj mhux Magħruf'. Sciortino irrealizza dan ix-xogħol f'mudell tat-tafal fuq skala ta' 1:200. Jingħad li l-idea ta' mafkar f'ġieħ is-'Suldat mhux magħruf', hi ħolqien ta' l-artist Malti<ref name="smm"></ref>. Bħala tifkira ta' l-erbgħa w għoxrin Kungress Ewkaristiku Internazzjonali li sar f'Malta fl-1913 Sciortino ġie imqabbad ilesti monument. Dan ix-xogħol imsemmi ''Kristu Re'' ġie mikxuf fil-Furjana fit 30 ta' Diċembru 1917 fi ħdan ta' ċeremonja reliġjuza li għaliha inġabru madwar 40,000 Malti. L'istatwa ta' Kristu Redentur hija figura tal-bronż għolja 3.5 metri li tiddomina fuq pedestall tal-granit u tesprimi maestà u kobor ta' sultan. Malta hija rapreżentata bħala figura femminili għarkuptejha taħt il-pedestall f'att ta' sottomissjoni waqt talba għall barka. Il figura tfakkar ukoll ir-rebħiet mgħodija fuq "l-egħdewwa ta' Kristu". Oriġinarjament, Sciortino ippjana il-monument b'figura ta' Kristu biss għaliex l-għan ewlieni kienet rappreżentazzjoni tat- [[transubstanzjazzjoni]], il-kunċett tal-preżenza reali ta' Kristu fl-hekk imsejħa "Ewkaristija Mqaddsa" ([[w:en:Transubstantiation]]). Għalekk il- figura ta' Malta ma' tħarisx lejn il-wiċċ ta' Kristu iżda qiegħdha tbaxxi rasha f'att ta' reverenza iġġib quddiem għajnejha ix-xbieha tal-ġisem u demm ta' Kristu. [[Stampa: Great Siege Memorial(Sciortino).JPG|thumb|right|350px|Monument ta' l-Assedju l-Kbir]] Fuq kummisjoni tal-poplu tal Crimea (Crimean Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic), Sciortino kellu ilesti mafkar, għall-kittieb Russu [[Anton Pavlovich Chekhov]] biex jiġi imwaqqaf f'[[Rostov fuq ix-xmara Don]]. L'abbozz tal-ġibs tlesta fl-1923 iżda il-monument tal-bronz ma ġiex imseħħ minħabba tumulti fir-Russja wara il-mewt ta' [[Lenin]] fl-1924. Illum l-abbożż tal-ġibs jinsab fil-bitħa tal-[[Mużew Nazzjonali ta' l-Arti]] fil-Belt Valletta. Bejn 1924 u 1927 Sciortino temm ''Rhythmii Vitae'', xogħol meqjus bħala wieħed mill-aqwa tiegħu fil-bronż u li ġie esebit fl-Akkademija Rjali (Londra), Ħadem bust ta' Carmen Sylva fuq stetina tal' familja Rjali tar-[[Rumanija]] u ħoloq monument imponenti b'tifkira tal-proklamazzjoni tal-[[Brażil]] bħala Repubblika. F'dan iz-zmien ħadem ukoll il-bust tal-Markiża Godi de Godio. Fit-8 ta' Mejju 1927 ġie mikxuf monument kbir ieħor ta'Sciortino f'Malta, il-Monument ta' l-Assedju l-Kbir, li jinsab quddiem il-Qorti tal'-Ġustizzja (qabel ma twaqqat fit-[[Tieni Gwerra Dinjija]] kien hemm il-bini tal-Berġa ta' l'[[Alvernja]]). Dan il-monument ifakkar il-qlubija u l-eroiżmu tal-Maltin fl-Assedju ta' l-1565. Il-monument huwa kompost minn-tlett figuri li jirrapreżentaw il-kuraġġ, il-fidi u iċ-ċiviltà. Fl-1929 abbozz ta' Sciortino għal monument ekwestri tal-Ġeneral [[Simon Bolivar]] ħa it-tieni post. Bejn 1931 u 1936, bħala preparazzjoni għal wirja mil-Kummisjoni Amerikana għall-arti, Sciortino lesta numru ta' xogħolijiet ta' forom artistiċi u suġġetti differenti - b'kollox wieħed u għoxrin biċċa skultura fil-ġibs, bronż u l'irħam. Fost dawn insibu ''Lindbergh on Eagle'', ''Courage of Future Generation'', ''Arab Horses'', ''In the Jungle'', ''Detachment of the Soul from Humanity'', ''Speed'', ''Madonna protecting Navigators'', ''Dangerous Sport'', ''Consolation'', ''Late'', ''First Kiss'', ''Laughing'', ''Surprised'', ''Smiling'' u oħrajn. Dawn huma kollha xogħolijiet li jesprimu vitalità u entużjażmu. Minħabba il-mewt, ta' Frank Pedry, iċ-chairman tal-kummissjoni, ir-reċessjoni ekonomika li kienet għaddejja minnha l-Amerika u il-ġrajjiet politiċi internazzjonali il wirja ma setgħatx issir. Fil-1936 l-Akkademja Brittanika ta' l-Arti ġewwa Ruma kellha tagħlaq minħabba kunflitti politiċi ma' l-Italja fuq il-gwerra ta' l-[[Abbesinja]] (illum l-[[Etjopja]]). Dan wassal biex Sciortino jirriżenja mill-kariga li kellu fi ħdan l-Akkademja u b'hekk irritorna Malta fejn, fit-[[3 ta' Mejju]], [[1937]], inħatar kuratur fil-Mużew ta' l-Arti. L-aħħar xogħol ta' Sciortino kien il-monument ta' ''Lord [[Gerald Strickland]]'' imwaqqaf fl-[[1945]] fil-ġnien tal-[[Barrakka ta' Fuq]], il-Belt. == Rwol == * Rwol Malta * Barra min Malta: Jingħad li l-idea ta' mafkar f'ġieħ 'Is-Suldat Mhux Magħruf' ġiet l-ewwel darba minn Antonio Sciortino<ref name="smm">(Cox-McCormack, Vol. 2, Memoirs – 1922-1924), (Parkes, 1921, pp 191-192)</ref>. == Diskussjoni == L-istil ta' Sciortino jgħaqqad elementi tar-realiżmu u tal-futuriżmu. Huwa ta' nteress x'wassal u x'kiteb l-iskultur fuq din is-sintesi. Sciortino ħassu miġbud ħafna lejn l-iżvilupp tekniku u l-inġinerija. Ftit hu magħruf dwar kif l-artist kien jinterpreta l-iżvilupp tat-teknoloġija bħala Arti - dan hu suġġett li l-arti tittratta ħafna aktar tard. Aspett ieħor huwa r-rwol tar-reliġjożità u l-ispirtu li fiħ ħadem l-istatwa ta' ''Kristu Re''. Barra mir-rwol artistiku ta' Sciortino, bħala Malti kożmopolitan ta' ċittadinanza Brittannika li fil-bidu tas-seklu għoxrin għex għal kważi tletin sena fil-belt kapitali ta' l-Italja, huwa ta' interess kbir għall-istorja soċjali Maltija x'ħaseb fuq l-identità, il-personalità u l-lingwa Maltija - dan speċjalment minn bniedem f'pożizzjoni ta' perspettiva iktar wiesgħa u konsegwentament b'oġġettività akbar. Huwa żamm kuntatt ma' pajjiżu, għalkemm ir-raġunijiet eżatti m'humiex magħrufa. Ġietlu offruta ċ-ċittadinanza Taljana iżda għażel li jżomm dik Ingliża. Kif kien jaħsibha Sciortino fuq il-faxxiżmu Taljan -- hu li għex it-twelid ta' dan il-moviment, u kif kien jassoċjah u jaħsibha fuq il-moviment nazzjonali malti. Ta' nteress hija il-lealtà lejn l-Ingilterra; dan meta tqabblu ma' ħafna studenti ta' l-arti Maltin, li fl-aħħar snin li Sciortino kien Ruma kienu qed imorru jistudjaw hemm fuq boroż ta' studju mogħtija mill-gvern Taljan - ħafna minnhom fil-fatt ħassew ġibda kbira lejn il-faxxiżmu u lejn l'Italja. Hu ta' nteress jekk Sciortino kellux kuntatt ma dawn l-istudenti li kienu jiltaqgħu fl-għaqda tar-''Regia Deputazione per la Storia di Malta'' (cf. [[Herbert Ganado]] - ''Rajt Malta Tinbidel'', Ktieb III, Kap XXXI)<ref name="gnd">[[Herbert Ganado]] jiddeskrivi il-''Conspiracy Trials'', proċessi li nfetħu fl-1946, li fihom sbatax-il Malti ġew akkużati bi tradiment kontra Malta waqt il-gwerra. Ħdax minnhom kienu akkużati fuq piena ta' mewt, fosthom studenti li kienu jinsabu l-Italja fil-bidu tal-gwerra: ''U hawn biex nifhmu l-ambjent li sabu ruħhom fih dawn is-sbatax-il Malti jinħtiġilna ngaħtu ħarsa lura. L-Italja ta' Mussolini kienet deċiża li tagħmel Malta tagħha għax kienet tqis lil Malta art Taljana. Kienet tinkoraġġixxi bil-'borse di studio' ħafna żgħażagħ Maltin imorru jistudjaw fl-Italja biex tikber is-simpatija tagħhom lejha. U kienu bosta li marru. L-għaqda tar-'Regia Deputazione per la storia di Malta' kellha ħafna Maltin imseħbin fiha. Meta kienet ser tibda l-gwerra, twaqqaf il-'Comitato d'azzione Maltese' li tista' tgħid, ħareġ mir-'Regia Deputazione per la storia di Malta'. Iż-żewġ promotturi prinċipali tiegħu kienu l-professur Carlo Mallia, li kien il-president u snin qabel professur fl-università ta' Malta qabel ma mar jgħix l-Italja, u l-Professur Umberto Biscottini, li kien midħla tal-Maltin li kienu jistudjaw f'Ruma u li kienu membri tar-Reġia Deputazione. Il-professur Biscottini kien jirrapreżenta il-ministru ta' l-esteri Taljan fuq dan il-kumitat. Kien hemm ukoll fih Dottor Annibale Scicluna Sorge, 'Capo di Divisione' tal-ministeru Taljan tal-propoganda, li kien Sudditu Taljan, għad li kellu missieru Malti. Dan il-kumitat kellu mseħbin fih bosta Maltin u Taljani u kellu friegħi f'Milan, f'Firenze, fi Sqallija u f'Genova. Dan il-'Comitato d'Azzione' kellu l-iskop dikjarat illi jistudja u jisuġġerixxi soluzzjonijiet għall-problemi ta' Malta waqt il-gwerra, li ġiet minnu msejħa gwerra ta' liberazjoni .... fost l-attivitajiet tiegħu, dan il-kumitat beda jippubblika il-'Malta', li ma kinetx baqgħat toħroġ f'pajjiżna, wara li internaw 'l-editur tagħha Dottor [[Enrico Mizzi]]'' (Herbert Ganado - Rajt Malta Tinbidel, Ktieb III, Kap XXXI). Din il-kwotazzjoni hi twila wisq. Il-quddiem tista tiġi imressqa f'artiklu fuq l'i'''storja socjali Maltija''' jew fuq in-'''Nazzjonalismu Malti''' għall fejn tista tiġi referuta minn dan l-artiklu b' link interwiki.</ref>. Apparentement teżisti intervista ma' Sciortino. Hemm xi dokumenti miktubin minn Sciortino nnifsu, ittri jew ''FIXME'' (speeches lectures talks) tħaddit? == Kronologija, Lista tax-xogħlijiet, Mużewijiet == <!-- |- | | | --> {| class="wikitable" |- !Sena !Xogħol !Post |- |1902 |''Il Filosofo'' | |- |1903 |''Testa di Vecchio'' | |- |1904 |''Studio di Donna'' | |- |1904 |''Les Gavroches'' |[[Barrakka ta' Fuq]], Valletta, Malta |- | |Monument lil ''Sir Adrian Dingli'' |Il-''Mall'', [[Furjana]], Malta |- | |''Lavoratore'' | Casa del Popolo Ruma |- |1909 |''Irredentismo'' | |- | |''Germinando un Idea'' |Il-Mużew Nazzjonali ta' l-Arti, Valletta, Malta |- | |''Remorse'' |Il-Mużew Nazzjonali ta' l-Arti, Valletta, Malta |- | |''Leo Tecktonius'' | |- |1911 |disinn u mudell ''Alessandru II'' | |- |1913 |Kompetizzjoni Statwa ta' ''Shevchenko'' | |- |1913 |''Kristu Re'' |Il-''Mall'',[[Furjana]], Malta |- |1914 |bidu ta' xogħol fuq monument ta' l-ewwel gwerra | |- |1923 |Monument għal-''Pavlovic Cechov'' |Il-Mużew Nazzjonali ta' l-Arti, Valletta, Malta |- |1923/24 |''Rhythmii Vitae'' (Check Date) |Il-Mużew Nazzjonali ta' l-Arti, Valletta, Malta |- |1924? |Bust Ta' Carmen Sylva |Il-Mużew Nazzjonali ta' l-Arti, Valletta, Malta |- |1926 |Monument ghar-Rebubblika tal Brażil (Check exact name) | |- |1927 |Bust tal-Markisa Godi de Godio |Il-Mużew Nazzjonali ta' l-Arti, Valletta, Malta |- |1927 |Monument ta' l-[[Assedju ta' Malta (1565)|Assedju l-Kbir]] |Valletta, malta |- |1928 |''Anita'' (Anita Garibaldi), Abbozz |Abbozz mitluf. Ritratti tal-abbozz jinsabu fl-''Archivio Storico della Federazione Nazionale Volontari Garibaldini'', Ruma, l'Italja <ref name="fogu">cf. Fogu 1996, pp 317-328 u Noti 21,22.</ref>. |- |1929 |Abbozz ta' Ġeneral Bolivar | |- |1937 |''Speed'' | Il-Mużew Nazzjonali ta' l-Arti, Valletta, Malta (Abbozz) |- |1945 |Monument ta' Lord Gerald Strickland |Il-''Mall'', Furjana, Malta |} <!-- |- | | | --> * XXXX Twaqqif tas-sussidju mill-Gvern ta' Malta * XXXX Jingħata kummissjonijiet barra minn Ruma * XXXX Sciortino jiltaqa' ma' Auguste Rodin * 1929 Sciortino jieħu sehem f'kompetizzjoni internazzjonali f'Pariġi * 1931 Talba ta' tħejjija ta' għoxrin skultura ta' l-arti mill-Kummissjoni Ammerikana ta' l-Arti * 1936 L-Akkademja Brittanika ta' l-Arti ġewwa Ruma tagħlaq * 1947 Jirregala x-xogħlijiet tiegħu lill-poplu Malti == Noti == {{referenzi}} <!--<ref name="mlt">Ħafna bijografiji fuq Sciortino jirreferu għall sorsi mill Ġurnal ''Malta'', li kellu simpatiji kbar lejn l-Italja. Dawn l-artikli, fl-aħjar kas, għandhom bżonn ta' Interpretazzjoni.</ref>. <ref name="bsct">Ta min jinnota li il-Prof. Biscottini hija il persuna li inkoraġġiet lill istudent Malti tal-letteratura [[Carmelo Borġ Pisani]] [[w:en:Carmelo Borg Pisani | article on EN]] biex jiġi imniżżel fuq il-kosta Maltija u jispija għall Italja. Borġ Pisani huwa l-aħħar persuna li ingħatata il-piena tal Mewt f'Malta.</ref> --> == Referenzi == * Busuttil, Claude. (1997). Antonio Sciortino, 1879 - 1947, Europrint, 1997. * Buhagiar, Helene, Antonio Sciortino, Catalogue of an exhibition of Sciortino's works presented to the people of Malta, Valletta 1947. * Cardona, J. The Maltese Sculptor with a world reputation, f'The Sunday Times of Malta, Awissu 17, 1958. * Cox-McCormack, Nancy, Papers 1911-1965, Vol. 2, Memoirs – 1922-1924, location: I-C-5, Microfilm Accession Number: 1235, State of Tennessee Department of State Tennessee State Library and Archives, Nashville, Tennessee 37243-0312. [http://www.state.tn.us/tsla/history/manuscripts/findingaids/246.pdf Indiċi tal-kontenut]. * Cremona, G., Artisti Maltesi a Roma, f' ''Malta'', 25 ta' Settembru, 1936. * Fogu, Claudio, "Fascism and Historic Representation: The 1932 Garibaldian Celebrations", Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 31, No. 2, Special Issue: The Aesthetics of Fascism (Apr., 1996), pp. 317-345, Sage Publications, Ltd., London. [http://www.jstor.org/pss/261169] * Parkes, Kineton, "Sculpture of today", Vol. II. - Continent of Europe, 1921, Chapman and Hall, London. PP 191-192. [http://www.archive.org/stream/sculptureoftoday002267mbp#page/n241/mode/2up Indiċi elettroniku n241-n243]. [http://www.archive.org/details/sculptureoftoday002267mbp Il-ktieb sħiħ bħala fajl PDF]. * Emporium, rivista mensile illustrata d'arte, letteratura, scienze é varieta, Gennaio 1914, direzzione-amministrazione Istituto Italiano d'arti grafiche, Bergamo. == Ħoloq esterni == {{Commonscat}} * http://www.haz-zebbug.com/antonio_sciortino.php * http://www.aboutmalta.com/grazio/sciortino.html * Tlett Ritratti (kwalità dgħajfa ħafna) ta' xogħol ta' Sciortino. http://www.doi.gov.mt/EN/photo_gallery/artssciortino.asp * Akkademja Brittanika ta' l-Arti ([[w:British School at Rome|British School at Rome]]) http://www.bsr.ac.uk/ {{DEFAULTSORT:Sciortino, Antonio}} [[Kategorija:Twieldu fl-1879|Sciortino,Antonio]] [[Kategorija:Mietu fl-1947|Sciortino,Antonio]] [[Kategorija:Skulturi Maltin|Sciortino,Antonio]] iibfl36qazq2p9olpy6y1shq4rnrt3h 0 6560 279092 240003 2022-08-14T18:30:53Z CommonsDelinker 257 [[commons:User:CommonsDelinker/commands|Bot]]: sostituzzjoni tal-istampa minn PC100177.JPG għal Maltese_freshwater_crab_(2007).jpg wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | isem = Il-Qabru | stampa = Maltese freshwater crab (2007).jpg | daqs_stampa = 250px | deskrizzjoni_stampa = Qabru f'nixxiegħa il-[[Baħrija]], [[Malta]] | renju = [[Animalia]] | fajlum = [[Arthropod]]a | klassi = [[Crustacea]] | ordni = [[Decapoda]] | familja = [[Potamidae]] | ġeneru = ''[[Potamon]]'' | speċi = ''[[Potamon fluviatile|P. fluviatile]]'' | sottospeċi = '''''P. f. lanfrancoi''''' | trinominali = ''Potamon fluviatile lanfrancoi'' | awtorità_trinominali = Capolongo & Cilia, 1990 }} Il-'''Qabru''' huwa endemiku għal ċerti postijiet fil-[[Gżejjer Maltin]]. Dan il-granċ huwa rari ħafna u l-popolazzjoni tiegħu qiegħda tinżel minħabba fit-tniġġis tal-ilma, nuqqas ta' ilma fin-nixxiegħa u minħabba il-qbid tiegħu mill-bniedem.<ref name="Wildlife">Wildlife of the Maltese Islands, BirdLife Malta and Nature Trust, 1995</ref> == Karatteristiċi == Il-qabru huwa [[krustaċju]] u għandu kulur griż u aħdar b'xi postijiet bl-isfar u l-oranġjo. == Abitat == Il-Qabru jinstab fejn l-ilma ħelu imma jgħix ukoll ħdejn l-għadajjar u l-fwawar f'postijiet bħall-[[Imtaħleb]], [[Baħrija]] u San Martin f'[[Malta]] u l-[[Lunzjata]] f'[[Għawdex]]. Meta jiġi mhedded, il-Qabru jistaħba taħt il-ġebel, ġo l-ilma, bejn il-pjanti, jew billi jidħol ġol-ħofor li jħaffer fit-tajn jew fit-tafal. Dawn il-ħofor jistgħu jkunu fondi 50ċm. Parti mill-ħofra normalment ikollha xi ftit ilma.<ref name="Wildlife"/> == Ikel == Il-Qabru huwa [[karnivoru]] u jiekol annimali żgħar bħall-[[marżebba]]. Il-Qabru normalment jiekol wara l-għabex.<ref name="Wildlife"/> == Referenzi == <references/> [[Kategorija:Fawna ta' Malta]] [[Kategorija:Potamidae]] fkugvb8mxrl4uy48ic6gy2jn9ze8w5c 0 10903 279096 277428 2022-08-15T05:58:25Z Chrisportelli 355 /* Ħoloq esterni */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox plejer tal-futbol |isem_plejer = Karim Benzema |stampa = [[Stampa:Karim Benzema wearing Real Madrid home kit 2021-2022.jpg|230px]] |isem_sħiħ = Karim Benzema |data_twelid = {{data tat-twelid u età|1987|12|19|df=yes}} |post_twelid = [[Lyon]] |pajjiż_twelid = [[Franza]] |tul = 1.85 m |rwol = [[Attakkant]] |klabb_attwali = [[Real Madrid CF|Real Madrid]] |numru = 9 |snin_mixtla1 = 1995–1997 |klabb_mixtla1 = Bron |snin_mixtla2 = 1996–2005 |klabb_mixtla2 = [[Olympique Lyonnais|Lyon]] |snin1 = 2004–2006 |klabb1 = [[Riservi u Akkademja ta' Olympique Lyonnais|Lyon B]] |snin2 = 2004–2009 |klabb2 = [[Olympique Lyonnais|Lyon]] |snin3 = 2009– |klabb3 = [[Real Madrid CF|Real Madrid]] |snin_nazzjonali1 = 2007– |tim_nazzjonali1 = [[Tim nazzjonali tal-futbol ta' Franza|Franza]] }} '''Karim Benzema''' ([[Lyon]], [[19 ta' Diċembru]] [[1987]]) huwa plejer tal-[[futbol]] [[Franza|Franċiż]] ta' dixxendenza [[Alġerija|Alġerina]] li jilgħab fl-irwol ta' [[attakkant]] ma' [[Real Madrid CF|Real Madrid]]. L-[[Kampjonat tal-futbol Franċiż 2007-08|istaġun 2007–08]], kien l-istaġun li tatu post regulari ma' [[Olympique Lyonnais]], u sar wieħed mill-aqwa attakkanti tal-kampjonat Franċiż, fejn rebaħ l-unur tal-aqwa plejer tal-[[Ligue 1]]. Dawn il-prestazzjonijiet, partikularment fil-[[UEFA Champions League]], attiraw l-attenzjoni tal-ikbar klabbs [[Ewropa|Ewropej]]. Fl-2007 intgħażel għall-ewwel darba mat-[[Tim nazzjonali tal-futbol ta' Franza|tim nazzjonali Franċiż tal-kbar]], u fis-sena ta' wara kien parti mill-iskwadra magħżula għall-[[Kampjonati Ewropej tal-Futbol 2008|Kampjonati Ewropej]]. == Karriera == === L-ewwel passi === Imwieled minn ġenituri [[Alġerija|Alġerini]] fis-subborgi ta' [[Lyon]], Karim Benzema beda l-ewwel passi tal-futbol ma' klabb fi [[Bron]], SC Bron Terraillon. F'età ta' disa' snin, wara partita bejn it-tim tiegħu u l-ġovanili ta' [[Olympique Lyonnais]], ingħata kuntratt mat-tim ta' Lyon u beda jitħarreġ mat-tim ġovanili, fil-Kulleġġ Saint-Louis St. Bruno. Benzema, li jieħu bħala mudell lill-attakant Brażiljan [[Ronaldo]],<ref>{{Ċita web|url=http://www.lepoint.fr/actualites-societe/benzema-le-phenomene-qui-reveille-le-foot/920/0/222742 |titlu=Benzema, le phénomène qui réveille le foot |pubblikatur=Le Point |data=2008-02-07 |lingwa=Franċiż |data-aċċess=2008-09-18 }}</ref> wera l-potenzjal tiegħu meta skorja 98 gowl għat-tim ta' taħt is-sittax-il sena ta' OL. === Passaġġ għall-OL === Matul l-[[Kampjonat tal-futbol Franċiż 2004-05|istaġun 2004–05]], Karim Benzema stabilixxa ruħu mat-tim ta' taħt it-tmintax-il sena ta' Olympique Lyon, fejn skorja tnax-il gowl f'erbatax-il partita. Billi kien jidher li kien se jkun talent promettenti, ġie integrat fil-grupp professjonistiku u lagħab sitt partiti fil-[[Ligue 1]]. Il-kowċ [[Paul Le Guen]] lagħbu għall-ewwel darba f'Jannar tal-2005 kontra [[FC Metz]]. Fid-debutt mal-ewwel ħalla impressjoni hekk kif kien hu li ta l-passaġġ għall-gowl deċisiv tal-konfront, skurjat minn [[Bryan Bergougnoux]]. Suċċessivament, hu iffirma l-ewwel kuntratt professjonistiku li kien se jżommu għal perjodu ta' tliet snin.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=http://www.lequipe.fr/Football/20050120_114305Dev.html |titlu=Benzema va signer pro |pubblikatur=L'Équipe |data=2005-01-20 |lingwa=Franċiż |data-aċċess=2008-09-19 }}</ref>. Fl-[[Kampjonat tal-futbol Franċiż 2005-06|istaġun 2005–06]], Benzema kompla jikber permezz tal-kompetizzjoni taċ-[[UEFA Champions League|Champions League]]. Fis-sitt u l-aħħar ġurnata mill-fażi tal-gruppi, il-kowċ [[Gérard Houllier]] ikkonferma bħala titulari ż-żgħażagħ [[Jeremy Clement]], [[Hatem Ben Arfa]] u Karim Benzema. Dan tal-aħħar skorja l-ewwel gowl f'partita uffiċjali. Fil-kampjonat hu lagħab tlettax-il partita, fejn erbgħa minnhom lagħab mal-ewwel ħdax; l-ewwel gowl tiegħu wasal kontra [[AC Ajaccio]] fid-29 ġurnata tal-kampjonat. Fl-aħħar tal-istaġun Benzema stqarr li jrid jistabilixxi ruħu ma' dan il-klabb Franċiż, "wieħed mill-aqwa timijiet fl-Ewropa". Hu estenda l-kuntratt sal-2010.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=http://www.lequipe.fr/Football/20060530_092608Dev.html |titlu=Benzema prolonge à l'OL |pubblikatur=L'Équipe |data=2006-05-30 |lingwa=Franċiż }}</ref>. Lyon bdew l-[[Kampjonat tal-futbol Franċiż 2006-07|istaġun 2006–07]] b'rebħa fit-[[Trophée des Champions]]. Minn taħt kontra [[Paris Saint-Germain]] u b'diversi plejers nieqsa li kienu għadhom kif irritornaw mill-impenn tat-[[Tazza tad-Dinja tal-Futbol 2006|Tazza tad-Dinja 2006]], Lyon kisbu l-pari permezz ta' [[penalty]] ta' Benzema, qabel ma rebħu l-konfront permezz tal-[[għoti tal-penalties]]. Benzema bil-mod il-mod sab postu fost skwadra sinjura fl-attakk, bi plejers bħal [[Sylvain Wiltord]] u [[Sidney Govou]] fuq il-ġwienaħ, u l-attakkanti [[Frederico Chaves Guedes|Fred]] u [[John Carew]], flimkien mal-akkwist suċċessiv ta' [[Milan Baroš]]. F'[[Ottubru]], matul l-għaxar ġurnata tal-kampjonat, Benzema issostitwixxa lil Fred minħabba li dan tal-aħħar sofra minn uġigħ, u kien hu li ta l-vantaġġ lil OL fi [[Stade Velodrome]]. Minħabba li kien weġġa' koxxtu, hu ma setax jonora l-ewwel apparenza mat-[[Tim nazzjonali tal-futbol ta' Franza|tim nazzjoni Franċiż]], u kellu jkun barra mil-logħob għal xi ġimgħat f'Jannar 2007. Matul l-istaġun hu lagħab 21 partita u skorja 5 gowls. Fiċ-[[UEFA Champions League|Champions League]] hu lagħab kontra [[FC Steaua Bucureşti|Steaua Bucharest]] u [[FC Dynamo Kyiv|Dynamo Kiev]]. Il-gowl kontra dan tal-aħħar ta r-rebħa u l-kwalifikazzjoni għar-rawnd suċċessiv. Fil-bidu tal-[[Kampjonat tal-futbol Franċiż 2007-08|istaġun 2007–08]], Lyon ħabbru li Benzema estenda l-kuntratt sal-2012. Il-forma tajba tiegħu waslitu biex isir plejer titulari u skorja l-ewwel [[tripletta]] tal-karriera tiegħu kontra [[FC Metz]]. It-talent tiegħu, li deher l-aktar fil-kompetizzjoni Ewropea, wassal għall-interess minn klabbs kbar madwar l-[[Ewropa]]. Fost dawn, l-istampa ħabbret l-interess ta' [[Alex Ferguson]], kowċ tar-''"[[Manchester United FC|Red Devils]]"'', u anki ta' [[Adriano Galliani]], viċi-president ta' [[AC Milan]].<ref>{{Ċita web|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/sport/football/european_football/article3423372.ece |titlu=Lyons face battle to keep Karim Benzema |pubblikatur=The Sunday Times |data-aċċess=2008-02-24 |data=2006-05-30 |lingwa=Ingliż}}</ref> Fl-aħħar tal-istaġun, Benzema spiċċa l-aqwa skorer tal-[[Ligue 1|kampjonat]] meta skorja 20 gowl, u rreġistra 6 gowls fit-[[Tazza ta' Franza]], gowl fit-[[Tazza tal-Lega Franċiża]] u erba' gowls fiċ-Champions League. Benzema, skont votazzjoni organizzata minn [[France Football]] biex jonoraw il-Plejer Franċiż tas-Sena, spiċċa fit-tielet post wara [[Franck Ribéry]] u [[Thierry Henry]]. Il-prestazzjonijiet tiegħu xorta waħda ġew rikonoxxuti mill-[[Unjoni nazzjonali tal-futbolers professjonali|UNFP]] li tatu t-trofew tal-aqwa plejer tal-Ligue 1. Minkejja rikjesti minn klabbs barranin, l-attakkant iffirma f'Marzu 2008 estinzjoni tal-kuntratt ma' Olympique Lyonnais. Dan il-kuntratt se jżommu mal-klabb sal-2013 b'għażla li jestendi b'sena oħra l-kuntratt.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=http://www.sportinglife.com/football/news/story_get.cgi?STORY_NAME=international_feed/08/03/13/SOCCER_Fra-Lyon_Benzema.html |titlu=BENZEMA EXTENDS LYON CONTRACT |data=2008-07-25 |data-aċċess=2008-09-22 |sit=Sportinglife.com |lingwa=Ingliż }}</ref> Wara li ffirma l-kuntratt, Benzema sar fost l-iktar plejers imħallsa fi Franza b'salarju ta' madwar [[Ewro|€]]300,000 fix-xahar.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=http://en.afrik.com/article12840.html |titlu=Benzema becomes one of the highest paid footballers in France |lingwa=Ingliż |sit=Afrik.com |data=2008-03-14 }}</ref> Hu beda l-[[Kampjonat tal-futbol Franċiż 2008-09|istaġun 2008–09]] fuq prestazzjoni pożittiva hekk kif fl-ewwel ġurnata tal-kampjonat kontra [[Toulouse FC|Toulouse]] hu skorja doppjetta. F'dan l-istaġun hu skorja 12-il f'25 partita imma jinsab biss fit-tielet post tal-klassifika tal-aqwa skorers tal-kampjonat fl-ewwel nofs tal-istaġun. Ftit qabel it-tmiem tal-istaġun, Karim Benzema ħabbar li kien se jibqa' ma' Lyon għal staġun ieħor minkejja l-eliminazzjoni ta' OL fl-ewwel rawnd eliminatorju kontra [[FC Barcelona|Barcelona]], fejn il-plejer Franċiż irnexxielu jsib ix-xibka għal ħames darbiet f'din il-kompetizzjoni. === Real Madrid === Nhar l-1 ta' Lulju 2009, ġie mħabbar li Lyon qablu mal-klabb Spanjol ta' Real Madrid għat-trasferiment ta' Benzema. It-trasferiment sewa €35 miljun bis-somma titla' għal €41 miljun skont l-inċentivi.<ref>{{ċita aħbar |titlu=Transfert de Karim Benzema au Real Madrid |url=http://www.olweb.fr/fr/Accueil/100007/Article/50470/Transfert-de-Karim-Benzema-au-Real-Madrid |pubblikatur=Olympique Lyonnais |data=2009-07-01 |lingwa=Ingliż}}</ref> Wara t-testijiet mediċi, hu iffirma kuntratt ta' sitt snin. Id-debutt uffiċjali mal-klabb Madrilen wasal fid-29 ta' Awwissu 2009 kontra [[Deportivo de La Coruña]], waqt li l-ewwel gowl wasal kontra t-tim promoss ta' [[Xerez CD|Xerez]] fl-20 ta' Settembru 2009. == Internazzjonali == Benzema, wara esperjenza miksuba fit-timijiet ta' taħt is-sbatax u l-għoxrin sena ta' Franza, ingħata d-debutt tiegħu mat-[[Tim nazzjonali tal-futbol ta' Franza|tim tal-kbar]] kontra l-[[Tim nazzjonali tal-futbol tal-Awstrija|Awstrija]] fit-28 ta' Marzu 2007, fejn skorja l-unika gowl tal-konfront. Iż-żewġ gowls segwenti waslu f'partita waħda kontra l-[[Tim nazzjonali tal-futbol tal-Gżejjer Faroe|Gżejjer Faroe]], fejn Franza sussegwentament rebħu 6–0. Hu kien fost it-23 plejer magħżulin mat-tim biex jipparteċipaw fil-[[Kampjonati Ewropej tal-Futbol 2008|Kampjonati Ewropej 2008]]. Il-kampanja tal-Euro 2008 ta' Franza bdiet b'bidu ħażin hekk kif spiċċaw pari ta' 0–0 kontra r-[[Tim nazzjonali tal-futbol tar-Rumanija|Rumanija]] u wara prestazzjoni deludenti, hu kien sostitwit fit-tieni taqsima u ma ħax sehem fil-partita segwenti, telfa ta' 4–1 kontra l-[[Tim nazzjonali tal-futbol tal-Olanda|Olanda]]. Fl-aħħar logħba mill-fażi tal-gruppi Franza lagħbu kontra l-[[Tim nazzjonali tal-futbol tal-Italja|Italja]] u Benzema beda mill-bidu u lagħab id-disgħin minuta. == Statistika tal-karriera == {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |- !rowspan="2"|Klabb !rowspan="2"|Staġun !colspan="3"|Kampjonat !colspan="3"|Tazza !colspan="3"|[[UEFA#Club|Ewropa]] !colspan="3"|Total |- !Preż !Gowls !Assisti !Preż !Gowls !Assisti !Preż !Gowls !Assisti !Preż !Gowls !Assisti |- |rowspan="6"|[[Olympique Lyonnais|Lyon]] |[[Kampjonat tal-futbol Franċiż 2004–05|2004–05]] |6||0||1||0||0||0||0||0||0||6||0||1 |- |[[Kampjonat tal-futbol Franċiż 2005–06|2005–06]] |13||1||1||2||2||1||1||1||0||16||4||2 |- |[[Kampjonat tal-futbol Franċiż 2006–07|2006–07]] |21||5||2||3||1||0||3||2||0||27||9||2 |- |[[Kampjonat tal-futbol Franċiż 2007–08|2007–08]] |36||20||7||9||7||1||7||4||2||52||31||10 |- |[[Kampjonat tal-futbol Franċiż 2008–09|2008–09]] |36||17||2||3||1||0||8||5||1||47||23||3 |- !Total !112!!43!!13!!17!!11!!2!!19!!12!!3!!148!!67!!18 |- |rowspan="5"|[[Real Madrid C.F.|Real Madrid]] |[[La Liga 2009–10|2009–10]] |27||8||3||1||0||0||5||1||1||33||9||4 |- |[[La Liga 2010–11|2010–11]] |33||15||6||7||5||2||8||6||1||48||26||9 |- |[[La Liga 2011–12|2011–12]] |34||21||7||5||3||1||11||7||5||52||32||15 |- |[[La Liga 2012–13|2012–13]] |20||7||6||7||4||3||6||3||3||35||14||12 |- !Total !114!!51!!22!!20!!12!!8!!30!!17!!10!!168!!81!!40 |- !colspan="2"|Karriera totali !226!!94!!35!!37!!23!!10!!49!!29!!13!!316!!148!!58 |} <small>Korretti sas-2 ta' Marzu 2013.<ref>[http://soccernet.espn.go.com/players/stats?id=46858&cc=5739 Statistika ta' Benzema]</ref></small> == Unuri == === Klabb === {{flagicon|Franza}} '''Olympique Lyonnais''' * [[Ligue 1]]: 2004–05, 2005–06, 2006–07, 2007–08 * [[Trophée des Champions]]: 2006, 2007 * [[Tazza tal-Paċi]]: 2007 * [[Coupe de France]]: 2008 === Individwali === * L-Aqwa Skorer tal-[[Ligue 1]]: 2007–08 * Plejer tas-Sena tal-[[Ligue 1]]: 2007–08 * Tim tas-Sena tal-[[Ligue 1]]: 2007–08 == Referenzi == {{referenzi}} == Ħoloq esterni == * {{fr}} {{Sit uffiċjali}} * {{lfpfr}} * {{Nfteams}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Benzema, Karim}} [[Kategorija:Nies ħajjin]] [[Kategorija:Twieldu fl-1987]] [[Kategorija:Futbolers Franċiżi]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' Olympique Lyonnais]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' Real Madrid CF]] [[Kategorija:Plejers tal-Ligue 1]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' La Liga]] cmr25y18lhi87y6nvjqoqu0qs9pgi1h 0 11490 279094 271327 2022-08-15T05:57:10Z Chrisportelli 355 aġġornament wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox plejer tal-futbol |isem_plejer = Wayne Rooney |stampa = [[Stampa:Wayne Rooney (50121725757).jpg|220px]] |isem_sħiħ = Wayne Mark Rooney |data_twelid = {{data tat-twelid u età|1985|10|24}} |post_twelid = [[Liverpool]] |pajjiż_twelid = Ingilterra |tul = 1.76 m |rwol = [[Attakkant]], [[midfilder]] |klabb_attwali = [[DC United]] (kowċ) |numru = |snin_mixtla1 = |klabb_mixtla1 = Liverpool Schoolboys |snin_mixtla2 = |klabb_mixtla2 = Copplehouse Boys |snin_mixtla3 = 1996–2002 |klabb_mixtla3 = [[Everton FC|Everton]] |snin1 = 2002–2004 |klabb1 = [[Everton FC|Everton]] |snin2 = 2004–2017 |klabb2 = [[Manchester United FC|Manchester United]] |snin3 = 2017–2018 |klabb3 = [[Everton FC|Everton]] |snin4 = 2018–2020 |klabb4 = [[DC United]] |snin5 = 2020–2021 |klabb5 = [[Derby County FC|Derby County]] |snin_nazzjonali1 = 2003–2018 |tim_nazzjonali1 = [[Tim nazzjonali tal-futbol tal-Ingilterra|Ingilterra]] |snin_kowċ1 = 2020–2022 |klabb_kowċ1 = [[Derby County FC|Derby County]]]] |snin_kowċ2 = 2022– |klabb_kowċ2 = [[DC United]] }} '''Wayne Rooney''' (twieled fl-24 ta' Ottubru 1985) huwa eks-plejer u kowċ tal-[[futbol]] [[Ingilterra|Ingliż]] li bħalissa jinsab imexxi lit-tim ta' [[DC United]]. == Bijografija == Rooney hu l-ewwel wild ta' Thomas Wayne u Jeanette Marie Rooney (née Morrey). Hu trabba fi Croxteth flimkien ma' ħutu iżgħar minnu, Graeme u John, u t-tliet li huma kienu jattendu fl-Iskola De La Salle. Wayne trabba jagħti s-sosten tiegħu lill-klabb ta' [[Everton FC]], u l-aktar player li kien jammira kien [[Duncan Ferguson]].<ref>{{Ċita web |data=2008-06-13 |url=http://fourfourtwo.com/interviews/webexclusives/105/article.aspx |titlu= Wayne Rooney Interview |pubblikatur=FourFourTwo |data-aċċess=2008-12-15 |lingwa=Ingliż}}</ref> == Karriera == === Everton === Everton kisbu lil Wayne Rooney fl-età ta' għaxar snin, wara li kien impressjona ma' Liverpool Schoolboys u Dynamo Brownwings. Fid-19 ta' Ottubru 2002, ħamest ijiem wara għeluq is-sbatax-il sena, Rooney skorja l-gowl tar-rebħa kontra ċ-ċampjins renjanti [[Arsenal FC|Arsenal]]; barra milli din ir-rebħa għal Everton wasslet it-tmiem għat-tletin partita mingħajr telfa li kienu qed iżommu l-''Gunners'', Rooney sar l-iżgħar plejer li skorja fl-istorja tal-[[Premier League]], rekord li ġie megħlub darbtejn s'issa minn [[James Milner]] u minn [[James Vaughan]]. Fi tmiem l-istaġun 2003–04, Rooney, li kien stqarr l-inabilità ta' Everton biex jisfidaw għal post fl-[[UEFA|Ewropa]], għamel rikjesta ta' trasferiment li Everton irrifjutawha jekk is-somma kellha tkun inqas minn [[lira sterlina|£]]50 miljun. F'Awwissu 2004, l-aġent ta' Rooney irrifjuta kuntratt ta' tliet snin bi £12,000 kull ġimgħa li kien offrielu l-klabb, biex b'hekk ħalla lil [[Manchester United FC|Manchester United]] u [[Newcastle United FC|Newcastle United]] jikkompetu għall-firma tiegħu. ''[[The Times]]'' irrapurtat li Newcastle kienu qrib l-akkwist ta' Rooney, kif kien ikkonfermat stess mill-aġent ta' Rooney, però Manchester United irnexxielhom fl-aħħar tax-xahar jiksbu l-firma tal-plejer għal somma ta' £31 miljun.<ref>{{Ċita web |data=2005-10-11 |url=http://dps.twiihosting.net/manutd/doc/content/doc_10_139.pdf |titlu=Manchester United plc Report & Accounts 2005 |pubblikatur=Manchester United plc |data-aċċess=2008-12-17 |format=PDF |lingwa=Ingliż}}</ref> Dan it-trasferiment immarka l-iktar trasferiment għoli għal żagħżugħ, hekk kif Rooney kien għadu xi ġimgħat 'il bogħod milli jagħlaq id-dsatax-il sena meta sar it-trasferiment. === Manchester United === Rooney għamel id-debutt ma' United fit-28 ta' Settembru 2004 f'rebħa ta' 6–2 fil-fażi tal-gruppi tal-[[UEFA Champions League]] kontra [[Fenerbahçe SK]], fejn skorja [[tripletta]] u pprovda assist.<ref>{{Ċita aħbar |data=2004-09-28 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/europe/3677174.stm |titlu=Rooney's debut hat-trick against Fenerbahçe |pubblikatur=BBC Sport |data-aċċess=2007-05-11 |lingwa=Ingliż}}</ref> Sena wara, hu ġie mkeċċi fil-pari ta' mingħajr gowls fil-partita taċ-Champions League kontra [[Villarreal CF]] fi [[Spanja]] nhar l-14 ta' Settembru 2005, wara li sarkastikament applawda lir-referi Kim Milton Nielsen.<ref>{{ċita aħbar |data=2005-09-14 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/europe/4234188.stm |titlu=Villarreal 0-0 Man Utd |pubblikatur=BBC Sport |data-aċċess=2006-06-18 |lingwa=Ingliż}}</ref> L-ewwel trofew ma' united wasal fil-[[Football League Cup|League Cup]] 2006, u hu ġie msemmi wkoll bħala l-plejer tal-partita wara li skorja darbtejn fir-rebħa ta' 4-0 fuq [[Wigan Athletic FC|Wigan Athetlic]]. Rooney ġie mkeċċi fil-partita tat-[[Turnew ta' Amsterdam]] kontra [[FC Porto]] fl-4 ta' Awwissu 2006 wara li laqat lid-[[difensur]] ta' Porto [[Képler Laveran Lima Ferreira|Pepe]] bil-minkeb. Hu ġie sospiż għal tliet partiti mill-[[Federazzjoni tal-futbol tal-Ingilterra|FA Ingliża]] wara rapport ta' 23 paġna mir-referi Ruud Bossen li spjega d-deċiżjoni tiegħu.<ref>{{ċita aħbar |data=2006-08-15 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/m/man_utd/4796139.stm |titlu=Rooney & Scholes lose ban appeals|pubblikatur=BBC Sport |data-aċċess=2006-11-17 |lingwa=Ingliż}}</ref> Rooney kiteb ittra ta' protesta lill-FA, fejn stqarr fuq in-nuqqas ta' kastig li ngħata lejn plejers oħra li ġew imkeċċija fil-logħob ta' ħbiberija. Matul l-ewwel nofs tal-[[Premier League 2006–07|istaġun 2006–07]], Rooney temm sensiela ta' għaxar partiti mingħajr gowl meta skorja tripletta kontra [[Bolton Wanderers FC|Bolton Wanderers]], u x-xahar ta' wara iffirma estenzjoni tal-kuntratt għal sentejn oħrajn li b'hekk se jżommu ma' United sal-2012. Sa tmiem April, b'kombinazzjoni ta' żewġ gowls fl-iskor aggregat ta' 8–3 fil-kwarti tal-finali kontra [[AS Roma]]<ref>{{ċita aħbar |data=2007-04-10 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/europe/6534975.stm |titlu=Man Utd 7-1 Roma (agg 8-3) |pubblikatur=BBC Sport |lingwa=Ingliż}}</ref> u tnejn oħra fir-rebħa fl-ewwel leg ta' 3–2 fis-semifinali kontra [[AC Milan]],<ref>{{ċita aħbar |titlu=Man Utd 3-2 AC Milan |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/europe/6582631.stm |pubblikatur=BBC Sport |data=2007-04-24 |data-aċċess=2008-06-07 |lingwa=Ingliż}}</ref> wassal in-numru ta' gowls ta' Rooney f'kull kompetizzjoni. United ħabbru qabel il-bidu tal-istaġun li Rooney kien se jieħu l-flokk numru 10 li kien vakant wara li [[Ruud van Nistlerooy]] kien telaq għal [[Real Madrid]] sena qabel. Hu ġie ppreżentat bil-flokk f'konferenza stampa fit-28 ta' Ġunju 2007 mill-attaknt veteran ta' United [[Denis Law]], li kien libes dan il-flokk matul iż-żmien mal-klabb.<ref>{{Ċita aħbar |titlu=Rooney delighted with new number |url=http://www.manutd.com/default.sps?pagegid={B4CEE8FA-9A47-47BC-B069-3F7A2F35DB70}&newsid=440380 |pubblikatur=Manchester United FC |data=2007-06-30 |data-aċċess=2007-06-30 |lingwa=Ingliż}}</ref> [[Stampa:Wayne Rooney (Broken Foot).JPG|225px|thumb|left|Rooney jiġi assistit wara li kiser siequ]] Fit-12 ta' Awwissu 2007, Rooney kiser il-[[metatarsu]] xellugi fil-partita tal-ftuħ tal-kampjonat il-ġdid kontra [[Reading FC|Reading]]. Wara li dam għal sitt ġimgħat barra mil-logħob, hu rritorna għar-rebħa ta' United fil-[[UEFA Champions League]] kontra [[AS Roma|Roma]] fit-2 ta' Ottubru, fejn kien hu li skorja l-unika gowl tal-partita. Madanakollu, madwar biss xahar mir-ritorn tiegħu, Rooney weġġa' l-irkoppa matul sessjoni ta' taħriġ fid-9 ta' Novembru, u tilef ġimgħatejn oħra. Ir-ritorn lura wasal fit-3 ta' Diċembru kontra [[Fulham FC|Fulham]], fejn lagħab sebħgin minuta. Rooney tilef total ta' għaxar partiti u temm l-[[Premier League 2007–08|istaġun 2007-08]] bi tmintax-il gowl, hekk kif United kisbu kemm il-Premiership u anki ċ-Champions League. Rooney skorja tliet gowls fil-kampanja rebbieħa ta' United tat-[[Tazza tad-Dinja tal-Futbol tal-Klabbs 2008|Tazza tad-Dinja tal-Klabbs 2008]], fejn mhux biss spiċċa bħala l-aqwa skorer tat-tornew imma wkoll ingħata l-unur tal-Ballun tad-Deheb bħala l-aqwa plejer matul it-tornew. Nhar l-14 ta' Jannar 2009, wara li skorja l-gowl rebbieħ wara biss 54 sekonda tal-partita kontra [[Wigan Athletic FC|Wigan Athletic]], ħareġ barra imweġġa wara tmien minuti. Wara madwar erba' ġimgħat barra, Rooney irritorna għal-logħob fil-partita kontra [[Fulham FC|Fulham]], fejn daħal bħala sostitut għal [[Dimitar Berbatov|Berbatov]] fejn skorja t-tielet u l-aħħar gowl tal-konfront fir-rebħa ta' 3–0. Rooney spiċċa l-istaġun b'20 gowl f'kull kompetizzjoni, tnax-il minnhom fil-kamjonat. L-[[Premier League 2009–10|istaġun 2009–10]] bdieh b'gowl fid-90 minuta fil-[[FA Community Shield|Community Shield]] li ġab l-iskor ta' 1–1, minkejja li Chelsea ħarġu rebbieħa bil-penalties. == Internazzjonali == [[Stampa:Wayne Rooney.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Wayne Rooney bil-flokk tat-[[tim nazzjonali tal-futbol tal-Ingilterra|tim nazzjonali Ingliż]]]] Rooney sar l-iżgħar plejer li qatt lagħab għall-[[tim nazzjonali tal-futbol tal-Ingilterra|Ingilterra]] meta għamel l-ewwel apparenza f'logħba ta' ħbiberija kontra l-[[tim nazzjonali tal-futbol tal-Awstralja|Awstralja]] fit-12 ta' Frar 2003 fl-età ta' sbatax-il sena, l-istess età fejn sar l-iżgħar plejer li qatt skorja gowl għas-selezzjoni Ingliża. Iż-żagżugħ ta' [[Arsenal FC|Arsenal]] [[Theo Walcott]] kiser ir-rekord tal-apparenza ta' Rooney b'36 ġurnata f'Ġunju 2006. L-ewwel tornew li ħa sehem fih kien l-[[Kampjonati Ewropej tal-Futbol 2004|Euro 2004]], fejn sar l-iżgħar plejer li skorja fl-istorja ta' din il-kompetizzjoni meta skorja doppjetta kontra l-[[Tim nazzjonali tal-futbol tal-Iżvizzera|Iżvizzera]] fis-17 ta' Ġunju 2004; madanakollu, dan ir-rekord inkiser biss erbat ijiem wara grazzi għall-[[Żvizzera|Iżvizzeru]] [[Johan Vonlanthen]]. Rooney weġġa' fil-kwarti tal-finali kontra l-[[Tim nazzjonali tal-futbol tal-Portugall|Portugall]] hekk kif l-Ingilterra ġew eliminati bl-[[għoti tal-penalties]]. Wara li weġġa' saqajh f'partita tal-[[Premier League]] f'April 2006, Rooney kien jinsab fi sfida biex ikun b'saħħtu biex jilgħab fit-[[Tazza tad-Dinja tal-Futbol 2006|Tazza tad-Dinja 2006]]. Rooney irnexxielu jkun preżenti fil-partita kontra t-[[Tim nazzjonali tal-futbol tat-Trinidad u Tobago|Trinidad u Tobago]] u dik segwenti kontra l-[[Tim nazzjonali tal-futbol tal-Iżvezja|Iżvezja]]. Madanakollu, ma rnexxielhux iħalli l-marka bħalma ħalla fit-tornew preċedenti hekk kif ma skorja l-ebda gowl, waqt li l-Ingilterra spiċċaw barra mill-kompetizzjoni, għal darb'oħra minħabba l-għoti tal-penalties. Rooney, fl-aħħar partita tal-kampanja Ingliża fit-Tazza tad-Dinja 2006 kontra l-[[Tim nazzjonali tal-futbol tal-Portugall|Portugall]] spiċċa mkeċċi wara 62 minuta logħob wara li tela' fuq id-difensur [[Portugall|Portugiż]] [[Ricardo Carvalho]], hekk kif it-tnejn kienu qed jiġġieldu għall-possessjoni tal-ballun. Din ġabet kontroversja sħiħa minħabba l-involviment ta' sieħbu fit-tim ta' United [[Cristiano Ronaldo]] li pprotesta bil-miftuħ, waqt li r-referi [[Horacio Elizondo]] innega li kien influwenzat mill-atteġġjament ta' Ronaldo. == Ħajja personali == Rooney iltaqa' ma' martu, [[Coleen Rooney]] (née McLoughlin), waqt li t-tnejn li huma kienu fl-aħħar sena ta' skola sekondarja. Huma żżewġu fit-12 ta' Ġunju 2008 wara sitt snin għerusija, li matulhom Rooney ammetta li kien sfrutta l-[[prostituzzjoni]] f'[[Liverpool]] fl-2004.<ref>{{Ċita web| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/merseyside/3588112.stm| titlu=Rooney admits prostitute visits| pubblikatur=BBC| data=2004-08-22| data-aċċess =2008-09-08 |lingwa=Ingliż}}</ref> Hu għandu tattoo bil-kliem "Just Enough Education To Perform", minn titlu ta' album tal-grupp favorit tiegħu, [[Stereophonics]], li daqqew ukoll matul ir-riċeviment tat-tieġ. Il-familja Rooney tgħix f'villa fir-raħal ta' [[Prestbury (Cheshire)|Prestbury]] li tiswa' £4.25 miljun, li nbniet minn kumpanija posseduta minn Dawn Ward, il-mara tal-attakant veteran ta' [[Sheffield United FC|Sheffield United]] [[Ashley Ward]]. == Statistika == ''Statistika korretta sal-5 ta' Novembru 2017''<ref>{{ċita web |url=http://www.stretfordend.co.uk/playermenu/rooney.html |titlu=Wayne Rooney |data-aċċess=2009-03-07 |isem=Andrew |kunjom=Endlar |sit=StretfordEnd.co.uk |lingwa=Ingliż}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |- !rowspan="2"|Klabb !rowspan="2"|Staġun !colspan="2"|Kampjonat !colspan="2"|Tazza !colspan="2"|League Cup !colspan="2"|Kontinentali !colspan="2"|Oħrajn !colspan="2"|Total |- !Preż!!Gowls!!Preż!!Gowls!!Preż!!Gowls!!Preż!!Gowls!!Preż!!Gowls!!Preż!!Gowls |- |rowspan="3"|[[Everton FC|Everton]] |[[Premier League 2002–03|2002–03]] |33||6||1||0||3||2||colspan="2"|–||0||0||37||8 |- |[[Premier League 2003–04|2003–04]] |34||9||3||0||3||0||colspan="2"|–||0||0||40||9 |- !Total !67!!15!!4!!0!!6!!2!!colspan="2"|–!!0!!0!!77!!17 |- |rowspan="14"|[[Manchester United FC|Manchester United]] |[[Premier League 2004–05|2004–05]] |29||11||6||3||2||0||6||3||0||0||43||17 |- |[[Premier League 2005–06|2005–06]] |36||16||3||0||4||2||5||1||0||0||48||19 |- |[[Premier League 2006–07|2006–07]] |35||14||7||5||1||0||12||4||0||0||55||23 |- |[[Premier League 2007–08|2007–08]] |27||12||4||2||0||0||11||4||1||0||43||18 |- |[[Premier League 2008–09|2008–09]] |30||12||2||1||1||0||13||4||3||3||49||20 |- |[[Premier League 2009–10|2009–10]] |32||26||1||0||3||2||7||5||1||1||44||34 |- |[[Premier League 2010–11|2010–11]] |28||11||2||1||0||0||9||4||1||0||40||16 |- |[[Premier League 2011–12|2011–12]] |34||27||1||2||0||0||7||5||1||0||44||34 |- |[[Premier League 2012–13|2012–13]] |27||12||3||3||1||0||6||1||colspan="2"|–||37||16 |- |[[Premier League 2013–14|2013–14]] |29||17||0||0||2||0||9||2||0||0||40||19 |- |[[Premier League 2014–15|2014–15]] |33||12||4||2||0||0||colspan="2"|–||colspan="2"|–||37||14 |- |[[Premier League 2015–16|2015–16]] |28||8||5||2||2||1||6||4||colspan="2"|–||41||15 |- |[[Premier League 2016–17|2016–17]] |25||5||2||1||4||0||7||2||1||0||39||8 |- !Total!!393!!183!!40!!22!!20!!5!!98!!39!!8!!4!!559!!253 |- |[[Everton FC|Everton]] |[[Premier League 2017–18|2017–18]] |11||4||0||0||1||0||6||1||colspan="2"|–||18||5 |- !colspan=2|Total fil-karriera !471!!202!!44!!22!!27!!7!!104!!40!!8!!4!!654!!275 |} == Unuri == === Klabb === ;Manchester United * [[Premier League]]: 2006–07, 2007–08, 2008–09, 2010–11, 2012–13 * [[FA Cup]]: 2015–16 * [[Football League Cup]]: 2005–06, 2009–10, 2016–17 * [[Community Shield]]: 2007, 2007, 2010, 2011, 2016 * [[UEFA Champions League]]: 2007–08 * [[UEFA Europa League]]: 2016–17 * [[Tazza tad-Dinja tal-Futbol tal-Klabbs]]: 2008 === Individwali === * [[Plejer Żagħżugħ tas-Sena tal-FIFPro]]: 2004–05 * [[Trofew Bravo]]: 2003 * Tim tat-Turnew [[Kampjonat Ewropej tal-Futbol 2004|Kampjonati Ewropej 2004]] * [[Plejer tas-Sena tal-PFA]]: 2009–10 * [[Plejer Żagħżugħ tas-Sena tal-PFA]]: 2004–05, 2005–06 * [[FIFPro World XI|FIFA/FIFPro World XI]]: 2011 == Referenzi == {{referenzi}} == Ħoloq esterni == {{commonscat}} {{wikiquote|Wayne Rooney}} * [https://www.officialwaynerooney.com/ Sit uffiċjali] * {{soccerbase}} * [https://www.manutd.com/en/players-and-staff/detail/wayne-rooney Profil] fuq is-sit uffiċjali ta' Manchester United {{DEFAULTSORT:Rooney, Wayne}} [[Kategorija:Nies ħajjin]] [[Kategorija:Twieldu fl-1985]] [[Kategorija:Futbolers Ingliżi]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' Everton FC]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' Manchester United FC]] tcdfd0gm2dp5ktdm5w7n4uh5cfomdmy 279095 279094 2022-08-15T05:57:28Z Chrisportelli 355 tiswija wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox plejer tal-futbol |isem_plejer = Wayne Rooney |stampa = [[Stampa:Wayne Rooney (50121725757).jpg|220px]] |isem_sħiħ = Wayne Mark Rooney |data_twelid = {{data tat-twelid u età|1985|10|24}} |post_twelid = [[Liverpool]] |pajjiż_twelid = Ingilterra |tul = 1.76 m |rwol = [[Attakkant]], [[midfilder]] |klabb_attwali = [[DC United]] (kowċ) |numru = |snin_mixtla1 = |klabb_mixtla1 = Liverpool Schoolboys |snin_mixtla2 = |klabb_mixtla2 = Copplehouse Boys |snin_mixtla3 = 1996–2002 |klabb_mixtla3 = [[Everton FC|Everton]] |snin1 = 2002–2004 |klabb1 = [[Everton FC|Everton]] |snin2 = 2004–2017 |klabb2 = [[Manchester United FC|Manchester United]] |snin3 = 2017–2018 |klabb3 = [[Everton FC|Everton]] |snin4 = 2018–2020 |klabb4 = [[DC United]] |snin5 = 2020–2021 |klabb5 = [[Derby County FC|Derby County]] |snin_nazzjonali1 = 2003–2018 |tim_nazzjonali1 = [[Tim nazzjonali tal-futbol tal-Ingilterra|Ingilterra]] |snin_kowċ1 = 2020–2022 |klabb_kowċ1 = [[Derby County FC|Derby County]] |snin_kowċ2 = 2022– |klabb_kowċ2 = [[DC United]] }} '''Wayne Rooney''' (twieled fl-24 ta' Ottubru 1985) huwa eks-plejer u kowċ tal-[[futbol]] [[Ingilterra|Ingliż]] li bħalissa jinsab imexxi lit-tim ta' [[DC United]]. == Bijografija == Rooney hu l-ewwel wild ta' Thomas Wayne u Jeanette Marie Rooney (née Morrey). Hu trabba fi Croxteth flimkien ma' ħutu iżgħar minnu, Graeme u John, u t-tliet li huma kienu jattendu fl-Iskola De La Salle. Wayne trabba jagħti s-sosten tiegħu lill-klabb ta' [[Everton FC]], u l-aktar player li kien jammira kien [[Duncan Ferguson]].<ref>{{Ċita web |data=2008-06-13 |url=http://fourfourtwo.com/interviews/webexclusives/105/article.aspx |titlu= Wayne Rooney Interview |pubblikatur=FourFourTwo |data-aċċess=2008-12-15 |lingwa=Ingliż}}</ref> == Karriera == === Everton === Everton kisbu lil Wayne Rooney fl-età ta' għaxar snin, wara li kien impressjona ma' Liverpool Schoolboys u Dynamo Brownwings. Fid-19 ta' Ottubru 2002, ħamest ijiem wara għeluq is-sbatax-il sena, Rooney skorja l-gowl tar-rebħa kontra ċ-ċampjins renjanti [[Arsenal FC|Arsenal]]; barra milli din ir-rebħa għal Everton wasslet it-tmiem għat-tletin partita mingħajr telfa li kienu qed iżommu l-''Gunners'', Rooney sar l-iżgħar plejer li skorja fl-istorja tal-[[Premier League]], rekord li ġie megħlub darbtejn s'issa minn [[James Milner]] u minn [[James Vaughan]]. Fi tmiem l-istaġun 2003–04, Rooney, li kien stqarr l-inabilità ta' Everton biex jisfidaw għal post fl-[[UEFA|Ewropa]], għamel rikjesta ta' trasferiment li Everton irrifjutawha jekk is-somma kellha tkun inqas minn [[lira sterlina|£]]50 miljun. F'Awwissu 2004, l-aġent ta' Rooney irrifjuta kuntratt ta' tliet snin bi £12,000 kull ġimgħa li kien offrielu l-klabb, biex b'hekk ħalla lil [[Manchester United FC|Manchester United]] u [[Newcastle United FC|Newcastle United]] jikkompetu għall-firma tiegħu. ''[[The Times]]'' irrapurtat li Newcastle kienu qrib l-akkwist ta' Rooney, kif kien ikkonfermat stess mill-aġent ta' Rooney, però Manchester United irnexxielhom fl-aħħar tax-xahar jiksbu l-firma tal-plejer għal somma ta' £31 miljun.<ref>{{Ċita web |data=2005-10-11 |url=http://dps.twiihosting.net/manutd/doc/content/doc_10_139.pdf |titlu=Manchester United plc Report & Accounts 2005 |pubblikatur=Manchester United plc |data-aċċess=2008-12-17 |format=PDF |lingwa=Ingliż}}</ref> Dan it-trasferiment immarka l-iktar trasferiment għoli għal żagħżugħ, hekk kif Rooney kien għadu xi ġimgħat 'il bogħod milli jagħlaq id-dsatax-il sena meta sar it-trasferiment. === Manchester United === Rooney għamel id-debutt ma' United fit-28 ta' Settembru 2004 f'rebħa ta' 6–2 fil-fażi tal-gruppi tal-[[UEFA Champions League]] kontra [[Fenerbahçe SK]], fejn skorja [[tripletta]] u pprovda assist.<ref>{{Ċita aħbar |data=2004-09-28 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/europe/3677174.stm |titlu=Rooney's debut hat-trick against Fenerbahçe |pubblikatur=BBC Sport |data-aċċess=2007-05-11 |lingwa=Ingliż}}</ref> Sena wara, hu ġie mkeċċi fil-pari ta' mingħajr gowls fil-partita taċ-Champions League kontra [[Villarreal CF]] fi [[Spanja]] nhar l-14 ta' Settembru 2005, wara li sarkastikament applawda lir-referi Kim Milton Nielsen.<ref>{{ċita aħbar |data=2005-09-14 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/europe/4234188.stm |titlu=Villarreal 0-0 Man Utd |pubblikatur=BBC Sport |data-aċċess=2006-06-18 |lingwa=Ingliż}}</ref> L-ewwel trofew ma' united wasal fil-[[Football League Cup|League Cup]] 2006, u hu ġie msemmi wkoll bħala l-plejer tal-partita wara li skorja darbtejn fir-rebħa ta' 4-0 fuq [[Wigan Athletic FC|Wigan Athetlic]]. Rooney ġie mkeċċi fil-partita tat-[[Turnew ta' Amsterdam]] kontra [[FC Porto]] fl-4 ta' Awwissu 2006 wara li laqat lid-[[difensur]] ta' Porto [[Képler Laveran Lima Ferreira|Pepe]] bil-minkeb. Hu ġie sospiż għal tliet partiti mill-[[Federazzjoni tal-futbol tal-Ingilterra|FA Ingliża]] wara rapport ta' 23 paġna mir-referi Ruud Bossen li spjega d-deċiżjoni tiegħu.<ref>{{ċita aħbar |data=2006-08-15 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/m/man_utd/4796139.stm |titlu=Rooney & Scholes lose ban appeals|pubblikatur=BBC Sport |data-aċċess=2006-11-17 |lingwa=Ingliż}}</ref> Rooney kiteb ittra ta' protesta lill-FA, fejn stqarr fuq in-nuqqas ta' kastig li ngħata lejn plejers oħra li ġew imkeċċija fil-logħob ta' ħbiberija. Matul l-ewwel nofs tal-[[Premier League 2006–07|istaġun 2006–07]], Rooney temm sensiela ta' għaxar partiti mingħajr gowl meta skorja tripletta kontra [[Bolton Wanderers FC|Bolton Wanderers]], u x-xahar ta' wara iffirma estenzjoni tal-kuntratt għal sentejn oħrajn li b'hekk se jżommu ma' United sal-2012. Sa tmiem April, b'kombinazzjoni ta' żewġ gowls fl-iskor aggregat ta' 8–3 fil-kwarti tal-finali kontra [[AS Roma]]<ref>{{ċita aħbar |data=2007-04-10 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/europe/6534975.stm |titlu=Man Utd 7-1 Roma (agg 8-3) |pubblikatur=BBC Sport |lingwa=Ingliż}}</ref> u tnejn oħra fir-rebħa fl-ewwel leg ta' 3–2 fis-semifinali kontra [[AC Milan]],<ref>{{ċita aħbar |titlu=Man Utd 3-2 AC Milan |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/europe/6582631.stm |pubblikatur=BBC Sport |data=2007-04-24 |data-aċċess=2008-06-07 |lingwa=Ingliż}}</ref> wassal in-numru ta' gowls ta' Rooney f'kull kompetizzjoni. United ħabbru qabel il-bidu tal-istaġun li Rooney kien se jieħu l-flokk numru 10 li kien vakant wara li [[Ruud van Nistlerooy]] kien telaq għal [[Real Madrid]] sena qabel. Hu ġie ppreżentat bil-flokk f'konferenza stampa fit-28 ta' Ġunju 2007 mill-attaknt veteran ta' United [[Denis Law]], li kien libes dan il-flokk matul iż-żmien mal-klabb.<ref>{{Ċita aħbar |titlu=Rooney delighted with new number |url=http://www.manutd.com/default.sps?pagegid={B4CEE8FA-9A47-47BC-B069-3F7A2F35DB70}&newsid=440380 |pubblikatur=Manchester United FC |data=2007-06-30 |data-aċċess=2007-06-30 |lingwa=Ingliż}}</ref> [[Stampa:Wayne Rooney (Broken Foot).JPG|225px|thumb|left|Rooney jiġi assistit wara li kiser siequ]] Fit-12 ta' Awwissu 2007, Rooney kiser il-[[metatarsu]] xellugi fil-partita tal-ftuħ tal-kampjonat il-ġdid kontra [[Reading FC|Reading]]. Wara li dam għal sitt ġimgħat barra mil-logħob, hu rritorna għar-rebħa ta' United fil-[[UEFA Champions League]] kontra [[AS Roma|Roma]] fit-2 ta' Ottubru, fejn kien hu li skorja l-unika gowl tal-partita. Madanakollu, madwar biss xahar mir-ritorn tiegħu, Rooney weġġa' l-irkoppa matul sessjoni ta' taħriġ fid-9 ta' Novembru, u tilef ġimgħatejn oħra. Ir-ritorn lura wasal fit-3 ta' Diċembru kontra [[Fulham FC|Fulham]], fejn lagħab sebħgin minuta. Rooney tilef total ta' għaxar partiti u temm l-[[Premier League 2007–08|istaġun 2007-08]] bi tmintax-il gowl, hekk kif United kisbu kemm il-Premiership u anki ċ-Champions League. Rooney skorja tliet gowls fil-kampanja rebbieħa ta' United tat-[[Tazza tad-Dinja tal-Futbol tal-Klabbs 2008|Tazza tad-Dinja tal-Klabbs 2008]], fejn mhux biss spiċċa bħala l-aqwa skorer tat-tornew imma wkoll ingħata l-unur tal-Ballun tad-Deheb bħala l-aqwa plejer matul it-tornew. Nhar l-14 ta' Jannar 2009, wara li skorja l-gowl rebbieħ wara biss 54 sekonda tal-partita kontra [[Wigan Athletic FC|Wigan Athletic]], ħareġ barra imweġġa wara tmien minuti. Wara madwar erba' ġimgħat barra, Rooney irritorna għal-logħob fil-partita kontra [[Fulham FC|Fulham]], fejn daħal bħala sostitut għal [[Dimitar Berbatov|Berbatov]] fejn skorja t-tielet u l-aħħar gowl tal-konfront fir-rebħa ta' 3–0. Rooney spiċċa l-istaġun b'20 gowl f'kull kompetizzjoni, tnax-il minnhom fil-kamjonat. L-[[Premier League 2009–10|istaġun 2009–10]] bdieh b'gowl fid-90 minuta fil-[[FA Community Shield|Community Shield]] li ġab l-iskor ta' 1–1, minkejja li Chelsea ħarġu rebbieħa bil-penalties. == Internazzjonali == [[Stampa:Wayne Rooney.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Wayne Rooney bil-flokk tat-[[tim nazzjonali tal-futbol tal-Ingilterra|tim nazzjonali Ingliż]]]] Rooney sar l-iżgħar plejer li qatt lagħab għall-[[tim nazzjonali tal-futbol tal-Ingilterra|Ingilterra]] meta għamel l-ewwel apparenza f'logħba ta' ħbiberija kontra l-[[tim nazzjonali tal-futbol tal-Awstralja|Awstralja]] fit-12 ta' Frar 2003 fl-età ta' sbatax-il sena, l-istess età fejn sar l-iżgħar plejer li qatt skorja gowl għas-selezzjoni Ingliża. Iż-żagżugħ ta' [[Arsenal FC|Arsenal]] [[Theo Walcott]] kiser ir-rekord tal-apparenza ta' Rooney b'36 ġurnata f'Ġunju 2006. L-ewwel tornew li ħa sehem fih kien l-[[Kampjonati Ewropej tal-Futbol 2004|Euro 2004]], fejn sar l-iżgħar plejer li skorja fl-istorja ta' din il-kompetizzjoni meta skorja doppjetta kontra l-[[Tim nazzjonali tal-futbol tal-Iżvizzera|Iżvizzera]] fis-17 ta' Ġunju 2004; madanakollu, dan ir-rekord inkiser biss erbat ijiem wara grazzi għall-[[Żvizzera|Iżvizzeru]] [[Johan Vonlanthen]]. Rooney weġġa' fil-kwarti tal-finali kontra l-[[Tim nazzjonali tal-futbol tal-Portugall|Portugall]] hekk kif l-Ingilterra ġew eliminati bl-[[għoti tal-penalties]]. Wara li weġġa' saqajh f'partita tal-[[Premier League]] f'April 2006, Rooney kien jinsab fi sfida biex ikun b'saħħtu biex jilgħab fit-[[Tazza tad-Dinja tal-Futbol 2006|Tazza tad-Dinja 2006]]. Rooney irnexxielu jkun preżenti fil-partita kontra t-[[Tim nazzjonali tal-futbol tat-Trinidad u Tobago|Trinidad u Tobago]] u dik segwenti kontra l-[[Tim nazzjonali tal-futbol tal-Iżvezja|Iżvezja]]. Madanakollu, ma rnexxielhux iħalli l-marka bħalma ħalla fit-tornew preċedenti hekk kif ma skorja l-ebda gowl, waqt li l-Ingilterra spiċċaw barra mill-kompetizzjoni, għal darb'oħra minħabba l-għoti tal-penalties. Rooney, fl-aħħar partita tal-kampanja Ingliża fit-Tazza tad-Dinja 2006 kontra l-[[Tim nazzjonali tal-futbol tal-Portugall|Portugall]] spiċċa mkeċċi wara 62 minuta logħob wara li tela' fuq id-difensur [[Portugall|Portugiż]] [[Ricardo Carvalho]], hekk kif it-tnejn kienu qed jiġġieldu għall-possessjoni tal-ballun. Din ġabet kontroversja sħiħa minħabba l-involviment ta' sieħbu fit-tim ta' United [[Cristiano Ronaldo]] li pprotesta bil-miftuħ, waqt li r-referi [[Horacio Elizondo]] innega li kien influwenzat mill-atteġġjament ta' Ronaldo. == Ħajja personali == Rooney iltaqa' ma' martu, [[Coleen Rooney]] (née McLoughlin), waqt li t-tnejn li huma kienu fl-aħħar sena ta' skola sekondarja. Huma żżewġu fit-12 ta' Ġunju 2008 wara sitt snin għerusija, li matulhom Rooney ammetta li kien sfrutta l-[[prostituzzjoni]] f'[[Liverpool]] fl-2004.<ref>{{Ċita web| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/merseyside/3588112.stm| titlu=Rooney admits prostitute visits| pubblikatur=BBC| data=2004-08-22| data-aċċess =2008-09-08 |lingwa=Ingliż}}</ref> Hu għandu tattoo bil-kliem "Just Enough Education To Perform", minn titlu ta' album tal-grupp favorit tiegħu, [[Stereophonics]], li daqqew ukoll matul ir-riċeviment tat-tieġ. Il-familja Rooney tgħix f'villa fir-raħal ta' [[Prestbury (Cheshire)|Prestbury]] li tiswa' £4.25 miljun, li nbniet minn kumpanija posseduta minn Dawn Ward, il-mara tal-attakant veteran ta' [[Sheffield United FC|Sheffield United]] [[Ashley Ward]]. == Statistika == ''Statistika korretta sal-5 ta' Novembru 2017''<ref>{{ċita web |url=http://www.stretfordend.co.uk/playermenu/rooney.html |titlu=Wayne Rooney |data-aċċess=2009-03-07 |isem=Andrew |kunjom=Endlar |sit=StretfordEnd.co.uk |lingwa=Ingliż}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |- !rowspan="2"|Klabb !rowspan="2"|Staġun !colspan="2"|Kampjonat !colspan="2"|Tazza !colspan="2"|League Cup !colspan="2"|Kontinentali !colspan="2"|Oħrajn !colspan="2"|Total |- !Preż!!Gowls!!Preż!!Gowls!!Preż!!Gowls!!Preż!!Gowls!!Preż!!Gowls!!Preż!!Gowls |- |rowspan="3"|[[Everton FC|Everton]] |[[Premier League 2002–03|2002–03]] |33||6||1||0||3||2||colspan="2"|–||0||0||37||8 |- |[[Premier League 2003–04|2003–04]] |34||9||3||0||3||0||colspan="2"|–||0||0||40||9 |- !Total !67!!15!!4!!0!!6!!2!!colspan="2"|–!!0!!0!!77!!17 |- |rowspan="14"|[[Manchester United FC|Manchester United]] |[[Premier League 2004–05|2004–05]] |29||11||6||3||2||0||6||3||0||0||43||17 |- |[[Premier League 2005–06|2005–06]] |36||16||3||0||4||2||5||1||0||0||48||19 |- |[[Premier League 2006–07|2006–07]] |35||14||7||5||1||0||12||4||0||0||55||23 |- |[[Premier League 2007–08|2007–08]] |27||12||4||2||0||0||11||4||1||0||43||18 |- |[[Premier League 2008–09|2008–09]] |30||12||2||1||1||0||13||4||3||3||49||20 |- |[[Premier League 2009–10|2009–10]] |32||26||1||0||3||2||7||5||1||1||44||34 |- |[[Premier League 2010–11|2010–11]] |28||11||2||1||0||0||9||4||1||0||40||16 |- |[[Premier League 2011–12|2011–12]] |34||27||1||2||0||0||7||5||1||0||44||34 |- |[[Premier League 2012–13|2012–13]] |27||12||3||3||1||0||6||1||colspan="2"|–||37||16 |- |[[Premier League 2013–14|2013–14]] |29||17||0||0||2||0||9||2||0||0||40||19 |- |[[Premier League 2014–15|2014–15]] |33||12||4||2||0||0||colspan="2"|–||colspan="2"|–||37||14 |- |[[Premier League 2015–16|2015–16]] |28||8||5||2||2||1||6||4||colspan="2"|–||41||15 |- |[[Premier League 2016–17|2016–17]] |25||5||2||1||4||0||7||2||1||0||39||8 |- !Total!!393!!183!!40!!22!!20!!5!!98!!39!!8!!4!!559!!253 |- |[[Everton FC|Everton]] |[[Premier League 2017–18|2017–18]] |11||4||0||0||1||0||6||1||colspan="2"|–||18||5 |- !colspan=2|Total fil-karriera !471!!202!!44!!22!!27!!7!!104!!40!!8!!4!!654!!275 |} == Unuri == === Klabb === ;Manchester United * [[Premier League]]: 2006–07, 2007–08, 2008–09, 2010–11, 2012–13 * [[FA Cup]]: 2015–16 * [[Football League Cup]]: 2005–06, 2009–10, 2016–17 * [[Community Shield]]: 2007, 2007, 2010, 2011, 2016 * [[UEFA Champions League]]: 2007–08 * [[UEFA Europa League]]: 2016–17 * [[Tazza tad-Dinja tal-Futbol tal-Klabbs]]: 2008 === Individwali === * [[Plejer Żagħżugħ tas-Sena tal-FIFPro]]: 2004–05 * [[Trofew Bravo]]: 2003 * Tim tat-Turnew [[Kampjonat Ewropej tal-Futbol 2004|Kampjonati Ewropej 2004]] * [[Plejer tas-Sena tal-PFA]]: 2009–10 * [[Plejer Żagħżugħ tas-Sena tal-PFA]]: 2004–05, 2005–06 * [[FIFPro World XI|FIFA/FIFPro World XI]]: 2011 == Referenzi == {{referenzi}} == Ħoloq esterni == {{commonscat}} {{wikiquote|Wayne Rooney}} * [https://www.officialwaynerooney.com/ Sit uffiċjali] * {{soccerbase}} * [https://www.manutd.com/en/players-and-staff/detail/wayne-rooney Profil] fuq is-sit uffiċjali ta' Manchester United {{DEFAULTSORT:Rooney, Wayne}} [[Kategorija:Nies ħajjin]] [[Kategorija:Twieldu fl-1985]] [[Kategorija:Futbolers Ingliżi]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' Everton FC]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' Manchester United FC]] esg40h7ckc9xrfpco158eqg3qnnr2rd 0 13051 279098 269807 2022-08-15T06:00:50Z Chrisportelli 355 infobox wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox plejer tal-futbol |isem_plejer = Giuseppe Rossi |stampa = [[Stampa:Giuseppe Rossi FARE Ambassador.jpg|225px]] |data_twelid = {{data tat-twelid u età|1987|2|1}} |post_twelid = [[Teaneck]] |pajjiż_twelid = Stati Uniti |tul = 1.73 m |rwol = [[Attakkant]] |snin_mixtla1 = 1993–1999 |klabb_mixtla1 = Clifton Stallions |snin_mixtla2 = 2000–2004 |klabb_mixtla2 = [[Parma FC|Parma]] |snin_mixtla3 = 2004 |klabb_mixtla3 = [[Manchester United FC|Manchester United]] |snin1 = 2004–2007 |klabb1 = [[Manchester United FC|Manchester United]] |snin2 = 2006 |klabb2 = → [[Newcastle United FC|Newcastle United]] (self) |snin3 = 2007 |klabb3 = → [[Parma FC|Parma]] (self) |snin4 = 2007–2013 |klabb4 = [[Villarreal CF|Villarreal]] |snin5 = 2013–2017 |klabb5 = [[ACF Fiorentina|Fiorentina]] |snin6 = 2016 |klabb6 = → [[Levante UD|Levante]] (self) |snin7 = 2016–2017 |klabb7 = → [[Celta de Vigo|Celta]] (self) |snin8 = 2017–2018 |klabb8 = [[Genoa CFC|Genoa]] |snin9 = 2020 |klabb9 = [[Real Salt Lake]] |snin10 = 2021–2022 |klabb10 = [[SPAL]] |snin_nazzjonali1 = 2008–2014 |tim_nazzjonali1 = [[Tim nazzjonali tal-futbol tal-Italja|Italja]] }} '''Giuseppe Rossi''' (twieled fl-1 ta' Frar 1987) huwa plejer tal-[[futbol]] [[Italja|Taljan]] li jilgħab bħala [[attakkant]]. == Bijografija == Rossi twieled fl-[[Stati Uniti tal-Amerika|Istati Uniti]], preċiżament f'[[Teaneck|Teanec]] minn ġenituri Taljani; missieru, Ferdinando Rossi, kien kowċ tal-futbol u kien jgħallem it-Taljan u l-Ispanjol fl-iskola sekondarja ta' [[Clifton (New Jersey)|Clifton]], filwaqt li ommu, Cleonilde Rossi, kienet ukoll għalliema tal-lingwi fi Clifton.<ref>{{ċita web |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/10/sports/soccer/10rossi.html |titlu=Young Soccer Star Is Close to Completing His Italian Dream |isem=Jeré |kunjom=Longman |pubblikatur=The New York Times |data=2009-06-09 |data-aċċess=2009-06-13 |lingwa=Ingliż }}</ref> == Karriera == === Manchester United === Fis-sena 2000, ta' tlettax-il sena, il-klabb ta' [[Parma FC|Parma]] innota lil Rossi u ġabitu l-Italja fejn rawmitu fi ħdan is-settur mixtla tal-istess klabb. Fis-sajf tal-2004, ta' sbatax-il sena, ġie akkwistat minn [[Manchester United FC|Manchester United]].<ref>{{ċita aħbar |url=http://soccernet.espn.go.com/columns/story?id=350666&root=us&cc=5901 |titlu=My Country, 'Tis of Thee |isem=Andrea |kunjom=Canales |pubblikatur=ESPNsoccernet |data=2005-11-30 |data-aċċess=2007-08-02 |lingwa=Ingliż }}</ref> Wara li impressjona mat-tim tar-riservi, hu ddebutta mar-''Red Devils'' bħala sostitut fl-10 ta' Novembru 2004, fil-partita valida għal-[[Football League Cup|League Cup]], kontra [[Crystal Palace FC|Crystal Palace]]. Fil-15 ta' Ottubru 2005, ta' tmintax-il sena, sab ix-xibka għall-ewwel darba fil-[[Premier League]], meta inqas minn għaxar minuti minn x'ħin daħal bħala sostitut kontra [[Sunderland AFC|Sunderland]], skorja t-tielet gowl ta' United minn tmintax-il metru, biex tahom rebħa ta' 3–1.<ref>{{ċita web |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/eng_prem/4322116.stm |titlu=Sunderland 1-3 Man Utd |pubblikatur=BBC Sport |data=2005-10-15 |data-aċċess=2009-04-03 |lingwa=Ingliż }}</ref> Fit-tieni staġun tiegħu f'Manchester, iddebutta wkoll fil-[[UEFA Champions League]], fejn kiseb żewġ preżenzi, waqt li skorja tliet gowls fit-tazzi nazzjonali. B'hekk temm l-istaġun tiegħu b'4 gowls fi 12-il logħba. Fil-bidu tal-[[Premier League 2006–07|istaġun 2006–07]], Rossi ingħata b'self lil [[Newcastle United FC|Newcastle United]] sal-1 ta' Jannar 2007, biex ikun jista' jikseb biżżejjed esperjenza. L-uniku gowl bil-flokk iswed u abjad wasal fil-25 ta' Ottubru 2006, kontra [[Portsmouth FC|Portsmouth]] fit-tielet rawnd tal-[[Carling Cup]].<ref>{{ċita aħbar |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/league_cup/6072622.stm |titlu=Newcastle 3-0 Portsmouth |pubblikatur=BBC Sport |data=2006-10-25 |data-aċċess=2009-02-03 |lingwa=Ingliż }}</ref> === Parma === Fis-17 ta' Jannar 2007 ġie msellef lil [[Parma FC|Parma]] sal-aħħar nofs tal-istaġun.<ref>{{ċita aħbar |url=http://soccernet.espn.go.com/news/story?id=400387&cc=5901 |titlu=Man Utd agree Parma loan deal for Rossi |pubblikatur=ESPN |data=2007-01-18 |data-aċċess=2009-04-03 |lingwa=Ingliż }}</ref> Skjerat mill-bidu fost l-ewwel ħdax, fil-partita debuttanti tiegħu fil-21 ta' Jannar, hu skorja l-gowl li wassal lill-Parma biex jegħlbu lil [[Torino Calcio|Torino]] 1–0 u biex jirritoraw lura lejn ir-rebħ wara nixfa ta' rebħa li kienet tmur lura lejn l-10 partiti preċedenti. Fis-7 ta' April, fil-partita ġewwa darhom kontra [[AS Livorno Calcio|Livorno]], hu skorja gowl fil-91 minuta li ta lill-Parma r-rebħa, u reġa' rrepeta dan fit-18 ta' April, meta b'permezz tal-ewwel doppjetta tiegħu fis-[[Serie A]], hu ta rebħa prezzjuża 'l-Parma kontra [[ACF Fiorentina|Fiorentina]]. Erbat ijiem wara, permezz ta' gowl fir-rebħa ta' 4–3 li Parma għamlu fuq [[US Città di Palermo|Palermo]], din kienet tfisser l-ewwel rebħa tal-klabb barra minn daru għal dak l-istaġun. Il-prestazzjonijiet tiegħu fid-dsatax-il partita li lagħab,<ref>{{ċita web |url=http://soccernet.espn.go.com/players/stats?id=46051&cc=5901 |titlu=Giuseppe Rossi |pubblikatur=ESPN |data-aċċess=2009-04-03 |lingwa=Ingliż }}</ref> li fihom skorja disa' gowls, wasslu 'l-Parma ta' [[Claudio Ranieri]] li jakkwistaw it-tnax-il post, meta salvaw mir-relegazzjoni fl-aħħar ġurnata. === Villarreal === Wara ż-żmien ta' self ma' Parma, fi tmiem l-istaġun ħafna klabbs Taljani xtaquh, però hu rritorna barra minn pajjiżu. Fil-fatt fl-2007, f'età ta' għoxrin sena, Manchester United ċediet għal offerta ta' 10 miljun [[ewro]] mill-klabb Spanjol ta' [[Villarreal CF|Villarreal]].<ref>{{ċita aħbar |isem=Ben |kunjom=Hibbs |titlu=Rossi to join Villarreal |url=http://www.manutd.com/default.sps?pagegid={B4CEE8FA-9A47-47BC-B069-3F7A2F35DB70}&newsid=449090 |pubblikatur=Manchester United |data=2007-07-07 |data-aċċess=2007-08-01 |lingwa=Ingliż }}</ref><ref>{{ċita aħbar |titlu=El Villarreal ficha al delantero Giuseppe Rossi |url=http://www.villarrealcf.es/principal.php?nombreModulo=noticiasDetalle&idnoticia=5205&idseccion=7&idmenu=4&idsubmenu=35 |pubblikatur= Villarreal CF |data=2007-07-31 |data-aċċess=2007-08-01 |lingwa=Spanjol }}</ref> Madanakollu, fil-kuntratt ta' Rossi iddaħlet klawżola li tippermetti lil Manchester United biex ikunu jistgħu jixtruh fil-futur qarib.<ref>{{ċita aħbar |titlu=Man Utd sell Rossi to Villarreal |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/m/man_utd/6924981.stm |pubblikatur=BBC |data=2007-08-01 |data-aċċess=2008-04-01 |lingwa=Ingliż }}</ref> Fl-ewwel staġun tiegħu fi [[Spanja]] sar plejer determinanti għas-"Sottomarin isfar": minkejja diversi problemi fiżiċi, hu rnexxielu jiskorja 11-il gowl f'27 partita fil-[[La Liga|Liga]], u kkontribwixxa għat-tieni post storiku fil-kampjonat li ta post awtomatiku fil-fażi tal-gruppi taċ-Champions League. Fl-istaġun suċċessiv, Rossi ibrilla fiċ-Champions League fejn skorja tliet gowls, waqt li kompla jikkonferma ruħu fil-kampjonat, meta skorja 12-il gowl fi 30 partita. == Internazzjonali == Rossi irrapreżenta lill-Italja fi kważi kull livell mixtla, mit-tim ta' taħt is-16-il sena, sat-tim ta' taħt il-21 sena. Minkejja li fl-2006 ġie mistieden mill-kowċ tat-[[Tim nazzjonali tal-futbol tal-iStati Uniti|tim nazzjonali tal-iStati Uniti]], [[Bruce Arena]], biex jieħu sehem f'sessjoni ta' taħriġ mat-tim fi preparazzjoni għat-Tazza tad-Dinja, Rossi irrifjuta din l-offerta fejn stqarr ix-xewqa li jilgħab għall-Italja. Hu skorja erba' gowls fl-[[Olimpjadi tas-sajf 2008]], biex sar l-aqwa skorer tat-turnew, minkejja li l-iskwadra Taljana waslet biss sal-kwarti tal-finali. Il-kowċ tat-[[Tim nazzjonali tal-futbol tal-Italja|tim nazzjonali Taljan]] [[Marcello Lippi]], sejjaħ lil Rossi fost l-iskwadra tiegħu f'Ottubru tal-2008, fejn iddebutta bħala sostitut fit-tieni taqsima fil-partita tal-11 ta' Ottubru kontra l-[[Tim nazzjonali tal-futbol tal-Bulgarija|Bulgarija]], partita valida mill-[[Kwalifikazzjoni għat-Tazza tad-Dinja tal-Futbol 2010 (UEFA) - Grupp 8|fażi ta' kwalifikazzjoni]] għat-[[Tazza tad-Dinja tal-Futbol 2010|Tazza tad-Dinja 2010]]. L-ewwel gowl tiegħu mal-''Azzurri'' wasal kontra l-[[Tim nazzjonali tal-futbol tal-Irlanda ta' Fuq|Irlanda ta' Fuq]], f'partita ta' ħbiberja li ntlagħbet fis-6 ta' Ġunju, 2009. Hu wkoll skorja żewġ gowls kontra l-[[Tim nazzjonali tal-futbol tal-iStati Uniti|iStati Uniti]] fl-ewwel partita tal-Italja fit-[[Tazza tal-Konfederazzjonijiet 2009]] fil-15 ta' Ġunju 2009, ġewwa l-Afrika t'Isfel.<ref>{{ċita web |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/internationals/8095626.stm |titlu=USA 1-3 Italy |pubblikatur=BBC Sport |data=2009-06-15 |data-aċċess=2009-06-17 |lingwa=Ingliż}}</ref> === Gowls internazzjonali === {| class="wikitable" ! # !! Data !! Stadju !! Avversarju !! Riżultat !! Kompetizzjoni |- | 1. || 6 ta' Ġunju 2009 || [[Pisa]], [[Italja]] || {{fb|NIR}} || 3–0 || Logħba ta' ħbiberija |- | 2. || 15 ta' Ġunju 2009 || [[Pretorja]], [[Afrika t'Isfel]] || {{fb|USA}} || 3–1 || [[Tazza tal-Konfederazzjonijiet 2009]] |- | 3. || 15 ta' Ġunju 2009 || [[Pretorja]], [[Afrika t'Isfel]] || {{fb|USA}} || 3–1 || [[Tazza tal-Konfederazzjonijiet 2009]] |} == Unuri == === Klabb === ;Manchester United * [[Football League Cup]]: 2005–06 === Individwali === * L-aqwa skorer tal-[[Logħob Olimpiku tas-sajf 2008|Olimpjadi]]: 2008 (4 gowls) == Referenzi == {{referenzi}} == Ħoloq esterni == {{commons}} * {{soccerbase}} * {{FIFA}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Rossi, Giuseppe}} [[Kategorija:Twieldu fl-1987]] [[Kategorija:Nies ħajjin]] [[Kategorija:Futbolers Taljani]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' Parma FC]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' Manchester United FC]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' Newcastle United FC]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' Villarreal CF]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' ACF Fiorentina]] [[Kategorija:Plejers tas-Serie A]] g4s8dlwyzwojm7dpqtlzeo7o9tnx19h 10 13121 279097 272389 2022-08-15T05:58:50Z Chrisportelli 355 wikitext text/x-wiki {{#if: {{{1|{{{id<includeonly>|</includeonly>}}}}}} {{#property:P3683}} | [{{#if:{{{archive|}}}|https://web.archive.org/web/{{{archive}}}/}}https://www.ligue1.com/joueur/{{#if: {{{1|{{{id<includeonly>|</includeonly>}}}}}} | {{{1|{{{id}}}}}} | {{L-ewwel kelma|1={{#property:P3683}}|sep=,}} }} {{#if: {{{2|{{{name<includeonly>|</includeonly>}}}}}} | {{{2|{{{name}}}}}} | {{PAGENAMEBASE}} }}] – statistika tal-kampjonat Franċiż fuq LFP<includeonly>{{EditAtWikidata|pid=P3683|{{{1|{{{id|}}}}}}}}</includeonly> | <span class="error">Il-mudell &#123;&#123;[[Mudell:Lfpfr|Lfpfr]]&#125;&#125; għandu nieqes l-identifikatur u l-entità ma teżistix fuq Wikidata.</span> }}<noinclude> {{dokumentazzjoni}} </noinclude> o7wyfvd7lmxm97e28831wat8r5xqp7m 6 13650 279086 99864 2022-08-14T15:23:00Z Dans 2060 wikitext text/x-wiki From Emporium Vo. XXXIX N. 229 (EMPORIUM, RIVISTA MENSILE ILLUSTRATA D'ARTE, LETTERATVRA, SCIENZE É VARIETA. GENNAIO 1914 DIREZIONE-AMM1NISTRAZIONE ISTITUTO ITALIANO D'ARTI- GRAFICHE, BERGAMO * Source: http://www.archive.org/stream/emporium3940berguoft#page/n283/mode/2up PP255 ff. "[...]Antonio Sciortino - il giovane scultore maltese, che di questi giorni ha vinto, in un importantissimo concorso internazionale, il monumento al poeta russo Schevtscenko, da inaugurarsi a Kiew — ha una vigorosa testa, il ritratto, cioè, del pianista nord-americano Leo Tecktonius, un' impressione eseguita rapidamente e largamente." {{PD-Art|PD-old-70-1923}} 3mmkfjcfncv0s1g5r9ovq701gi2c0he 279087 279086 2022-08-14T15:23:40Z Dans 2060 wikitext text/x-wiki From Emporium Vo. XXXIX N. 229 (EMPORIUM, RIVISTA MENSILE ILLUSTRATA D'ARTE, LETTERATVRA, SCIENZE É VARIETA. GENNAIO 1914 DIREZIONE-AMM1NISTRAZIONE ISTITUTO ITALIANO D'ARTI- GRAFICHE, BERGAMO * Source: http://www.archive.org/stream/emporium3940berguoft#page/n283/mode/2up PP255 ff. "[...]Antonio Sciortino - il giovane scultore maltese, che di questi giorni ha vinto, in un importantissimo concorso internazionale, il monumento al poeta russo Schevtscenko, da inaugurarsi a Kiew — ha una vigorosa testa, il ritratto, cioè, del pianista nord-americano Leo Tecktonius, un' impressione eseguita rapidamente e largamente." {{PD-old-70}} rrgqcjoc0h39jrn5freflz01fhg2fiv 279088 279087 2022-08-14T15:24:38Z Dans 2060 wikitext text/x-wiki From Emporium Vo. XXXIX N. 229 (EMPORIUM, RIVISTA MENSILE ILLUSTRATA D'ARTE, LETTERATVRA, SCIENZE É VARIETA. GENNAIO 1914 DIREZIONE-AMM1NISTRAZIONE ISTITUTO ITALIANO D'ARTI- GRAFICHE, BERGAMO * Source: http://www.archive.org/stream/emporium3940berguoft#page/n283/mode/2up Possible copyright status: NOT_IN_COPYRIGHT PP255 ff. "[...]Antonio Sciortino - il giovane scultore maltese, che di questi giorni ha vinto, in un importantissimo concorso internazionale, il monumento al poeta russo Schevtscenko, da inaugurarsi a Kiew — ha una vigorosa testa, il ritratto, cioè, del pianista nord-americano Leo Tecktonius, un' impressione eseguita rapidamente e largamente." 6pahb4onewsgik7abxb75nbfg9jf2b1 0 15014 279093 253727 2022-08-15T05:55:44Z Chrisportelli 355 +infobox wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox bijografija}} '''Michael Nicholas Salvatore Bongiorno''' (twieled fis-26 ta' Mejju 1924 – miet fit-8 ta' Settembru 2009) kien wieħed mill-iktar [[preżentatur televiż|preżentaturi televiżi]] [[Italja|Taljani]] popolari, tant li t-Taljani jsejħulu ''"il re della televisione"''. ==Oriġini== Bongiorno twieled fil-[[Belt ta' New York New York]] fis-26 ta' Mejju 1924 minn omm Taljana minn [[Turin]] u missier Italo-Amerikan. Wara d-divorzju tal-ġenituri tiegħu, iċ-ċkejken Mike mar Turin flimkien ma' ommu. F'Turin huwa ħa l-edukazzjoni tiegħu sal-Liċeo Klassiku. Matul it-[[Tieni Gwerra Dinjija]] kellu jieqaf mill-istudji ħabba l-invażjoni tal-Ġermaniżi u ngħaqad mal-[[Partiġġjani]], fejn grazzi għall-Ingliż li kien tgħallem impjegawh sabiex jikkomunika mal-[[Alleati]]. In-[[Partit Nazzjonal Soċjalista|Nazisti]] qabduh u Mike għamel seba' xhur f'ħabs f'San Vittore u wara ġie trasferit fil-[[kamp ta' konċentrament]] ta' Bolzano u mbagħad dak ta' Mauthausen, u fl-aħħar fil-lager ta' Spitter minn fejn ġie salvat permezz ta' tpartit ta' priġunieri bejn il-[[Ġermanja]] u l-[[Stati Uniti tal-Amerika|Istati Uniti]]. ==Missier it-Televiżjoni Taljan== Fl-1946 beda jaħdem New York mar-radju u seba' snin wara irritorna l-[[Italja]]. Ta' tletin sena beda jaħdem mat-TV Taljan mill-ewwel ġurnata li beda jxandar r-[[RAI]], jiġifieri fit-3 ta' Jannar 1954, bil-programm Arrivi e Partenze. Mill-1955 sal-1959 ippreżenta wieħed mill-iktar kwizis magħrufin fuq it-TV Taljan ''Lascia o Raddoppia'', li kien ukoll l-ewwel kwizz fuq it-TV Taljan. Tant kien popolari li nhar ta' Ħamis iċ-ċinema kienu jagħlqu għax in-nies kienu jkunu mwaħħlin quddiem is-settijiet tat-TV biex jaraw dal-kwizz. Huwa għen biex dan il-mass medium ġdid tat-TV jidħol fid-djar Taljani u fil-kultura popolari ta' wara l-Gwerra l-Kbira. Fl-era tat-''TV black and white'' ppreżenta programmi ta' suċċess bħal ''Campanile sera'' (1960), ''Rischiatutto'' (1970) li fih intużaw l-effetti speċjali fit-TV għall-ewwel darba u ''La fiera dei sogni''. Mill-1963 sal-1997 ippreżenta ħdax-il edizzjoni tal-[[Festival ta' Sanremo]]. ==Mal-istazzjonijiet ta' Berlusconi== Baqa' jaħdem mar-RAI sakemm fl-1980 beda jippreżenta ''I sogni nel cassetto'' fuq Tele Milano (li mbagħad sar Canale 5), wieħed mill-ewwel stazzjonijiet kummerċjali fl-Italja, propjeta ta' [[Silvio Berlusconi]]. Fl-1982 beda jippreżenta fuq l-istazzjonijiet ta' Berlusconi ''Superflash'' u fl-1987 ''Telemike''. Mill-1989 sal-2003 ippreżenta l-verżjoni Taljana ta' ''Wheel of Fortune'' (''La Ruota della Fortuna''). L-aħħar programmi li ppreżenta fuq l-istazzjonijiet Mediaset kienu ''Genius'', kwizz għat-tfal ta' bejn 12 u 14-il sena, u Il Migliore sal-2007. ==Impatt fuq il-Kultura== L-impatt tiegħu fuq il-kultura Taljana kien esplorat mill-filosofu [[Umberto Eco]], awtur tal-‘bestseller' “The Name of the Rose” (1980), f'teżi famuża tal-1963 bl-isem “Il-Fenomenoloġija ta' Mike Buongiorno”. ==Mewt== Il-preżentatur, li fl-2007 ingħata degree onorarju, mill-Università ta' [[Milan]], kien ilu ma jkollu programm televiżiv sa mit-tmiem tal-kuntratt tiegħu mal-Mediaset, apparti reklami ta' kumpanija ċellulari flimkien mal-preżentatur ukoll popolari [[Fiorello]], li għandu nofs l-età tiegħu. Fil-fatt din is-serje ta' reklami ssoktat fil-ġimgħa stess li fiha Mike miet. Reklam ġdid, li xxandar biss lejlet mewtu, juri lil Fiorello waħdu fil-bidu u ironikament jantiċipa lit-telespettaturi milli jistaqsu għaliex Bongiorno mhux hemmhekk miegħu. Imma eżatt wara, Mike jitfaċċa. Mike Bongiorno miet ħabta u sabta b'attakk ta' qalb li tah f'ħotel f'[[Montecarlo]] fejn kien għal vaganza qasira, fl-età ta' 85 sena, nhar it-8 ta' Settembru 2009. SKY Italia, ftit qabel miet, kien beda jxandar reklam għall-programm “Riskytutto”, li kellu jimmarka r-ritorn ta' Bongiorno fix-xena televiżiva. Il-Gvern Taljan tah funeral statali li sar fil-Katidral ta' Milan erbat ijiem wara mewtu, fil-preżenza tal-Priministru Silvio Berlusconi, ħabib antik ta' Bongiorno, diversi personalitajiet tat-televiżjoni Taljana bħal [[Pippo Baudo]], [[Sandra Mondaini]], [[Renzo Arbore]], [[Gerry Scotti]], Fiorello u iktar minn ħmistax-il elf ruħ li mlew il-Katidral u l-pjazza ta' quddiemu. ==Ħoloq esterni== *{{imdb}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Bongiorno, Mike}} [[Kategorija:Twieldu fl-1924]] [[Kategorija:Mietu fl-2009]] [[Kategorija:Preżentaturi televiżivi Taljani]] nutpun2ddjph8rq22xc538ozids8h4y 0 15875 279121 267724 2022-08-15T09:53:21Z Chrisportelli 355 wikifikazzjoni wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox bijografija |image=[[Stampa:AlfonsMariaGalea.jpg|200px]] }} '''Alfons Maria Galea''' (twieled fit-23 ta' April 1861 – miet fit-30 ta' Lulju 1941), magħruf bħala s-Sur Fons, kien filantropu, senatur u [[awtur]] [[Malta|Malti]]. Bin Pietru Pawl u Mary Carmen imwielda Galea, Alfons Maria kien ir-raba' fost sitt aħwa. Huwa ħa l-ewwel tagħlim fid-dar tal-ġenituri tiegħu mingħand l-[[għalliem]] u [[kittieb]] [[Annibale Preca]] li kien [[skrivan]] ma' missieru. Ta' tmien snin bagħtuh jistudja għand il-Ġiżwiti ta' [[Għawdex]] fejn dam tmien snin, u wara attenda l-Kulleġġ tal-Freres f'[[Marsilja]]. == Filantropu == Meta missieru, negozjant tad-drappijiet, irtira, Alfons ta' 19-il sena ħa f'idejh in-negozju. Ta' 32 sena żżewweġ lil [[Elizabeth Asphar]], minn familja Indjana li kellha wkoll negozju tad-drappijiet u tal-ħaġar prezzjuż. Tliet snin wara Galea għalaq in-negozju għax ħass li dik ma kinitx il-linja tiegħu u beda jqassam ħafna minn ġidu lill-istituti tal-karità. Huwa ta l-art biex jitwaqqaf l-Istitut tas-Sależjani ta' [[Don Bosco]] f'[[Tas-Sliema]] fejn kien mar jgħix meta żżewweġ. Wara li ġie inawgurat il-bini fl-1904, l-Istitut serva bħala ċentru ta' rikreazzjoni u biex jiġbor is-subien li kienu jgħixu hemmhekk. Fl-1908 fetaħ il-Juventutis Domus u l-Oratorju tas-subien għat-tagħlim tad-Duttrina. Ċentri bħal dawn inbnew fiż-[[Żejtun]], il-[[Mosta]], [[Bormla]] u Għawdex. Fl-1939 Galea waqqaf ukoll ċentru fejn jitgħallmu l-bniet: l-Istitut ta' Santa Eliżabetta tas-Sorijiet Franġiskani f'Tas-Sliema. Ta donazzjonijiet ukoll lill-Isptar tal-Blue Sisters u pprovda l-għajnuna finanzjarja meħtieġa lill-Kunvent tal-Bon Pastur, f'Ħal Balzan. Galea ta sehmu wkoll fil-missjoni. Meta fl-1896 inħatar bħala Teżorier fil-Kumitat tal-Missjoni ntebaħ li biex in-nies jikkontribwixxu jridu jkunu konxji tal-faqar li hawn fid-[[Id-Dinja|dinja]] u dan wasslu biex jibda jippubblika l-Annali tal-Propagazzjoni tal-Fidi li kien joħroġ darba fix-xahar. Għal bosta snin kien il-President tal-Anglo-Maltese Bank u aktar tard fl-1915 laħaq it-Teżorier tal-Kurja tal-Isqof, u teżorier tas-Sorijiet Klarissi ta' [[San Ġiljan (lokalità)|San Ġiljan]]. == Politiku == Galea kien xhud fl-inkjesta tas-[[Sette Giugno]] 1919. Sentejn wara, il-[[Partit Laburista]] mmexxi mill-Kurunell [[William Savona]] kkontesta l-ewwel elezzjoni ġenerali li qatt saret f'Malta, dik tal-1921. Fiha l-Partit kiseb 23 % tal-voti u tella' żewġ senaturi, wieħed minnhom Alfons Maria Galea u l-ieħor kien dak li iktar tard sar Arċisqof ta' Malta, Monsinjur [[Mikiel Gonzi]]. Alfons Maria Galea serva ta' Senatur f'isem il-Partit Laburista fis-snin 1921-27. Tul dawn is-snin ħadem b'risq il-ħaddiem u l-batut billi semma' leħnu fuq l-istituti tal-karità, l-iskejjel tas-[[Sengħa|snajja]]', kundizzjonijiet xierqa fuq il-post tax-xogħol u t-tagħlim fl-iskejjel. Meta l-Partit Laburista ngħaqad b'Compact mal-Partit ta' [[Gerald Strickland|Strickland]], is-Sur Fons għażel li jinqata' mill-politika. == Awtur == Galea ħass il-ġibda għall-kitba meta kellu madwar 35 sena. Għall-ewwel beda jittraduċi. Il-kitbiet ta' Galea bil-[[Lingwa Maltija|Malti]] li kellhom l-għan li jedukaw u jgħallmu lill-poplu bla skola, l-aktar lill-fqar. Huwa beda jikteb bil-Malti bis-saħħa ta' Annibale Preca u l-ewwel xogħol tiegħu kien it-traduzzjoni ta' stejjer qosra mit-[[Lingwa Taljana|Taljan]]. Ix-xewqa kbira tiegħu kienet li jirtira min-negozju u l-kummerċ, kif fil-fatt għamel fl-1896, u jiddedika ħajtu għall-kitba. F'Settembru 1899 beda joħroġ ''Il-Kotba tal-Mogħdija taż-Żmien'' li saru popolari ħafna tant li baqa' jippubblikahom sal-1915, san-numru 150. Kienu bħal [[enċiklopedija]] ta' [[storja]], [[ġeografija]], [[arkeoloġija]], [[folklor]], storja naturali u [[Snajja Maltin|snajja']]. Kiteb ukoll ''Muftieħ il-Ġenna'' (1889). Galea qaleb għall-Malti wħud mill-[[Bibbja|Kotba Mqaddsa]] mil-Latin għall-Malti, fosthom Ktieb il-Qwiel, is-Salmi, l-Għanja tal-Għanjiet, Ġob, Iżaija, il-Kotba tas-Slaten u l-Kotba tal-Makkabin. Alfons Maria Galea kellu ħamest itfal, waħda minnhom soru. Huwa miet fil-Kunvent tal-Bon Pastur, fejn kien mar jgħix f'Ġunju 1940 bħala refuġjat tal-gwerra, fl-età ta' tmenin sena. {{DEFAULTSORT:Galea, Alfons Maria}} [[Kategorija:Twieldu fl-1861]] [[Kategorija:Mietu fl-1941]] [[Kategorija:Politiċi tal-Partit Laburista (Malta)]] [[Kategorija:Politiċi Maltin]] [[Kategorija:Kittieba Maltin]] da522at33z78u8s4y7avdim9aryxveq 0 19303 279123 277000 2022-08-15T10:13:14Z Chrisportelli 355 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox klabb tal-futbol | isem = Għarb Rangers | stampa = [[File:Għarb RangersFC.png|170px]] | isem_sħiħ = Għarb Rangers Football Club | ismijiet_oħra = | grawnd = [[Grawnds tal-futbol f'Malta#Il-Grawnd t'Għawdex|Grawnd t'Għawdex]], [[Xewkija]] | jesa' = 1,500 | fundazzjoni = 1968 | president = Joseph Cauchi | kowċ = Patrick Camilleri | kampjonat = [[It-Tieni Diviżjoni ta' Għawdex|It-Tieni Diviżjoni]] | sit_elettroniku = www.facebook.com/FCGharbRangers/ | pattern_la1= | pattern_b1=| pattern_ra1= | leftarm1=0000ff | body1=0000ff | rightarm1=0000ff | shorts1=ffffff | socks1=0000ff | pattern_la2 = | pattern_b2 =blue_string | pattern_ra2 = | leftarm2 = ffffff| body2 = ffffff| rightarm2 = ffffff| shorts2 = ffffff| socks2 =ffffff| }} '''Għarb Rangers Football Club''' huwa klabb tal-[[futbol]] [[Għawdex|Għawdxi]] mill-villaġġ tal-[[Għarb]]. Il-klabb ġie fondat fl-1968 u huwa msemmi għar-raħal. Huma jilgħabu fit-[[It-Tieni Diviżjoni ta' Għawdex|Tieni Diviżjoni]]. Il-kuluri tradizzjonali tal-klabb huma [[abjad]] u [[blu]]. ==Storja== Għarb Rangers Football Club kien fondat fis-sena 1968. F'dik is-sena grupp ta' żgħażagħ mill-lokalità esprimew ix-xewqa tagħhom li jibdew il-logħob tal-futbol. Ma kien hemm l-ebda grawnd tal-futbol fir-raħal hekk dawn iż-żgħażagħ li huma lesti sabu żewġ biċċiet tal-art li kienu tajbin għall-logħob tagħhom. Wieħed minn dawn il-postijiet kienu l-pjazza wara l-knisja u l-ieħor kien Pjazza San Pietru. Il-Ħadd filgħodu huma ddeċiedew biex immorru f'żona magħrufa bħala 'Ta' Merzbiet' fejn kien hemm biċċa art li sabu xierqa għal-logħob tal-futbol. Huma użawa biex jilagħbu logħbiet ta' ħbiberija kontra grupp ieħor ta' żgħażagħ li wkoll użaw biex jilagħbu f'dan il-post partikolari. Il-grupp ieħor ta 'żgħażagħ ma kinx mill-Għarb iżda mill-villaġġ fil-qrib ta' San Lawrenz. Il-ħin għadda u dawn iż-żgħażagħ m'għadhomx igawdu lilhom infushom jilgħabu l-logħob biss ma 'tim ieħor mill-villaġġ fil-qrib, u għalhekk huma ddeċiedew li jpoġġu l-applikazzjoni tagħhom li jikkompetu fit-tieni diviżjoni organizzata mill-[[Federazzjoni tal-futbol t'Għawdex]]. Sfortunatament l-applikazzjoni kienet wasslet għand l-organizzazzjoni tard u għalhekk ma setgħux jiġu aċċettati, imma Federazzjoni tal-futbol tat permess lill-tim li jikkompetu mat-timijiet tar-'riserva' bi ftehim li fl-istaġun segwenti huma kienu jistgħu jikkompetu fit-tieni diviżjoni. Bħala 'klabb' għal-laqgħat tal-kumitati tiegħu l-Għarb Rangers użaw biex jiltaqgħu fit-Triq l-Għarb. Fl-ewwel staġun tagħhom (1968/69), it-tim ta' Għarb Rangers kien kollu iffurmat minn parteċipanti mill-lokalita iżda wara dak l-istaġun ħafna minn dawn il-plejers emigraw lejn l-Awstralja u għalhekk għall-istaġun 1969/70 it-tim kellu jakwista plejers li ma kinux mill-lokalità. Tlett plejers biss kien fadal mill-lokalità. Ir-riżultati ma kinux tajbin u kif l-atturi mill-Għarb kienu ferm limitati li l-kumitat iddeċieda li jwaqqaf kollox. Infatti għall-istaġun 1970/71, it-tim ma ħax sehem. L-avventura damet biss żewġ staġuni 1968/69, 1970/71. Dan kien l-ewwel parti tal-istorja ta' Għarb Rangers. Wara dan, 15-il sena oħra kellhom jgħaddu qabel il-klabb beda tim ieħor għal darb'oħra. Fis-sena 1985, ftehim bejn l-irħula ta [[Għarb]] u [[San Lawrenz (raħal)|San Lawrenz]], intlaħaq sabiex flimkien dawn jiffurmaw tim wieħed bl-isem ta' 'Għarb St Lawrence Rangers'. Dan il-ftehim kien xi ħaġa straordinarja peress li kien xi ħaġa impossibbli li ftehim simili jista' jseħħ. Il-fatt kien li issa kien hemm l-art 'Perit Wiġi Portelli' fiż-żona magħrufa bħala 'Wied il- Knisja', kien fattur tajjeb peress li kien qasam li kien faċilment intlaħaq miż-żewġ irħula. Il-kumitat kien magħmul minn membri taż-żewġ irħula u l-laqgħat kienu jsiru darba fiċ-Ċentru Parrokkjali tal-Għarb u darba fiċ-Ċentru Parrokkjali ta' San Lawrenz. Fl-istaġun 1985/86 Għarb St Lawrence Rangers kien magħmul minn plejers kemm Għarb u minn San Lawrenz. It-tim kellu jilagħab kontra l-aqwa timijiet ta' Għawdex peress li dak l-istaġun partikolari, il-Federazzjoni tal-futbol t'Għawdex kienet organizzat diviżjoni waħda biss inklużi t-timijiet kollha. It-tim kiseb riżultati tajbin u wkoll irnexxielhom jiksbu dro ma [[Sannat Lions FC|Sannat Lions]] li kien wieħed mill-aqwa timijiet f'dak l-istaġun. Sfortunatament Għarb St Lawrence dam biss sena minħabba nuqqas ta' qbil rigward l-isem tat-timu għalhekk l-iskwadra kellha tiġi xolta. Kif żmien għadda, iż-żgħażagħ mir-raħal ma tilfux ir-rieda li jilagħbu futbol, hekk it-tim bl-isem Għarb Rangers FC ġie magħqud. Illum Għarb Rangers bnew il-bini tagħhom stess fit-Triq il-Knisja. Il-Klabb Għarb Rangers mhuwiex il-post biss fejn il-laqgħat tal-futbol tal-kumitati huma miżmuma, iżda hemm ukoll żona tal-logħob li huwa miftuħin kuljum għall-pubbliku ġenerali. ==Skwadra== {{Plejers fit-tim tal-futbol/bidu}} {{Plejers fit-tim tal-futbol | n= | naz=MLT | poż= | isem=[[Josef Portelli]]}} {{Plejers fit-tim tal-futbol | n= | naz=MLT | poż= | isem=[[Christian Attard]]}} {{Plejers fit-tim tal-futbol | n= | naz=MLT | poż= | isem=[[Clayton Rapa]]}} {{Plejers fit-tim tal-futbol | n= | naz=MLT | poż= | isem=[[Tony Bartolo]]}} {{Plejers fit-tim tal-futbol | n= | naz=MLT | poż= | isem=[[Anthony Bajada]]}} {{Plejers fit-tim tal-futbol | n= | naz=MLT | poż= | isem=[[Orlando Atzori]]}} {{Plejers fit-tim tal-futbol | n= | naz=MLT | poż= | isem=[[Manuel Cordina]]}} {{Plejers fit-tim tal-futbol/tmiem}} ==Kumitat== {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; font-size:90%" width=40% !style="background: #0000FF; color:white" align=left| Isem !style="background: #0000FF; color:white" align=right| Rwol |- | Joseph Cauchi | President |- | David Apap Agius | Viċi-President |- | Stefan Azzopardi | Segretarju |- | Joseph Mizzi | Segretarju Assistent |- | Mario Saliba | Teżorier |- | John Camenzuli | Kowċ |- | Jason Caruana | Membru |} ==Ħoloq esterni== * [http://www.facebook.com/FCGharbRangers Paġna Uffiċjali] fuq Facebook * {{Klabb Weltfussballarchiv|7786}} {{Klabbs tal-futbol ta' Għawdex}} [[Kategorija:Klabbs tal-futbol Maltin]] [[Kategorija:Klabbs tal-futbol stabbiliti fl-1968]] ny5lj1qo6bwp0123vmckim9fpwa3cv7 0 19915 279105 271451 2022-08-15T06:20:25Z Chrisportelli 355 tiswijiet wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox plejer tal-futbol |isem_plejer = Juan Carlos Garrido |stampa = [[File:Juan Carlos Garrido 2019.jpg|200px]] |isem_sħiħ = Juan Carlos Garrido Fernández |data_twelid = {{dte|1969|3|29}} |post_twelid = [[Valencia]] |pajjiż_twelid = Spanja |tul = 1.80 m |rwol = |klabb_attwali = |snin_kowċ1 = 1993–1999 |klabb_kowċ1 = El Puig |snin_kowċ2 = 1999–2001 |klabb_kowċ2 = [[CD Onda|Onda]] |snin_kowċ3 = 2002–2003 |klabb_kowċ3 = [[Villarreal CF B|Villarreal B]] |snin_kowċ4 = 2004 |klabb_kowċ4 = [[Villarreal CF B|Villarreal B]] |snin_kowċ5 = 2008–2010 |klabb_kowċ5 = [[Villarreal CF B|Villarreal B]] |snin_kowċ6 = 2010–2011 |klabb_kowċ6 = [[Villarreal CF|Villarreal]] |snin_kowċ7 = 2012–2013 |klabb_kowċ7 = [[Club Brugge KV|Club Brugge]] |snin_kowċ8 = 2013–2014 |klabb_kowċ8 = [[Real Betis]] |snin_kowċ9 = 2014–2015 |klabb_kowċ9 = [[Al Ahly SC|Al Ahly]] |snin_kowċ10 = 2016–2017 |klabb_kowċ10 = [[Ettifaq FC|Al Ettifaq]] |snin_kowċ11 = 2017–2019 |klabb_kowċ11 = [[Raja CA|Raja]] |snin_kowċ12 = 2019 |klabb_kowċ12 = [[Al Ain FC|Al Ain]] |snin_kowċ13 = 2019–2020 |klabb_kowċ13 = [[Étoile Sportive du Sahel|Étoile du Sahel]] |snin_kowċ14 = 2020 |klabb_kowċ14 = [[Wydad AC|Wydad]] |snin_kowċ15 = 2021 |klabb_kowċ15 = [[CD Castellón|Castellón]] }} '''Juan Carlos Garrido Fernández''' (twieled fid-29 ta' Marzu 1969) huwa kowċ tal-[[futbol]] [[Spanja|Spanjol]]. ==Karriera== Huwa twieled ġewwa [[Valenzja]],<ref>{{ċita web |url=http://www.goal.com/en/people/spain/34547/juan-carlos-garrido |titlu=Juan Carlos Garrido |pubblikatur=Goal.com |data=|data-aċċess=2010-05-26 |lingwa=Ingliż }}</ref> Garrido beda jikkowċja meta kellu 24 sena biss, l-ewwel klabb tiegħu kien id-dilettanti lokali El Puig Club de Fútbol. Fl-1998–99 huwa ggwidata lil [[CD Onda]] fit-[[Tercera División]], imbagħad huwa mar jikkowċja lil [[Villarreal CF B]], klabb li għalih għandu jkun assoċjat mill-qrib fis-snin li ġejjin. Fl-2003 Garrido wassal lir-riżervi ta' Villarreal – Onda issa sar tim indipendenti – għall-promozzjoni mir-raba' diviżjoni, imbagħad iggwidati in-naħa għal ftit xhur fl-2004, ukoll f'dik il-kategorija. Tard f'Jannar 2008, Garrido ġie sostitwit mill-kowċ imkeċċi [[Juan Carlos Oliva]] fit-tmexxija ta ' Villarreal B, eventwalment jwassal it-tim fil-[[Segunda División B 2007–08|11-il pożizzjoni]] fis-[[Segunda División B]] u kiseb l-ewwel promozzjoni tas-[[Segunda División]] f'[[Segunda División B 2008–09|dak l-istaġun]]. Fl-1 ta' Frar 2010 huwa nħatar kowċ tal-ewwel tim ta' Villarreal, wara t-tkeċċija ta' [[Ernesto Valverde]] wara telfa ta' 0–2 f'darhom kontra [[CA Osasuna]].<ref>{{ċita aħbar |url=http://www.marca.com/2010/01/31/futbol/equipos/villarreal/1264965639.html?a=BBVddf97ad21ca867da264b51a1a804ee17&t=1274897498 |titlu=El Villarreal destituye a Valverde y Juan Carlos Garrido toma el mando |pubblikatur=[[Marca (gazzetta)|Marca]] |lingwa=Spanjol |data=2010-02-01 |data-aċċess=2010-05-26 }}</ref> Fis-26 ta' April, qabel l-[[La Liga 2009–10|istaġun]] ta' [[La Liga]] kien lest, Garrido ngħata kuntratt li jiskadi f'Ġunju 2011;<ref>{{ċita aħbar |url=http://www.dnaindia.com/sport/report_villarreal-reward-juan-carlos-garrido-with-contract-extension_1375942 |titlu=Villarreal reward Juan Carlos Garrido with contract extension |pubblikatur=DNA India |data=2010-04-26 |data-aċċess=2010-05-26 |lingwa=Ingliż }}</ref> Villarreal spiċċaw fis-seba pożizzjoni iżda, wara li [[RCD Mallorca]] kienu meqjusa mhux eliġibbli għall-[[UEFA Europa League 2010–11|parteċipazzjoni]] tal-[[UEFA Europa League]] mill-[[UEFA]] minħabba irregolaritajiet finanzjarji, il-[[Komunità tal-Valenzja|Valenzja]] ħadu posthom. Fl-[[La Liga 2010–11|ewwel staġun sħiħ tiegħu]] fit-tmexxija ta' Villarreal, Garrido wassal it-tim għar-raba' post fil-kampjonat, bil-[[UEFA Champions League 2011–12|kwalifika]] sussegwenti tal-[[UEFA Champions League]]. Il-klabb ukoll laħaq l-aħħar erbgħa fl-Europa League, li kien inapplikabbli mir-rebbieħa eventwali [[FC Porto]]. Fl-istaġun [[La Liga 2011–12|2011–12]], Garrido u Villarreal ma setgħax imexxi punt wieħed fil-UEFA Champions League, u t-tim kien kklassifikat perikoluż qrib iż-żona tar-relegazzjoni fil-kampjonat f'dak il-perjodu. Fil-21 ta' Diċembru 2011, wara telfa ta' 0–2 kontra [[CD Mirandés]] fil-[[Copa del Rey]] tal-[[Copa del Rey 2011–12|istaġun]] (1–3 bl-aggregat), huwa kien imkeċċi.<ref>{{ċita aħbar |url=http://www.villarrealcf.es/es/noticias/portada/item/66-garrido-deja-de-ser-el-entrenador-del-villarreal |titlu=El Villarreal destituye a Juan Carlos Garrido |pubblikatur=Villarreal CF |lingwa=Spanjol |data=2011-12-21 |data-aċċess=2011-12-21 }}</ref> Fil-15 ta' Novembru 2012, Garrido issostitwixxi sparat lil [[Georges Leekens]] ta' [[Club Brugge KV]].<ref>{{ċita aħbar|url=http://www.uefa.com/uefaeuropaleague/news/newsid=1893021.html |titlu=Garrido confirmed as new Club Brugge coach |pubblikatur=UEFA |data=2012-11-15 |data-aċċess=2012-11-15 |lingwa=Ingliż }}</ref><ref>{{ċita aħbar |url=http://www.sporza.be/permalink/1.1481916|titlu=Spanjaard Garrido is nieuwe Club-coach |pubblikatur=Sporza |lingwa=Olandiż |data=2012-11-15 |data-aċċess=2012-11-15 }}</ref> Huwa inizjalment iffirma kuntratt għall-bqija tal-istaġun iżda kien hekk estiż sal-aħħar tal-istaġun 2013-14. ==Referenzi== {{referenzi}} == Ħoloq esterni == {{Commonscat}} * {{Sit uffiċjali}} * [http://www.bdfutbol.com/en/l/l6632.html Profil] fuq BDFutbol {{DEFAULTSORT:Garrido, Juan Carlos}} [[Kategorija:Twieldu fl-1969]] [[Kategorija:Nies ħajjin]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis Spanjoli]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis tal-Ewwel Diviżjoni Belġjana]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis ta' La Liga]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis ta' Villarreal CF B]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis ta' Villarreal CF]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis ta' Club Brugge KV]] jsypugmwv3a2u7bmjobp0p828g3b6qb 0 19990 279100 245965 2022-08-15T06:16:18Z Chrisportelli 355 infobox wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox plejer tal-futbol | isem_plejer = Mario Been | stampa = [[File:Mario Been (2007).jpg|230px]] | isem_sħiħ = Marinus Antonius Been | data_twelid = {{dte|1963|12|11}} | post_twelid = [[Rotterdam]] | pajjiż_twelid = Netherlands | tul = 1.78 m | rwol = [[Midfilder]] | klabb_attwali = | snin_mixtla1 = | klabb_mixtla1 = FC Rotterdam | snin_mixtla2 = | klabb_mixtla2 = [[Feyenoord]] | snin1 = 1982–1988 | klabb1 = [[Feyenoord]] | snin2 = 1988–1991 | klabb2 = [[AC Pisa 1909|Pisa]] | snin3 = 1991–1991 | klabb3 = [[Roda JC]] | snin4 = 1991–1992 | klabb4 = [[SC Heerenveen|Heerenveen]] | snin5 = 1992–1993 | klabb5 = [[FC Tirol Innsbruck|Tirol Innsbruck]] | snin6 = 1993–1995 | klabb6 = [[SBV Excelsior|Excelsior]] | snin_nazzjonali1 = 1984 | tim_nazzjonali1 = [[Tim nazzjonali tal-futbol tan-Netherlands|Netherlands]] | snin_kowċ1 = 2000–2004 | klabb_kowċ1 = [[Feyenoord]] (assistent) | snin_kowċ2 = 2005–2006 | klabb_kowċ2 = [[SBV Excelsior|Excelsior]] | snin_kowċ3 = 2006–2009 | klabb_kowċ3 = [[NEC Nijmegen|NEC]] | snin_kowċ4 = 2009–2011 | klabb_kowċ4 = [[Feyenoord]] | snin_kowċ5 = 2011–2014 | klabb_kowċ5 = [[KRC Genk|Genk]] | snin_kowċ6 = 2016–2017 | klabb_kowċ6 = [[Fenerbahçe SK|Fenerbahçe]] (assistent) | snin_kowċ7 = 2017 | klabb_kowċ7 = [[APOEL FC|APOEL]] }} '''Mario Been''' (twieled fil-11 ta' Diċembru 1963) huwa eks-plejer tal-[[futbol]] u kowċ [[Netherlands|Netherlandiż]]. Huwa mlaqqam "Mariodona". ==Karriera== ===Plejer=== Huwa għamel id-debutt tiegħu fil-futbol fil-5 ta' Settembru 1982 fil-logħba bejn [[Feyenoord]] - [[NEC Nijmegen]] (1-0). Huwa lagħab mill-1982 sal-1988 bil-flok ta' Feyenoord, hu skorja 53 gowls f'137 logħbiet. Fil-bidu tal-istaġun 1988-89 inxtara minn [[AC Pisa 1909|Pisa]], speċifikament kien mitlub mill-president Romeo Anconetani. Matul il-ħin tiegħu fl-Italja, il-klabb lagħab fis-Serie A u fis-Serie B. Wara tliet snin fl-Italja, Been mar lura lejn l-Olanda fejn ingħaqad ma [[Roda JC]] u mbagħad [[SC Heerenveen|Heerenveen]]. Wara staġun wieħed ma Heerenveen, Been mar lejn l-Awstrija biex jingħaqad ma [[FC Tirol Innsbruck|Tirol Innsbruck]] fl-1992 qabel ma rritorna lejn ma [[SBV Excelsior|Excelsior]] fejn baqa' hemm għal tliet snin qabel ħabbar l-irtirar tiegħu. Been lagħab l-aħħar logħba kompetittiva tiegħu fis-17 ta' Settembru 1995 meta HFC Haarlem għelbu lil Excelsior Rotterdam (4–0). ===Kowċ=== Bħala kowċ, huwa kien kowċ assistent ta' Feyenoord mill-2000 sal-2004 , flimkien ma [[Bert van Marwijk]]. Fl-istaġun 2005-06 sar kowċ ta' Excelsior Rotterdam, fejn magħhom rebaħ il-kampjonat Olandiż tat-tieni diviżjoni. Mill-2006 sal-2009 kien il-kowċ ta' NEC Nijmegen . Fl-2009 reġa' inħatar kowċ ta' Feyenoord. Fl-2010 Feyenoord sofrew l-agħar telfa fl-istorja tagħhom, telfa ta' 10-0 kontra [[PSV Eindhoven]], iżda wara dan Been irriżenja. Minkejja dan, finali pjuttost diżappuntanti ra lil Feyenoord jonqsu milli jikkwalifikaw għall-futbol Ewropej u anke kienu fil-periklu għar-relegazzjoni, Been kien ikkonfermat fit-tmexxija ta' Feyenoord għall-istaġun ġdid. Fit-30 ta' Awwissu 2011 inħatar kowċ ta' Genk billi ffirma kuntratt ta' sentejn. ==Unuri== ;Genk *[[Tazza Belġjana]]: 2012–13 ==Ħoloq esterni== {{Commons}} * {{nfteams}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Been, Mario}} [[Kategorija:Twieldu fl-1963]] [[Kategorija:Nies ħajjin]] [[Kategorija:Futbolers Olandiżi]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis Olandiżi]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' Feyenoord]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis ta' Feyenoord]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis ta' SBV Excelsior]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' AC Pisa 1909]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' SC Heerenveen]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' Roda JC]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' SBV Excelsior]] [[Kategorija:Plejers tal-Eredivisie]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis tal-Eredivisie]] [[Kategorija:Plejers tal-Bundesliga Awstrijaka]] [[Kategorija:Plejers tas-Serie A]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis ta' NEC Nijmegen]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis ta' KRC Genk]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis tal-Ewwel Diviżjoni Belġjana]] cuxgt0f7worh9hlud4qu1ctsgjpki40 0 20031 279104 269657 2022-08-15T06:19:21Z Chrisportelli 355 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox plejer tal-futbol | isem_plejer = Víctor Fernández | stampa = [[Stampa:Victor Fernandez.jpg]] | isem_sħiħ = Víctor Fernández Braulio | data_twelid = {{dte|1960|11|28}} | post_twelid = [[Zaragoza]] | pajjiż_twelid = Spanja | tul = 1.73 m | rwol = [[Midfilder]] | snin_mixtla1 = | klabb_mixtla1 = Stadium Casablanca | snin1 = | klabb_1 = [[CD Sariñena|Sariñena]] | snin_kowċ1 = 1988–1990 | klabb_kowċ1 = [[Real Zaragoza|Zaragoza]] (assistent) | snin_kowċ2 = 1990–1991 | klabb_kowċ2 = [[Real Zaragoza B|Zaragoza B]] | snin_kowċ3 = 1991–1996 | klabb_kowċ3 = [[Real Zaragoza|Zaragoza]] | snin_kowċ4 = 1997 | klabb_kowċ4 = [[CD Tenerife|Tenerife]] | snin_kowċ5 = 1998–2002 | klabb_kowċ5 = [[Celta de Vigo|Celta]] | snin_kowċ6 = 2002–2004 | klabb_kowċ6 = [[Real Betis|Betis]] | snin_kowċ7 = 2004–2005 | klabb_kowċ7 = [[FC Porto|Porto]] | snin_kowċ8 = 2006–2008 | klabb_kowċ8 = [[Real Zaragoza|Zaragoza]] | snin_kowċ9 = 2010 | klabb_kowċ9 = [[Real Betis|Betis]] | snin_kowċ10 = 2013 | klabb_kowċ10 = [[KAA Gent|Gent]] | snin_kowċ11 = 2014–2015 | klabb_kowċ11 = [[Deportivo de La Coruña|Deportivo La Coruña]] | snin_kowċ12 = 2018–2020 | klabb_kowċ12 = [[Real Zaragoza|Zaragoza]] }} '''Víctor Fernández Braulio''' (twieled fit-28 ta' Novembru 1960) huwa [[Kowċ (futbol)|kowċ]] tal-futbol [[Spanja|Spanjol]]. == Karriera == Fernández kien twieled ġewwa [[Zaragoza]], [[Aragona]]. Tard fl-istaġun [[La Liga 1990–91|1990–91]], meta kellu biss 30 sena, huwa ġie promoss għall-ewwel tim lokali [[Real Zaragoza]],<ref>{{ċita aħbar |url=http://hemeroteca-paginas.mundodeportivo.com/EMD01/HEM/1991/03/06/MD19910306-018.pdf |titlu=Fernández empezó a trabajar |titlu-traduzzjoni=Fernández started working |pubblikatur=El Mundo Deportivo |lingwa=Spanjol |data=1991-03-06 |data-aċċess=2013-03-14}}</ref> li eventwalment wassalhom fis-17-il pożizzjoni fil-kampjonat u evitalhom ir-relegazzjoni ta' [[La Liga]] fil-''playoffs'' kontra [[Real Murcia]]; fil-ħin tal-bidu tiegħu, kien it-tieni l-iżgħar maniġer li kkowċja fil-kategorija, wara [[Xabier Azkargorta]]. Fis-snin segwenti Fernández għen lil Zaragoza jikkonsolidaw fl-ogħla diviżjoni, notevolment ikkonverta lil [[Gustavo Poyet]] minn [[attakkant]] għal [[Midfilder|midfilder offensiv]] u rebaħ il-[[Copa del Rey]] fl-[[Copa del Rey 1993–94|1994]] u l-[[UEFA Cup Winners' Cup]] fl-[[UEFA Cup Winners' Cup 1994–95|istaġun segwenti]].<ref>{{ċita web |url=http://en.archive.uefa.com/competitions/ecwc/news/kind=4/newsid=3429.html |titlu=1994/95: Nayim's bolt from the blue sinks Arsenal |pubblikatur=UEFA |data=1995-06-01 |data-aċċess=2013-02-14}}</ref> Huwa kien meħlus mill-kariga tiegħu fit-8 ta' Novembru 1996,<ref>{{ċita aħbar |url=http://hemeroteca-paginas.mundodeportivo.com/EMD01/HEM/1996/11/08/MD19961108-022.pdf|titlu=Víctor y Brzic, cesados |titlu-traduzzjoni=Víctor and Brzic, sacked |pubblikatur=El Mundo Deportivo |lingwa=Spanjol |data=1996-11-08 |data-aċċess=2013-02-14}}</ref> billi laħaq l-istess xorti fis-[[1997–98 La Liga|sena ta' wara]] mal-klabb ġejjin, [[CD Tenerife]].<ref>{{ċita aħbar |url=http://hemeroteca-paginas.mundodeportivo.com/EMD03/HEM/1997/11/10/MD19971110-028.pdf |titlu=El Celta acaba con Víctor |titlu-traduzzjoni=Celta finishes Víctor |pubblikatur=El Mundo Deportivo |lingwa=Spanjol |data=1997-11-10 |data-aċċess=2013-02-14}}</ref> Għal erba' staġuni sħaħ fit-tard tad-90ijiet u kmien fl-2000ijiet, Fernández kien inkarigat ma [[Celta de Vigo]], huwa għin lill-[[Galizja (Spanja)|Galizjani]] jikkwalifikaw tliet darbiet għall-[[UEFA Europa League|UEFA Cup]] matul l-espliċita tiegħu waqt li jilagħab futbol attraenti ħafna.<ref>{{ċita aħbar |url=http://hemeroteca-paginas.mundodeportivo.com/EMD03/HEM/1998/05/30/MD19980530-034.pdf |titlu=Víctor: "El proyecto celeste es apasionante" |titlu-traduzzjoni=Víctor: "The ''celeste'' project is enticing" |pubblikatur=El Mundo Deportivo |lingwa=Spanjol |data=1998-05-30 |data-aċċess=2013-02-14}}</ref> Fis-snin 2002–04 huwa ħadem mal-kollegi ta' [[Real Betis]], rispettivament spiċċaw it-[[La Liga 2002–03|tmien]] u d-[[La Liga 2003–04|disa']] post f'sentejn.<ref>{{ċita aħbar |url=http://hemeroteca-paginas.mundodeportivo.com/EMD03/PUB/2002/05/18/EMD20020518034MDP.pdf |titlu=Lopera confirma a Víctor Fernández como nuevo técnico |titlu-traduzzjoni=Lopera confirms Víctor Fernández as new coach |pubblikatur=El Mundo Deportivo |lingwa=Spanjol |data=2002-05-18 |data-aċċess=2013-02-14}}</ref> Fis-sajf tal-2004, Fernández mar barra u ngħaqad mal-klabb [[Portugall|Portugiż]] [[FC Porto]].<ref>{{ċita aħbar |url=http://elpais.com/diario/2004/08/12/deportes/1092261625_850215.html |titlu=El mejor equipo de mi carrera |titlu-traduzzjoni=Best team of my career |pubblikatur=El País |lingwa=Spanjol |data=2004-08-12 |data-aċċess=2013-02-15}}</ref> Huwa beda l-mandat tiegħu mal-[[Tazza Interkontinentali 2004|konkwista]] tat-[[Tazza Interkontinentali (futbol)|Tazza Interkontinentali]], iżda kien imkeċċi fi Frar tas-sena ta' wara telfa ta' 1–3 f'darhom kontra [[SC Braga]].<ref>{{ċita aħbar |url=http://www.fifa.com/classicfootball/clubs/matchreport/newsid=514942.html |titlu=Toyota Cup 2004 |pubblikatur=FIFA |data= |data-aċċess=2013-02-15}}</ref> Fernández irritorna mal-għeżież tiegħu Zaragoza għall-istaġun [[La Liga 2006–07|2006–07]],<ref>{{ċita aħbar |url=http://www.diariodeleon.es/noticias/deportes/un-emocionado-victor-fernandez-regresa-equipo-tras-diez-anos_263807.html |titlu=Un emocionado Víctor Fernández regresa al equipo tras diez años |titlu-traduzzjoni=Teary Víctor Fernández returns to team after ten years |pubblikatur=Diario de León |lingwa=Spanjol |data=1998-05-30 |data-aċċess=2013-02-15}}</ref> huwa [[UEFA Cup 2007–08|kkwalifika lil-klabb]] għall-[[UEFA Europa League|UEFA Cup]] fl-ewwel sena tiegħu, iżda kien imkeċċi f'nofs it-[[La Liga 2007–08|tieni staġun]] tiegħu,<ref>{{ċita aħbar |url=http://hemeroteca-paginas.mundodeportivo.com/EMD02/PUB/2008/01/14/EMD20080114025MDP.pdf |titlu=Víctor, destituido |titlu-traduzzjoni=Víctor, fired |pubblikatur=El Mundo Deportivo |lingwa=Spanjol |data=2008-01-14 |data-aċċess=2013-02-15}}</ref> fejn eventwalment Zaragoza spiċċaw relegati. Fir-ritorn l-ieħor ingħaqad ma Betis tard f'Jannar 2010, billi ssostitwixxa lil imkeċċi [[Antonio Tapia]];<ref>{{ċita aħbar|url=http://deportes.elpais.com/deportes/2010/01/26/actualidad/1264494127_850215.html |titlu=Víctor Fernández, nuevo entrenador del Betis |titlu-traduzzjoni=Víctor Fernández, new Betis manager |pubblikatur=El País |lingwa=Spanjol |data=2010-01-26 |data-aċċess=2013-02-15}}</ref><ref>{{ċita aħbar |url=http://www.goal.com/en/news/12/spain/2010/01/27/1764303/official-victor-fernandez-appointed-new-real-betis-coach |titlu=Official: Victor Fernandez appointed new Real Betis coach |pubblikatur=Goal.com |data=2010-01-27 |data-aċċess=2010-07-07}}</ref> waqt espliċita tiegħu l-''Verdiblancos'' kienu t-tim fil-kampjonat bl-aktar punti, iżda dawn ma setgħux eventwalment jiġu [[Segunda División 2009–10|promossi]] mis-[[Segunda División]], huma spiċċaw bl-istess punti mal-klabb tat-tielet pożizzjoni. Fid-9 ta' Jannar 2013 Fernández mexa għat-tieni esperjenza tiegħu barra mill-pajjiż, billi ffirma kuntratt mal-klabb [[Belġju|Belgjan]] [[KAA Gent]].<ref>{{ċita aħbar |url=http://www.sporza.be/permalink/1.1521265|titlu=Victor Fernandez is de nieuwe coach van Gent |titlu-traduzzjoni=Víctor Fernández is the new Gent manager |pubblikatur=Sporza |lingwa=Spanjol |data=2013-01-09 |data-aċċess=2013-01-09}}</ref> ==Unuri== ===Kowċ=== ;Zaragoza *[[Copa del Rey]]: [[Copa del Rey 1993–94|1993–94]] *[[UEFA Cup Winners' Cup]]: [[UEFA Cup Winners' Cup 1994–95|1994–95]] ;Celta *[[Intertoto Cup]]: [[2000 UEFA Intertoto Cup|2000]] ;Porto *[[Tazza Interkontinentali (futbol)|Tazza Interkontinentali]]: 2004 *[[UEFA Super Cup]]: Runner-up [[UEFA Super Cup 2004|2004]] ==Referenzi== {{Referenzi}} ==Ħoloq esterni== *[https://www.bdfutbol.com/en/l/l3216.html Profil] fuq BDFutbol {{DEFAULTSORT:Fernandez, Victor}} [[Kategorija:Twieldu fl-1960]] [[Kategorija:Nies ħajjin]] [[Kategorija:Futbolers Spanjoli]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis Spanjoli]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis ta' La Liga]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis ta' Real Zaragoza]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis ta' CD Tenerife]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis ta' Celta de Vigo]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis ta' Real Betis]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis tal-Primeira Liga]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis ta' FC Porto]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis ta' KAA Gent]] ieyn5lyzc2i9nayl39w22zw12y6zkyc 0 20075 279110 270019 2022-08-15T06:29:25Z Chrisportelli 355 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox plejer tal-futbol | isem_plejer = Hein Vanhaezebrouck | stampa = [[Stampa:Schahter-Gent (4)1.jpg|220px]] | data_twelid = {{data tat-twelid u età|1964|2|16}} | post_twelid = [[Kortrijk]] | pajjiż_twelid = [[Belġju]] | klabb_attwali = [[KAA Gent|Gent]] (kowċ) | snin_kowċ1 = 2000–2002 | klabb_kowċ1 = [[KSC Lokeren Oost-Vlaanderen|Lokeren]] (assistent) | snin_kowċ2 = 2003 | klabb_kowċ2 = Harelbeke | snin_kowċ3 = 2003–2006 | klabb_kowċ3 = White Star Lauwe | snin_kowċ4 = 2006–2009 | klabb_kowċ4 = [[KV Kortrijk|Kortrijk]] | snin_kowċ5 = 2009 | klabb_kowċ5 = [[KRC Genk|Genk]] | snin_kowċ6 = 2010–2014 | klabb_kowċ6 = [[KV Kortrijk|Kortrijk]] | snin_kowċ7 = 2014–2017 | klabb_kowċ7 = [[KAA Gent|Gent]] | snin_kowċ8 = 2017–2018 | klabb_kowċ8 = [[RSC Anderlecht|Anderlecht]] | snin_kowċ9 = 2020– | klabb_kowċ9 = [[KAA Gent|Gent]] }} '''Hein Vanhaezebrouck''' (twieled fis-16 ta' Frar 1964) huwa [[kowċ (futbol)|kowċ]] tal-[[futbol]] [[Belġju|Belġjan]] li bħalissa jikkowċja lil [[KAA Gent|Gent]] fl-[[L-Ewwel Diviżjoni Belġjana|Ewwel Diviżjoni Belġjana]]. == Karriera == Fid-29 ta' Novembru 2009, il-bord ta' [[RC Genk]] kien keċċa lil Hein minħabba riżultati ħżiena, l-aħħar daqqa kienet it-telfa riċenti kontra [[Excelsior Mouscron]], l-klabb kienu attwalment fit-12-il post.<ref>{{ċita web |url=http://www.footgoal.net/suite.php?selection=47359 |titlu=Vanhaezebrouck remercié par Genk |data=2009-11-29 |arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121004083351/http://www.footgoal.net/suite.php?selection=47359 |arkivju-data=2012-10-04 |lingwa=fr }}</ref> Fis-6 ta' Ġunju 2010, Vanhaezebrouck iffirma ma Kortrijk għat-tieni darba.<ref>{{ċita web |url=http://www.sporza.be/cm/sporza/voetbal/Jupiler_Pro_League/100606_vanhaezebrouck_kortrijk |titlu=Kortrijk kiest opnieuw voor Vanhaezebrouck |data=2010-06-06 |arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100611023337/http://www.sporza.be/cm/sporza/voetbal/Jupiler_Pro_League/100606_vanhaezebrouck_kortrijk |arkivju-data=2010-06-11 |lingwa=nl }}</ref> == Ħajja bikrija == Vanhaezebrouck twieled ġewwa [[Kortrijk]] u trabba f'[[Lauwe]]. == Referenzi == {{referenzi}} == Ħoloq esterni== * [http://www.transfermarkt.co.uk/en/hein-vanhaezebrouck/aufeinenblick/trainer_14472.html Profil] fuq Transfermarkt {{DEFAULTSORT:Vanhaezebrouck, Hein}} [[Kategorija:Twieldu fl-1968]] [[Kategorija:Nies ħajjin]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis Belġjani]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis ta' SWI Harelbeke]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis ta' KV Kortrijk]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis ta' KRC Genk]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis ta' KAA Gent]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis tal-Ewwel Diviżjoni Belġjana]] pkkbh7q1q5znhjq29p0v0palszkrgcr 0 20101 279109 268489 2022-08-15T06:28:41Z Chrisportelli 355 wikitext text/x-wiki {{stub|bijografija}} {{Infobox plejer tal-futbol | isem_plejer = Ronny Van Geneugden | stampa = [[Stampa:Ronny.png|250px]] | isem_sħiħ = Ronny Van Geneugden | data_twelid = {{dte|1968|8|17}} | post_twelid = [[Hasselt]] | pajjiż_twelid = [[Belġju]] | tul = 1.83m | klabb_attwali = | snin1 = 1980–1988 | snin2 = 1988–1989 | snin3 = 1989–1992 | snin4 = 1992–1997 | snin5 = 1997–1998 | snin6 = 1998–2000 | snin7 = 2002–2002 | klabb1 = [[K. Waterschei SV Thor Genk|Thor Waterschei]] | klabb2 = [[RKC Waalwijk]] | klabb3 = [[Royal Antwerp FC|Antwerp]] | klabb4 = [[KFC Lommel SK|SK Lommel]] | klabb5 = [[KFC Germinal Beerschot|Germinal Ekeren]] | klabb6 = [[KSC Lokeren Oost-Vlaanderen|Lokeren]] | klabb7 = [[KFC Verbroedering Geel|Verbroedering Geel]] | snin_kowċ1 = 2001–2003 | snin_kowċ2 = 2003–2004 | snin_kowċ3 = 2004 | snin_kowċ4 = 2004–2008 | snin_kowċ5 = 2010–2014 | snin_kowċ6 = 2014 | snin_kowċ7 = 2015–2016 | snin_kowċ8 = 2017–2019 | klabb_kowċ1 = Excelsior Veldwezelt | klabb_kowċ2 = [[KRC Genk]] (mixtla) | klabb_kowċ3 = [[KRC Genk]] | klabb_kowċ4 = [[KRC Genk]] (mixtla) | klabb_kowċ5 = [[Oud-Heverlee Leuven]] | klabb_kowċ6 = [[Waasland-Beveren]] | klabb_kowċ7 = [[Enosis Neon Paralimni FC|Enosis Neon Paralimni]] | klabb_kowċ8 = [[Tim nazzjonali tal-futbol tal-Malawi|Malawi]] }} '''Ronny Van Geneugden''' (twieled fis-17 ta' Awwissu 1968) huwa [[kowċ (futbol)|kowċ]] tal-futbol [[Belġju|Belġjan]]. Huwa lagħab għal [[K. Waterschei S.V. Thor Genk|Thor Waterschei]], [[RKC Waalwijk]], [[Royal Antwerp FC|Antwerp]], [[KFC Lommel SK|SK Lommel]], [[KFC Germinal Beerschot|Germinal Ekeren]], [[KSC Lokeren Oost-Vlaanderen|Lokeren]] u [[KFC Verbroedering Geel|Verbroedering Geel]].<ref>http://www.rafcmuseum.be/spelersarchief/spelersfiche.php?id=387</ref> ==Referenzi== {{referenzi}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Van Geneugden, Ronny}} [[Kategorija:Nies ħajjin]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis Belġjani]] [[Kategorija:Futbolers Belġjani]] [[Kategorija:Twieldu fl-1968]] [[Kategorija:Plejers tal-Ewwel Diviżjoni Belġjana]] [[Kategorija:Plejers tal-Eredivisie]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' RKC Waalwijk]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' Royal Antwerp FC]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' Lommel SK]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' Beerschot AC]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' KSC Lokeren Oost-Vlaanderen]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis ta' KRC Genk]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis ta' Oud-Heverlee Leuven]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis tal-Ewwel Diviżjoni Belġjana]] f052bqv7kuou406oa1ai0l8rfdalhfi 0 20155 279106 270832 2022-08-15T06:21:03Z Chrisportelli 355 tiswijiet wikitext text/x-wiki {{stub|bijografija}} {{Infobox plejer tal-futbol | isem_plejer= Peter Maes | isem_sħiħ = Peter Maes | tul = 1.88 m | stampa = [[Stampa:Peter Maes.jpg|220px]] | data_twelid = {{dte|1964|6|1}} | post_twelid = [[Schoten]] | pajjiż_twelid = Belġju | rwol = [[Gowler]] | klabb_attwali = [[K Beerschot VA|Beerschot]] (kowċ) | numru = | snin_mixtla1 = | klabb_mixtla1 = | snin1 = 1974–1981 | snin2 = 1981–1989 | snin3 = 1989–1990 | snin4 = 1990–1995 | snin5 = 1995–1996 | snin6 = 1996–1998 | snin7 = 1999–2001 | klabb1 = Lutlommel | klabb2 = Lommel | klabb3 = [[KRC Mechelen|Mechelen]] | klabb4 = [[RSC Anderlecht|Anderlecht]] | klabb5 = [[KSK Beveren|Beveren]] | klabb6 = [[Standard Liège|Standard de Liège]] | klabb7 = [[KFC Germinal Beerschot|Germinal Beerschot]] | snin_kowċ1 = 2001–2002 | klabb_kowċ1 = Verbroedering Geel-Meerhout | snin_kowċ2 = 2002–2006 | klabb_kowċ2 = Verbroedering Geel | snin_kowċ3 = 2006–2010 | klabb_kowċ3 = [[KV Mechelen|Mechelen]] | snin_kowċ4 = 2010–2015 | klabb_kowċ4 = [[KSC Lokeren Oost-Vlaanderen|Lokeren]] | snin_kowċ5 = 2015–2016 | klabb_kowċ5 = [[KRC Genk|Genk]] | snin_kowċ6 = 2017–2018 | klabb_kowċ6 = [[KSC Lokeren Oost-Vlaanderen|Lokeren]] | snin_kowċ7 = 2017–2018 | klabb_kowċ7 = Lommel SK | snin_kowċ8 = 2019–2020 | klabb_kowċ8 = Lommel SK | snin_kowċ9 = 2020–2021 | klabb_kowċ9 = [[Sint-Truidense VV|Sint-Truidense]] | snin_kowċ10 = 2021– | klabb_kowċ10 = [[K Beerschot VA|Beerschot]] }} '''Peter Maes''' (twieled fl-1 ta' Ġunju 1964) huwa eks-plejer tal-[[futbol]] u kowċ [[Belġju|Belġjan]]. == Unuri == ;Lokeren * [[Tazza Belġjana]]: 2011–12, 2013–14 {{DEFAULTSORT:Maes, Peter}} [[Kategorija:Nies ħajjin]] [[Kategorija:Twieldu fl-1964]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis Belġjani]] [[Kategorija:Futbolers Belġjani]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' KSK Beveren]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' RSC Anderlecht]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' Standard Liège]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' Beerschot AC]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis ta' KV Mechelen]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis ta' KSC Lokeren Oost-Vlaanderen]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis tal-Ewwel Diviżjoni Beljana]] p5879ohl7g2mllscyb3h7l7uyrkmz6c 0 20194 279111 272147 2022-08-15T06:29:52Z Chrisportelli 355 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox plejer tal-futbol |isem_plejer = Harm van Veldhoven |stampa = [[Stampa:Harm-van-veldhoven.jpg|230px]] |isem_sħiħ = |data_twelid = {{dte|1962|09|28}} |post_twelid = [[Luyksgestel]] |pajjiż_twelid = [[Netherlands]] |tul = 1.80m |rwol = [[Midfilder]] |klabb_attwali = |snin_mixtla1 = 1968–1979 |klabb_ġovanili1 = De Raven Luyksgestel |snin1 = 1979–1985 |klabb1 = [[KFC Lommel SK|Lommel]] |snin2 = 1985–1990 |klabb2 = [[KFC Germinal Beerschot|Germinal Ekeren]] |snin3 = 1990–1992 |klabb3 = [[R. White Daring Molenbeek|RWDM]] |snin4 = 1992–1999 |klabb4 = [[KFC Lommel SK|Lommel]] |snin_kowċ1 = 1999–2000 |klabb_kowċ1 = [[KFC Lommel SK|Lommel]] (assistent) |snin_kowċ2 = 2000–2003 |klabb_kowċ2 = [[KFC Lommel SK|Lommel]] |snin_kowċ3 = 2003–2004 |klabb_kowċ3 = [[FC Brussels|Brussels]] |snin_kowċ4 = 2004–2007 |klabb_kowċ4 = [[Cercle Brugge KSV|Cercle Brugge]] |snin_kowċ5 = 2007–2008 |klabb_kowċ5 = [[KFC Germinal Beerschot|Germinal Beerschot]] |snin_kowċ6 = 2008–2012 |klabb_kowċ6 = [[Roda JC]] |snin_kowċ7 = 2012–2013 |klabb_kowċ7 = [[KV Mechelen]] |snin_kowċ8 = 2014–2015 |klabb_kowċ8 = [[Delhi Dynamos FC|Delhi Dynamos]] |snin_kowċ9 = 2015 |klabb_kowċ9 = [[KVC Westerlo|Westerlo]] }} '''Harm van Veldhoven''' (twieled fit-28 ta' Settembru 1962) huwa eks-plejer u kowċ tal-[[futbol]] [[Netherlands|Netherlandiż]]-[[Belġju|Belġjan]]. ==Karriera== Van Veldhoven beda l-karriera tiegħu mat-tim żagħżugħ lokali De Raven. Huwa kien telgħa mill-akkademja ta' [[SK Lommel]] fl-età ta' 17. Hu għamel triqtu sal-[[L-Ewwel Diviżjoni Belġjana|ogħla livell]] tal-[[Futbol fil-Belġjan|futbol Belġjan]] ma' [[Germinal Ekeren]]. Huwa mbagħad mar jilgħab għal [[R. White Daring Molenbeek|White Daring Molenbeek]] u eventwalment mar lura ma' [[SK Lommel]] meta huma waslu fl-Ewwel Diviżjoni. It-tlett timijiet li għal van Veldhoven kien attiv bħala futboler f'livell għoli, bħalissa huma kollha xolti. Hu beda l-karriera tiegħu bħala [[attakkant]]. Iżda matul il-karriera tiegħu, huwa lagħab bħala [[midfilder]] u diversi drabi bħala [[difensur]]. Meta Harm van Veldhoven leste karriera tiegħu bħala plejer ma' Lommel, sar kowċ assistent. Hu qattgħa biss staġun wieħed biex sar kowċ prinċipali tat-tim. Wara dan, hu kien kowċ ta' [[FC Brussels]] fejn magħhom rebaħ it-Tieni Diviżjoni. Dan is-suċċess qajjem l-interess ta' [[Cercle Brugge]], li magħhom għamel 3 snin bħala plejer. Meta l-kuntratt tiegħu ntemm, van Veldhoven mar ma' [[Germinal Beerschot]], fejn it-tim preċedenti tiegħu [[Germinal Ekeren]] kien predeċessur. Wara staġun ta' suċċess kbir, huwa ma setax jirrepeti l-kisba tiegħu u kien imkeċċi bħala konsegwenza. Huwa mar lura f'pajjiżu u ffirma għal [[Roda JC]] f'Novembru 2008. Hu evita r-relegazzjoni wara l-''play offs''. Il-kuntratt tiegħu spiċċa fl-2012, li ppermettilu jiffirma ma' [[KV Mechelen]]. ==Unuri== ===Plejer=== * Promozzjoni ma' SK Lommel mill-[[Promozzjoni Belġjana]] * Promozzjoni ma' Germinal Ekeren mit-[[It-Tielet Diviżjoni Belġjana|Tielet Diviżjoni]] * Promozzjoni ma' Germinal Ekeren mit-[[Tieni Diviżjoni Belġjana|Tieni Diviżjoni]] * Ċampjin tat-Tieni Diviżjoni ma' RWDM ===Kowċ=== * Ċampjin tat-Tieni Diviżjoni ma' SK Lommel * [[Tazza Belġjana|Finali tat-Tazza]] ma' SK Lommel * Ċampjin tat-Tieni Diviżjoni ma' FC Brussels ==Ħoloq esterni== * {{ċita web |url=http://www.ronaldzwiers.0catch.com/Spelers/V/Veldhoven%20van,%20Harm/Harm%20van%20Veldhoven.htm |titlu=Harm Van Veldhoven |arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924092139/http://www.ronaldzwiers.0catch.com/Spelers/V/Veldhoven%20van,%20Harm/Harm%20van%20Veldhoven.htm |sit=ronaldzwiers.0catch.com |arkivju-data=2015-09-24 |lingwa=Ingliż }} {{DEFAULTSORT:Veldhoven, Harm Van}} [[Kategorija:Twieldu fl-1962]] [[Kategorija:Nies ħajjin]] [[Kategorija:Futbolers Olandiżi]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis Olandiżi]] [[Kategorija:Futbolers Belġjani]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis Belġjani]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis tal-Ewwel Diviżjoni Belġjana]] [[Kategorija:Plejers tal-Ewwel Diviżjoni Belġjana]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' Beerschot AC]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis ta' Cercle Brugge KSV]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis ta' Roda JC]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis ta' Beerschot AC]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis ta' KV Mechelen]] 665b99nzu15bduyebd3tu6sveua4p4v 0 20218 279108 245893 2022-08-15T06:28:09Z Chrisportelli 355 infobox wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox plejer tal-futbol | isem_plejer = Enzo Scifo | stampa = | isem_sħiħ = Vincenzo Daniele Scifo | data_twelid = {{dte|1966|2|19}} | post_twelid = [[La Louvière|Haine-Saint-Paul]] | pajjiż_twelid = Belġju | tul = 1.78 m | rwol = [[Midfilder]] | snin1 = 1983–1987 | klabb1 = [[RSC Anderlecht|Anderlecht]] | snin2 = 1987–1988 | klabb2 = [[FC Internazionale Milano|Inter]] | snin3 = 1988–1989 | klabb3 = [[FC Girondins de Bordeaux|Bordeaux]] | snin4 = 1989–1991 | klabb4 = [[AJ Auxerre|Auxerre]] | snin5 = 1991–1993 | klabb5 = [[Torino FC|Torino]] | snin6 = 1993–1997 | klabb6 = [[AS Monaco FC|Monaco]] | snin7 = 1997–2000 | klabb7 = [[RSC Anderlecht|Anderlecht]] | snin8 = 2000–2001 | klabb8 = [[S. du Pays de Charleroi|Charleroi]] | snin_nazzjonali1 = 1984–1998 | tim_nazzjonali1 = [[Tim nazzjonali tal-futbol tal-Belġju|Belġju]] | snin_kowċ1 = 2001–2002 | klabb_kowċ1 = [[S. du Pays de Charleroi|Charleroi]] | snin_kowċ2 = 2004–2006 | klabb_kowċ2 = [[AFC Tubize|Tubize]] | snin_kowċ3 = 2007–2009 | klabb_kowċ3 = [[RE Mouscron|Mouscron]] | snin_kowċ4 = 2012–2013 | klabb_kowċ4 = [[RAEC Mons|Mons]] | snin_kowċ5 = 2015–2016 | klabb_kowċ5 = [[Tim nazzjonali tal-futbol tal-Belġju ta' taħt il-21 sena|Belġju U21]] | snin_kowċ6 = 2021 | klabb_kowċ6 = [[Royal Excel Mouscron]] }} '''Vincenzo "Enzo" Daniele Scifo''' (twieled fid-19 ta' Frar 1966)<ref>[http://www.us.terra.com/shared/worldcup2006/eng/grandes/6742.html World Cup History > Best Players of All Times > Belgium > Enzo Scifo]</ref> huwa eks-plejer u kowċ tal-[[futbol]] [[Belġju|Belġjan]]. Hu hu wieħed minn tliet plejers Belġjani li ħadu sehem f'erba' edizzjonijiet tat-[[Tazza tad-Dinja tal-Futbol|Tazza tad-Dinja]]. ==Bijografija== Scifo twieled ġewwa [[La Louvière]]. Huwa wera lilu nnifsu fit-talent promettenti ħafna fil-futbol taż-żgħażagħ u kien imlaqqam "Pele Żgħir" fit-tim lokali tiegħu. Scifo ssieħebu fil-ġenb lokali [[RAA Louviéroise]] fl-età ta' erbatax iżda malajr ġie trasferit ma' [[RSC Anderlecht|Anderlecht]], hu għamel l-ewwel debutt mat-tim fl-1983. ==Karriera== Hu mar ma' [[Internazionale Milano FC|Internazionale]] fl-1987 iżda ma tantx għamel suċċes, u ftit wara mar ma' [[FC Girondins de Bordeaux|Girondins Bordeaux]] fl-1988 fejn hu reġa kien diżappuntat.<ref>[http://www.marc-werner.com/soccer/soccer4.pdf EXKLUSIV Interview mit Enzo Scifo]</ref> Il-karriera tiegħu reġgħet tqajmet minn tluq ta' suċċess ma' [[Association de la Jeunesse Auxerroise|Auxerre]] fl-1989, li wassal għar-ritorn lejn l-Italja ma [[Torino FC|Torino]] fl-1991.<ref>[http://www.mydict.com/Wort/Enzo/Page/3/ Enzo Scifo verlässt Turin]</ref> Imbagħad Scifo mar ma' [[AS Monaco]] qabel ma spiċċa l-karriera tiegħu mal-ewwel klabb tiegħu, Anderlecht.<ref>[http://betting.betfair.com/international-football/obscure-betting/the-obscure-betting-column-enzo-scifos-mouscron-an-241008.html The Obscure Betting Column: Enzo Scifo's Mouscron and Van Gaal's AZ amongst this week's featured teams]</ref> Huwa rtira fl-2000 wara li ġie dijanjostikat bil-kroniku [[artrite]].<ref>[http://www.wiwo.de/unternehmer-maerkte/der-bdquo-rote-teufel-ldquo-tanzte-viermal-auf-der-wm-buehne-121743/ WM-Rekordspieler, Platz 19: Enzo Scifo Der „rote Teufel“ tanzte viermal auf der WM-Bühne]</ref> ===Internazzjonali=== Scifo ddebuta internazzjonalment għall-Belġju f'Ġunju 1984 kontra l-[[Tim nazzjonali tal-futbol tal-Jugożlavja|Jugożlavja]].<ref>[http://www.planetworldcup.com/LEGENDS/scifo.html Planet World Cup - Legends - Enzo Scifo]</ref> Huwa deher għall-[[Tim nazzjonali tal-futbol tal-Belġju|Belġju]] f'erba edizzjonijiet tat-[[Tazza tad-Dinja tal-Futbol|Tazza tad-Dinja]]; [[Tazza tad-Dinja tal-Futbol 1986|1986]], [[Tazza tad-Dinja tal-Futbol 1990|1990]], [[Tazza tad-Dinja tal-Futbol 1994|1994]], u [[Tazza tad-Dinja tal-Futbol 1998|1998]], hu lagħab sittax-il logħba fit-turnew.<ref>[http://www.world-football-legends.co.uk/scifo.php World Football Legends | Players | Enzo Scifo]</ref> B'total hu kiseb erba' u tmenin apparenzi internazzjonali u skorja tmintax-il gowl.<ref>[http://www.spiegel.de/sport/fussball/0,1518,35351,00.html Fußball-Star Enzo Scifo außer Lebensgefahr]</ref> ==Unuri== ;RSC Anderlecht * [[L-Ewwel Diviżjoni Belġjana|Kampjonat Belġjan]]: 1985, 1986, 1987, 2000 ;AS Monaco * [[Ligue 1]]: 1996–97 ;Torino * [[Coppa Italia]]: 1992–93 ==Statistika == {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |- ! colspan=3 | Prestazzjoni ! colspan=2 | Kampjonat ! colspan=2 | Tazza ! colspan=2 | Tazza tal-Kampjonat ! colspan=2 | Kontinentali ! colspan=2 | Total |- ! Staġun ! Kabb ! Kampjonat ! Preż !! Gowls ! Preż !! Gowls ! Preż !! Gowls ! Preż !! Gowls ! Preż !! Gowls |- ! colspan=3 |Belġju ! colspan=2 | Kampjonat ! colspan=2 | [[Tazza Belġjana]] ! colspan=2 | Tazza tal-Kampjonat ! colspan=2 | [[UEFA|Ewropa]] ! colspan=2 | Total |- |1983-84||rowspan="4"|[[RSC Anderlecht|Anderlecht]]||rowspan="4"|[[Belgian League]]||25||5|||||||||||||||| |- |1984-85||30||14|||||||||||||||| |- |1985-86||31||5|||||||||||||||| |- |1986-87||33||8|||||||||||||||| |- ! colspan=3 |Italja ! colspan=2 | Kampjonat ! colspan=2 | [[Coppa Italia]] ! colspan=2 | Tazza tal-Kampjonat ! colspan=2 | [[UEFA|Ewropa]] ! colspan=2 | Total |- |[[Serie A 1987-88|1987-88]]||[[FC Internazionale Milano|Internazionale Milano]]<ref>[http://archivio.inter.it/cgi-bin/giocatori-scheda?codice=G0592&L=it Archivio.inter.it]</ref>||[[Serie A]]||28||4||10||0||-||-||6||1||44||5 |- ! colspan=3 |Franza ! colspan=2 | Kampjonat ! colspan=2 | [[Coupe de France]] ! colspan=2 | [[Coupe de la Ligue]] ! colspan=2 | [[UEFA|Ewropa]] ! colspan=2 | Total |- |1988-89||[[FC Girondins de Bordeaux|Girondins Bordeaux]]||[[Ligue 1|Division 1]]||24||7|||||||||||||||| |- |1989-90||rowspan="2"|[[AJ Auxerre|Auxerre]]||rowspan="2"|[[Ligue 1|Division 1]]||33||11|||||||||||||||| |- |1990-91||34||14|||||||||||||||| |- ! colspan=3 |Italja ! colspan=2 | Kampjonat ! colspan=2 | [[Coppa Italia]] ! colspan=2 | Tazza tal-Kampjonat ! colspan=2 | [[UEFA|Ewropa]] ! colspan=2 | Total |- |[[Serie A 1991-92|1991-92]]||rowspan="2"|[[Torino FC|Torino]]<ref>[http://www.archiviotoro.it/a/archivio/giocatori/s/Scifo.asp Archiviotoro.it]</ref>||rowspan="2"|[[Serie A]]||30||9||5||0||-||-||11||2||46||11 |- |[[Serie A 1992-93|1992-93]]||32||7||6||2||-||-||4||0||42||9 |- ! colspan=3 |Franza ! colspan=2 | Kampjonat ! colspan=2 | [[Coupe de France]] ! colspan=2 | [[Coupe de la Ligue]] ! colspan=2 | [[UEFA|Ewropa]] ! colspan=2 | Total |- |1993-94||rowspan="4"|[[AS Monaco FC|Monaco]]||rowspan="4"|[[Ligue 1]]||31||6|||||||||||||||| |- |1994-95||11||2|||||||||||||||| |- |1995-96||34||7|||||||||||||||| |- |1996-97||15||5|||||||||||||||| |- ! colspan=3 |Belġju ! colspan=2 | Kampjonat ! colspan=2 | [[Tazza Belġjana]] ! colspan=2 | Tazza tal-Kampjonat ! colspan=2 | [[UEFA|Ewropa]] ! colspan=2 | Total |- |1997-98||rowspan="3"|[[RSC Anderlecht|Anderlecht]]||rowspan="3"|[[Belgian League]]||30||4|||||||||||||||| |- |1998-99||27||8|||||||||||||||| |- |1999-00||17||2|||||||||||||||| |- |2000-01||[[R. Charleroi SC|Charleroi]]||[[L-Ewwel Diviżjoni Belġjana]]||12||3|||||||||||||||| |- ! rowspan=3 | Total ! colspan=2 | Belġju !205||49|||||||||||||||| |- !colspan=2|Italja !90||20|||||||||||||||| |- !colspan=2|Franza !182||52|||||||||||||||| |- !colspan=3|Total !477||121|||||||||||||||| |} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" ! colspan=3 | [[Tim nazzjonali tal-futbol tal-Belġju|Tim nazzjonali Belġju]] |- !Sena!!Preż!!Gowls |- |- |1984||8||1 |- |1985||3||1 |- |1986||12||3 |- |1987||4||0 |- |1988||4||0 |- |1989||5||0 |- |1990||9||2 |- |1991||6||3 |- |1992||6||1 |- |1993||5||4 |- |1994||6||0 |- |1995||3||2 |- |1996||4||0 |- |1997||4||0 |- |1998||5||1 |- !Total||84||18 |} ===Gowls internazzjonali=== :''Punteġġi u r-riżultati tal-Belġju qedgħin fil-lista xellugija.. {| class="wikitable" ! # !! Data !! Post !! Avversarju !! Punteġġ !! Riżultat !! Kompetizzjoni |- | 1. || 17 ta' Ottubru 1984 || [[Stadju King Baudouin Stadium|Stadju Heysel]], [[Brussell]] || {{fb|ALB}} || '''2'''–1 || 3–1 || [[Kwalifikazzjoni għat-Tazza tad-Dinja tal-Futbol 1986|Kwalifikazzjoni għat-Tazza tad-Dinja 1986]] |- | 2. || 27 ta' Marzu 1985 || Stadju Heysel, Brussell || {{fb|GRE}} || '''2'''–0 || 2–0 || Kwalifikazzjoni għat-Tazza tad-Dinja 1986 |- | 3. || 8 ta' Ġunju 1986 || [[Estadio Nemesio Díez]], [[Toluca]] || {{fb|IRQ}} || '''1'''–0 || 2–1 || '''[[Tazza tad-Dinja tal-Futbol 1986|Tazza tad-Dinja 1986]]''' |- | 4. || 15 ta' Ġunju 1986 || [[Estadio Nou Camp]], [[León, Guanajuato|León]] || {{fb|URS}} || '''1'''–1 || 4–3 || '''[[Tazza tad-Dinja tal-Futbol 1986|Tazza tad-Dinja 1986]]''' |- | 5. || 10 ta' Settembru 1986 || Stadju Heysel, Brussell || {{fb|IRL}} || '''2'''–1 || 2–2 || [[Kwalifikazzjoni għall-Kampjonati Ewropej tal-Futbol 1988|Kwalifikazzjoni għall-Kampjonati Ewropej 1988]] |- | 6. || 26 ta' Mejju 1990 || Stadju Heysel, Brussell || {{fb|ROU}} || '''1'''–0 || 2–2 || Logħba ta' ħbiberija |- | 7. || 17 ta' Ġunju 1990 || [[Stadio Marc'Antonio Bentegodi]], [[Verona]] || {{fb|URU}} || '''2'''–0 || 3–1 || '''[[Tazza tad-Dinja tal-Futbol 1990|Tazza tad-Dinja 1990]]''' |- | 8. || 27 ta' Frar 1991 || [[Stadju Constant Vanden Stock]], Brussell || {{fb|LUX}} || '''3'''–0 || 3–0 || [[Kwalifikazzjoni għall-Kampjonati Ewropej tal-Futbol 1992|Kwalifikazzjoni għall-Kampjonati Ewropej 1992]] |- | 9. || 11 ta' Settembru 1991 || [[Stade Josy Barthel]], [[Lussemburgu (belt)|Lussemburgu]] || {{fb|LUX}} || '''1'''–0 || 2–0 || Kwalifikazzjoni għall-Kampjonati Ewropej 1992 |- | 10. || 9 ta' Ottubru 1991 || [[Sóstói Stadion]], [[Székesfehérvár]] || {{fb|HUN}} || '''2'''–0 || 2–0 || Logħba ta' ħbiberija |- | 11. || 25 ta' Marzu 1992 || [[Parc des Princes]], [[Pariġi]] || {{fb|FRA}} || '''2'''–1 || 3–3 || Logħba ta' ħbiberija |- | 12. | rowspan=2 | 13 ta' Frar 1993 || rowspan=2 | [[Stadju Makario]], [[Nikosija]] || rowspan=2 | {{fb|CYP}} || '''1'''–0 || rowspan=2 | 3–0 || rowspan=2 | [[Kwalifikazzjoni għat-Tazza tad-Dinja tal-Futbol 1994|Kwalifikazzjoni għat-Tazza tad-Dinja 1994]] |- | 13. || '''2'''–0 |- | 14. || 22 ta' Mejju 1993 || Stadju Constant Vanden Stock, Brussell || {{fb|FRO}} || '''2'''–0 || 3–0 || Kwalifikazzjoni għat-Tazza tad-Dinja 1994 |- | 15. || 13 ta' Ottubru 1993 || [[Stadionul Steaua]], [[Bukarest]] || {{fb|ROU}} || '''1'''–2 || 1–2 || Kwalifikazzjoni għat-Tazza tad-Dinja 1994 |- | 16. | rowspan=2 | 7 ta' Ġunju 1995 || rowspan=2 | [[Philip II Arena]], [[Skopje]] || rowspan=2 | {{fb|MKD}} || '''2'''–0 || rowspan=2 | 5–0 || rowspan=2 | [[Kwalifikazzjoni għall-Kampjonati Ewropej tal-Futbol 1996|Kwalifikazzjoni għall-Kampjonati Ewropej 1996]] |- | 17. || '''5'''–0 |- | 18. || 6 ta' Ġunju 1998 || Stadju King Baudouin, Brussell || {{fb|PAR}} || '''1'''–0 || 1–0 || Logħba ta' ħbiberija |- |} ==Referenzi== {{referenzi}} ==Ħoloq esterni== * {{nfteams}} * {{FIFA}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Scifo, Enzo}} [[Kategorija:Twieldu fl-1966]] [[Kategorija:Nies ħajjin]] [[Kategorija:Futbolers Belġjani]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis Belġjani]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' RAA Louviéroise]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' RSC Anderlecht]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' Inter Milan‎]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' AJ Auxerre]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' Torino FC]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis tal-Ewwel Diviżjoni Belġjana]] [[Kategorija:Plejers tas-Serie A]] [[Kategorija:Plejers tal-Ligue 1]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' AS Monaco FC]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis ta' R. Charleroi SC]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis ta' RE Mouscron]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis ta' RAEC Mons]] mvipnomiv8jaibltpohxkztmo69pp2e 0 20247 279101 270881 2022-08-15T06:17:10Z Chrisportelli 355 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox plejer tal-futbol |isem_plejer = Glen De Boeck |stampa = |data_twelid = {{dte|1971|08|22}} |post_twelid = [[Boom (Belġju)|Boom]] |pajjiż_twelid = [[Belġju]] |tul = 1.89 m |klabb_attwali = |numru = |rwol = [[Difensur]] |snin_mixtla1 = 1979–1990 |klabb_mixtla1 = Boom |snin1 = 1990–1992 |klabb1 = Boom |snin2 = 1992–1995 |klabb2 = [[KV Mechelen|Mechelen]] |snin3 = 1995–2005 |klabb3 = [[RSC Anderlecht|Anderlecht]] |snin_nazzjonali1 = 1993–2002 |tim_nazzjonali1 = [[Tim nazzjonali tal-futbol tal-Belġju|Belġju]] |snin_kowċ1 = 2005–2007 |klabb_kowċ1 = [[RSC Anderlecht|Anderlecht]] (assistent) |snin_kowċ2 = 2007–2010 |klabb_kowċ2 = [[Cercle Brugge]] |snin_kowċ3 = 2010 |klabb_kowċ3 = [[Germinal Beerschot]] |snin_kowċ4 = 2011 |klabb_kowċ4 = [[VVV-Venlo]] |snin_kowċ5 = 2012–2013 |klabb_kowċ5 = [[Waasland-Beveren]] |snin_kowċ6 = 2016 |klabb_kowċ6 = [[Royal Excel Mouscron|Mouscron-Péruwelz]] |snin_kowċ7 = 2017–2018 |klabb_kowċ7 = [[KV Kortrijk|Kortrijk]] |snin_kowċ8 = 2019 |klabb_kowċ8 = [[KSC Lokeren Oost-Vlaanderen|Lokeren]] }} '''Glen De Boeck''' (twieled fit-22 ta' Awwissu 1971) huwa eks-plejer u kowċ tal-[[futbol]] [[Belġju|Belġjan]]. Matul il-karriera tiegħu hu lagħab bħala [[difensur|difensur ċentrali]], l-aktar ma' [[RSC Anderlecht|Anderlecht]]. ==Karriera== ===Plejers=== Fis-sajf tal-1995, De Boeck ġie trasferit minn [[KV Mechelen|Mechelen]] għall-[[RSC Anderlecht|Anderlecht]]. Tard fid-1990ijiet, kien ikkritikata mill-opinjonisti, hu kklejmja li ma kienx tajjeb biżżejjed għal Anderlecht. Huwa eventwalment żied il-prestazzjonijiet tekniċi tiegħu biex issir wieħed mill-aħjar difensuri tal-[[L-Ewwel Diviżjoni Beljana|Ewwel Diviżjoni Beljana]] kmieni fil-millennju. Fi Frar 2005, De Boeck iddeċieda li jieqaf mill-karriera tiegħu minħabba korriment gravi fl-irkoppa. ===Kowċ=== Fit-23 ta' April 2007, ġie żvelat li De Boeck ser issir kowċ fil-ġenb tal-ewwel diviżjoni [[Cercle Brugge]] fl-aħħar tal-istaġun 2006-07. Fl-1 ta' Frar, 2008, il-bord tad-diretturi ta' Cercle iddikjaraw lil De Boeck u ffirma kuntratt ġdid sal-2011, kif huwa wkoll sar direttur tekniku tas-sezzjoni tal-futbol, filwaqt hu kien responsabbli għall-iżvilupp ulterjur tat-tim tal-futbol. F'Marzu 2009, De Boeck ċaħad lil [[KRC Genk]] biex jiffirmawh bħala kowċ ġdid tagħhom. Minflok huwa għażelu li jibqgħa fil-klabb attwali tiegħu [[Cercle Brugge]].<ref>http://www.gva.be/nieuws/sport/voetbal-binnenland/glen-de-boeck-ik-zie-me-nog-vijf-jaar-bij-cercle-brugge.aspx</ref> Huwa telaq lil Cercle f'Ġunju 2010 u kien imsemmi l-kowċ ta' Germinal Beerschot li kienu qed ifittxu suċċessur ta' Jos Daerden li telaq biex issir kowċ assistent mal-klabb Olandiż [[Twente FC|Twente]]. Fit-30 ta' Novembru 2010, wara riżultati ħżiena kontinwi u nuqqas ta' qbil fuq il-bord ta' tmexxija, hu kien imkeċċi bħala kowċ ta' Beerschot. Fil-bidu tal-istaġun 2011-2012 De Boeck ġie maħtur bħala kowċ ġdid ta' [[VVV-Venlo]], iżda matul nofs l-istaġun fis-6 ta' Diċembru 2011, wara telfa ta' 7-0 [[Heracles Almelo]], hu rriżenja bħala kowċ ta ' VVV-Venlo. F'Novembru 2012 huwa ffirma għal [[Waasland-Beveren]]. ==Internazzjonali== De Boeck għamel id-debutt internazzjonali tiegħu mal-[[Tim nazzjonali tal-futbol tal-Belġju|Belġju]] fis-6 ta' Ottubru 1993, kontra l-[[Tim nazzjonali tal-futbol tal-Gabon|Gabon]], hu mar biex jirrappreżenta lil pajjiżu f'żewġ edizzjonijiet tat-[[Tazza tad-Dinja tal-Futbol|Tazza tad-Dinja]], bi tliet dehriet ikkombinati. ==Referenzi== {{referenzi}} ==Ħoloq esterni== * {{Nfteams}} {{DEFAULTSORT:De Boeck, Glen}} [[Kategorija:Nies ħajjin]] [[Kategorija:Twieldu fl-1971]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis Belġjani]] [[Kategorija:Futbolers Belġjani]] [[Kategorija:Plejers tal-Ewwel Diviżjoni Belġjana]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis tal-Ewwel Diviżjoni Belġjana]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis ta' Cercle Brugge KSV]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis ta' Beerschot AC]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis ta' Waasland-Beveren]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' RSC Anderlecht]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' KV Mechelen]] m18nnu0b3p2ifqqs08oqz60hp0fhvx1 0 20276 279102 270334 2022-08-15T06:18:09Z Chrisportelli 355 wikitext text/x-wiki {{stub|bijografija}} {{Infobox plejer tal-futbol | isem_plejer= Francky Dury | stampa = [[Stampa:Francky Dury.jpeg|250px]] | data_twelid = {{dte|1957|10|11}} | post_twelid = [[Roeselare]] | pajjiż_twelid = Belġju | tul = | rwol = [[Midfilder]] | klabb_attwali = | snin_mixtla1 = 1969–1971 | klabb_mixtla1 = Hulste Sport | snin1 = 1971–1981 | klabb1 = Hulste Sport | snin_kowċ1 = 1981–1983 | klabb_kowċ1 = KRC Harelbeke Provinciale Juniores | snin_kowċ2 = 1983–1985 | klabb_kowċ2 = K SK Beveren-Leie | snin_kowċ3 = 1985–1989 | klabb_kowċ3 = KSK Ronse | snin_kowċ4 = 1989–1990 | klabb_kowċ4 = RRC Tournai | snin_kowċ5 = 1990–1993 | klabb_kowċ5 = [[Zultse VV]] | snin_kowċ6 = 1993–1994 | klabb_kowċ6 = RCH Gent | snin_kowċ7 = 1994–2001 | klabb_kowċ7 = [[Zultse VV]] | snin_kowċ8 = 2001–2010 | klabb_kowċ8 = [[SV Zulte Waregem|Zulte Waregem]] | snin_kowċ9 = 2010–2011 | klabb_kowċ9 = [[KAA Gent]] | snin_kowċ10 = 2011 | klabb_kowċ10 = [[Tim nazzjonali tal-futbol tal-Belġju ta' taħt il-21 sena|Belġju U-21]] | snin_kowċ11 = 2012–2021 | klabb_kowċ11 = [[SV Zulte Waregem|Zulte Waregem]] }} '''Francky Dury''' (twieled fil-11 ta' Ottubru 1957) huwa kowċ tal-[[futbol]] [[Belġju|Belġjan]] ==Unuri== * 1991: Rebbieħ tal-[[Kampjonati Provinċjali Belġjani]] * 1994: Rebbieħ tal-[[Promozzjoni Belġjana]] * 1995: Rebbieħ tal-[[Promozzjoni Belġjana]] * 1999: Rebbieħ tal-[[Promozzjoni Belġjana]] * 2002: Rebbieħ tal-[[It-Tielet Diviżjoni Belġjana|Promozzjoni]] * 2005: Rebbieħ tal-[[Kampjonat EXQI]] * 2006: Rebbieħ tat-Tazza Belġjana * 2006: It-Tieni post tas-[[Supercup Belġjana]] * 2006: Kowċ tas-Sena * 2007: [[Komunità Fjamminga|Personalità tal-Fjandri tal-Punent]] tas-sena * 2013: Kowċ tas-Sena {{DEFAULTSORT:Dury, Francky}} [[Kategorija:Twieldu fl-1957]] [[Kategorija:Nies ħajjin]] [[Kategorija:Futbolers Belġjani]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis Belġjani]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis ta' KAA Gent]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis ta' SV Zulte Waregem]] g19b0fulay42td5hmiaowacamgnmxvn 279103 279102 2022-08-15T06:18:25Z Chrisportelli 355 tiswija żgħira wikitext text/x-wiki {{stub|bijografija}} {{Infobox plejer tal-futbol | isem_plejer= Francky Dury | stampa = [[Stampa:Francky Dury.jpeg|250px]] | data_twelid = {{dte|1957|10|11}} | post_twelid = [[Roeselare]] | pajjiż_twelid = Belġju | tul = | rwol = [[Midfilder]] | klabb_attwali = | snin_mixtla1 = 1969–1971 | klabb_mixtla1 = Hulste Sport | snin1 = 1971–1981 | klabb1 = Hulste Sport | snin_kowċ1 = 1981–1983 | klabb_kowċ1 = KRC Harelbeke Provinciale Juniores | snin_kowċ2 = 1983–1985 | klabb_kowċ2 = K SK Beveren-Leie | snin_kowċ3 = 1985–1989 | klabb_kowċ3 = KSK Ronse | snin_kowċ4 = 1989–1990 | klabb_kowċ4 = RRC Tournai | snin_kowċ5 = 1990–1993 | klabb_kowċ5 = [[Zultse VV]] | snin_kowċ6 = 1993–1994 | klabb_kowċ6 = RCH Gent | snin_kowċ7 = 1994–2001 | klabb_kowċ7 = [[Zultse VV]] | snin_kowċ8 = 2001–2010 | klabb_kowċ8 = [[SV Zulte Waregem|Zulte Waregem]] | snin_kowċ9 = 2010–2011 | klabb_kowċ9 = [[KAA Gent]] | snin_kowċ10 = 2011 | klabb_kowċ10 = [[Tim nazzjonali tal-futbol tal-Belġju ta' taħt il-21 sena|Belġju U-21]] | snin_kowċ11 = 2012–2021 | klabb_kowċ11 = [[SV Zulte Waregem|Zulte Waregem]] }} '''Francky Dury''' (twieled fil-11 ta' Ottubru 1957) huwa kowċ tal-[[futbol]] [[Belġju|Belġjan]]. ==Unuri== * 1991: Rebbieħ tal-[[Kampjonati Provinċjali Belġjani]] * 1994: Rebbieħ tal-[[Promozzjoni Belġjana]] * 1995: Rebbieħ tal-[[Promozzjoni Belġjana]] * 1999: Rebbieħ tal-[[Promozzjoni Belġjana]] * 2002: Rebbieħ tal-[[It-Tielet Diviżjoni Belġjana|Promozzjoni]] * 2005: Rebbieħ tal-[[Kampjonat EXQI]] * 2006: Rebbieħ tat-Tazza Belġjana * 2006: It-Tieni post tas-[[Supercup Belġjana]] * 2006: Kowċ tas-Sena * 2007: [[Komunità Fjamminga|Personalità tal-Fjandri tal-Punent]] tas-sena * 2013: Kowċ tas-Sena {{DEFAULTSORT:Dury, Francky}} [[Kategorija:Twieldu fl-1957]] [[Kategorija:Nies ħajjin]] [[Kategorija:Futbolers Belġjani]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis Belġjani]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis ta' KAA Gent]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis ta' SV Zulte Waregem]] k3wjjehkmjcwx2tuny4ba7l1ey8dgsg 0 20297 279107 272294 2022-08-15T06:24:03Z Chrisportelli 355 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox plejer tal-futbol |isem_plejer = Lorenzo Staelens |isem_sħiħ = Lorenzo Jules Staelens |stampa = |data_twelid = {{dte|df=yes|1964|4|30}} |post_twelid = [[Lauwe]] |pajjiż_twelid = [[Belġju]] |tul = 1.83 m |klabb_attwali = |rwol = [[Difensur]] / [[Midfilder]] |snin_mixtla1 = |klabb_mixtla1 = |snin1 = 1982–1987 |klabb1 = KWSC Lauwe |snin2 = 1987–1989 |klabb2 = [[KV Kortrijk|Kortrijk]] |snin3 = 1989–1998 |klabb3 = [[Club Brugge KV|Club Brugge]] |snin4 = 1998–2000 |klabb4 = [[RSC Anderlecht|Anderlecht]] |snin5 = 2001 |klabb5 = [[Oita Trinita]] |snin_nazzjonali1 = 1990–2000 |tim_nazzjonali1 = [[Tim nazzjonali tal-futbol tal-Belġju|Belġju]] |snin_kowċ1 = 2002–2003 |klabb_kowċ1 = [[RE Mouscron|Mouscron]] |snin_kowċ2 = 2004 |klabb_kowċ2 = [[VC Eendracht Aalst 2002|Eendracht Aalst]] |snin_kowċ3 = 2007–2008 |klabb_kowċ3 = [[KSV Roeselare|Roeselare]] (assistent) |snin_kowċ4 = 2008–2013 |klabb_kowċ4 = [[Cercle Brugge KSV|Cercle Brugge]] (assistent) |snin_kowċ5 = 2013–2014 |klabb_kowċ5 = [[Cercle Brugge KSV|Cercle Brugge]] |snin_kowċ6 = 2015 |klabb_kowċ6 = OMS Ingelmunster |snin_kowċ7 = 2016–2017 |klabb_kowċ7 = [[Royal Excel Mouscron|Royal Mouscron]] (assistent) |snin_kowċ8 = 2017–2018 |klabb_kowċ8 = [[KV Kortrijk|Kortrijk]] (assistent) |snin_kowċ9 = 2018–2019 |klabb_kowċ9 = Knokke |snin_kowċ10 = 2019 |klabb_kowċ10 = [[KSC Lokeren Oost-Vlaanderen|Lokeren]] }} '''Lorenzo Jules Staelens''' (twieled fit-30 ta' April 1964) huwa eks-plejer u kowċ tal-[[futbol]] [[Belġju|Belġjan]]. Staelens deher għat-[[Tim nazzjonali tal-futbol tal-Belġju|tim nazzjonali tal-Belġju]] fi tliet edizzjonijiet tat-[[Tazza tad-Dinja tal-Futbol|Tazza tad-Dinja]]. ==Karriera== Staelens beda l-karriera professjonali tiegħu ma [[KV Kortrijk]] fl-età ta' 23, u f'żewġ staġuni solidi tiegħu hemmhekk ġibdu l-attenzjoni tal-ġganti tal-[[L-Ewwel Diviżjoni Belġjana|ogħla diviżjoni]] [[Club Brugge KV]]. Hemmhekk, huwa pproċeda biex jiffurma sħubija mal-midfilder leġġendarju [[Franky Van der Elst]], li aktarx damu kważi għaxar snin. Staelens lagħab 369 logħbiet fil-kompetizzjonijiet kollha għall-klabb, fejn skorja 105 gowls. Fl-età ta' 34, u aktar spiss milli ma jilgħabx fuq [[Difesnur|wara mal-linja]], hu mar ma [[RSC Anderlecht]], hu rebaħ il-kampjonat Belġjan f'żewġ okkażjonijiet magħhom ([[L-Ewwel Diviżjoni Belġjana 1999–2000|2000]] u [[L-Ewwel Diviżjoni Belġjana 2000–01|2001]]), u rebaħ iż-[[Żarbuna tad-Deheb Belġjana]] fl-1999; madankollu, huwa ma spiċċax l-aħħar sena tiegħu, hu mar jilgħab fil-[[Ġappun]] ma [[Oita Trinita]] kmieni fl-2001 u rtira ftit wara. Staelens ħa sussegwentement il-kariga tal-kowċing, l-ewwel ma [[RE Mouscron]]. Wara xahrejn biss hu mar ma [[VC Eendracht Aalst 2002|VC Eendracht Aalst]], imbagħad huwa reġa mal-ewwel klabb Kortrijk bħala kowċ [[ġenerali]], hu biss irritornaw lejn il-bankijiet fl-2007, bħala kowċ assistent ma [[KSV Roeselare]]. Staelens żamm lir-rwol fis-snin sussegwenti, ma tim ieħor minn [[Bruges]], [[Cercle Brugge KSV|Cercle KSV]]. ==Karriera internazzjonali== Bħala plejer mingħajr esperjenza internazzjonali, Staelens kien magħżul fl-iskwadra [[Tim nazzjonali tal-futbol tal-Belġju|Belġjana]] għat-[[Tazza tad-Dinja tal-Futbol 1990|Tazza tad-Dinja 1990]]; hemm, hu deher fil-logħba tal-fażi tal-gruppi kontra [[Tim nazzjonali tal-futbol ta' Spanja|Spanja]] fejn tilfu 1–2. Minn hemm 'il quddiem, Staelens sar membru essenzjali tat-tim nazzjonali, hu rrappreżentah wkoll fit-[[Tazza tad-Dinja tal-Futbol 1994|Tazza tad-Dinja 1994]] u [[Tazza tad-Dinja tal-Futbol 1999|1999]] u fil-[[Kampjonati Ewropej tal-Futbol 2000|Kampjonati Ewropej 2000]],hu lagħab aktar minn 10 logħbiet kompluti.<ref>{{FIFA|44655}}</ref> ==Statistika== ===Klabb=== {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |- ! colspan=3 |Prestazzjoni ! colspan=2 |Kampjonat |- ! Staġun ! Klabb ! Kampjonat ! Preż !! Gowls |- ! colspan=3 |Belġju ! colspan=2 | Kampjonat |- |1987–88||rowspan="2"|[[KV Kortrijk|Kortrijk]]||rowspan="2"|[[L-Ewwel Diviżjoni Belġjana]]||32||4 |- |1988–89||32||7 |- |1989–90||rowspan="9"|[[Club Brugge KV|Brugge]]||rowspan="9"|[[L-Ewwel Diviżjoni Belġjana]]||34||4 |- |1990–91||33||4 |- |1991–92||31||5 |- |1992–93||34||7 |- |1993–94||33||12 |- |1994–95||34||16 |- |1995–96||30||12 |- |1996–97||31||8 |- |1997–98||26||6 |- |1998–99||rowspan="3"|[[RSC Anderlecht|Anderlecht]]||rowspan="3"|[[L-Ewwel Diviżjoni Belġjana]]||24||6 |- |1999–2000||29||1 |- |2000–01||14||3 |- ! colspan=3 |Ġappun ! colspan=2 | Kampjonat |- |2001||[[Oita Trinita]]||[[J. League Diviżjoni 2|J. League 2]]||26||2 |- !rowspan=2| Pajjiż!!colspan=2| Belġju !417||95 |- !colspan=2|Ġappun !26||2 |- !colspan=3|Total !443||97 |} ===Internazzjonali=== {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" ! colspan=3 | [[Tim nazzjonali tal-futbol tal-Belġju|Tim nazzjonali tal-Belġju]] |- !Sena!!Preż!!Gowls |- |- |1990||3||0 |- |1991||3||0 |- |1992||4||1 |- |1993||6||0 |- |1994||11||0 |- |1995||8||0 |- |1996||3||0 |- |1997||6||5 |- |1998||8||0 |- |1999||11||1 |- |2000||7||1 |- !Total||70||8 |} ==Unuri== * [[L-Ewwel Diviżjoni Belġjana]]: 1989–90, 1990–91, 1991–92, 1995–96, 1997–98, 1999–2000, 2000–01 * [[Tazza Belġjana]]: 1990–91, 1994–95, 1995–96 * [[Supercup Belġjana]]: 1990, 1991, 1992, 1994, 1996, 2000 ==Referenzi== {{referenzi}} ==Ħoloq esterni== * {{nfteams}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Staelens, Lorenzo}} [[Kategorija:Twieldu fl-1964]] [[Kategorija:Nies ħajjin]] [[Kategorija:Futbolers Belġjani]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis Belġjani]] [[Kategorija:Plejers tal-Ewwel Diviżjoni Belġjana]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis tal-Ewwel Diviżjoni Belġjana]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' KV Kortrijk]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' Club Brugge KV]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' RSC Anderlecht]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' Oita Trinita]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' RE Mouscron]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' Cercle Brugge KSV]] mhb1iuxy957ae8btiut2d9c1zc1ybg0 0 20392 279122 266545 2022-08-15T09:58:14Z Chrisportelli 355 tiswija tar-referenzi wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Pajjiż |isem_twil_konvenzjonali = Stati Uniti Messikani |isem_nattiv = ''Estados Unidos Mexicanos''<ref name="presidencia.gob.mx">{{ċita web |url=http://www.presidencia.gob.mx/index.php?DNA=91 |pubblikatur=Presidency of Mexico |titlu=Official name of the country |data=2005-03-31 |data-aċċess=2010-05-30 |lingwa=en |arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100326223041/http://www.presidencia.gob.mx/index.php?DNA=91 |arkivju-data=2010-03-26}}</ref> |isem_komuni = Messiku |stampa_bandiera = Flag of Mexico.svg |stampa_emblema = Coat of arms of Mexico.svg |stampa_mappa = Mexico (orthographic projection).svg |deskrizzjoni_mappa = |ħolqa_bandiera = Bandiera tal-Messiku |ħolqa_emblema = Emblema tal-Messiku |ħolqa_demografija = Demografija tal-Messiku |mottu_nazzjonali = |innu_nazzjonali = ''[[Himno Nacional Mexicano]]''<br /><center>[[Stampa:Himno Nacional Mexicano instrumental.ogg]]</center> |lingwi_uffiċjali = [[Lingwa Spanjola|Spanjol]] |gruppi_etniċi = |kapitali = [[Belt tal-Messiku]] |l-ikbar_belt = [[Belt tal-Messiku]] |latd=19 |latm=03 |latNS=N |lonġd=99 |lonġm=22 |lonġEW=W |tip_gvern = [[Repubblika]] [[Repubblika semi-presidenzjali|semi-presidenzjali]] [[Stat unitarju|unitarja]] |titlu_kap1 = [[President tal-Messiku|President]] |titlu_kap2 = [[Senat tal-Messiku|President tas-Senat]] |titlu_kap3 = [[Kamra tad-Deputati (Messiku)|President tal-Kamra tad-Deputati]] |titlu_kap4 = [[Qorti Suprema tal-Ġustizzja tan-Nazzjon|President tal-Qorti Suprema]] |titlu_kap5 = [[Segretarjat tal-Intern (Messiku)|Segretarju tal-Intern]] |isem_kap1 = [[Andrés Manuel López Obrador]] |isem_kap2 = [[Oscar Eduardo Ramírez Aguilar]] |isem_kap3 = [[Dulce María Sauri Riancho]] |isem_kap4 = [[Arturo Zaldívar Lelo de Larrea]] |isem_kap5 = [[Olga Sánchez Cordero]] |żona_kklassifika = 14 |poż_erja = 14 <!--pożizzjoni bbażata fuq l-istati sovrani biss--> |erja_km2 = 1,972,550 |erja_mi_kw = 761,606 |perċentwal_ilma = 2.5 |sena_stima_popolazzjoni = 2017 |stima_popolazzjoni = 124,574,795 <ref name=World/> |poż_stima_popolazzjoni = 11 <!--pożizzjoni bbażata fuq l-istati sovrani biss--> |ċensiment_popolazzjoni = |sena_ċensiment_popolazzjoni = |densità_popolazzjoni_km2 = 57 |densità_popolazzjoni_mi_kw = 142 |poż_densità_popolazzjoni = 142 <!--pożizzjoni bbażata fuq l-istati sovrani biss--> |sena_PGD_PSX = 2012 |PGD_PSX = $1.759 triljun |poż_PGD_PSX = 11 |PGD_PSX_per_capita = $15,312 |poż_PGD_PSX_per_capita = 64 |sena_IŻU = 2013 |IŻU = {{increase}} 0.775 <ref name="HDI">{{ċita web |url= http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR2013_EN_Statistics.pdf |titlu= 2013 Human Development Report Statistics |xogħol=Human Development Report 2013 |pubblikatur=Nazzjonijiet Uniti |data=2013-03-14 |data-aċċess=2013-03-16 |lingwa=en}}</ref> |poż_IŻU = 61 |kategorija_IŻU = <span style="color:#090;">għoli</span> |tip_sovranità = [[Gwerra Messikana tal-Indipendenza|Indipendenza]] |nota_sovranità = minn [[Spanja]] |avveniment_stabbilit1 = Iddikjarata |data_stabbilit1 = 16 ta' Settembru 1810 |avveniment_stabbilit2 = Rikonoxxuta |data_stabbilit2 = 27 ta' Settembru 1821 |valuta = [[Peso tal-Messiku|Peso]] |kodiċi_valuta = MXN |żona_ħin = ''Ara'' [[Ħin fil-Messiku]] |differenza_ħku = -8 għal -6 |żona_ħin_legali = ivarja |differenza_żona_ħin_legali = −7 għal −5 |cctld = [[.mx]] |kodiċi_telefoniku = +52 |sena_PGD_nominali = 2012 |PGD_nominali = $1.177 triljun |poż_PGD_nominali = 14 |PGD_nominali_per_capita = $10,247 |poż_PGD_nominali_per_capita = 66 |noti = }} Il-'''Messiku''' ({{awdjo|En-us-Mexico.ogg|ˈmɛksɨkoʊ}}; bl-[[Lingwa Spanjola|Ispanjol]]:''México''; ({{awdjo|es-mx-México.ogg|ˈme.xi.ko}}), uffiċjalment l-'''Istati Uniti Messikani'''<ref>{{ċita aħbar|kunjom=Romo|isem=Rafael|titlu=After nearly 200 years, Mexico may make the name official|url=http://www.cnn.com/2012/11/22/world/americas/mexico-name-change/index.html?hpt=hp_t3|pubblikatur=CNN|data=2012-11-23|lingwa=en}}</ref><ref>{{ċita web |url=http://embamex.sre.gob.mx/eua/index.php/en/about-mexico |titlu=About Mexico |pubblikatur=Embajada de Mexico en Estados Unidos (Ambaxxata Messikana fl-Istati Uniti) |data=2012-06-21 |lingwa=en}}</ref> ({{awdjo|Es-mx-Estados Unidos Mexicanos.ogg|''Estados Unidos Mexicanos''}}), huwa repubblika [[Federazzjoni|federali]] kostituzzjonali fl-Amerika. [[Fruntieri tal-Messiku|Hu jmiss]] fit-tramuntana mill-[[Stati Uniti|Istati Uniti]]; fin-nofsinhar u l-punent mill-Oċean Paċifiku; l-Lbiċ mill-[[Gwatemala]], [[Beliże]], u l-[[Baħar Karibew]]; u fil-lvant mill-[[Golf tal-Messiku]].<ref>Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary, 3et {{deskrizzjoni kmand|ed.|edizzjoni}}, Springfield, Massachusetts, [[USA]], Merriam-Webster; p. 733</ref> Il-pajjiż ikopri kważi żewġ miljun kilometru kwadru (aktar minn 760,000&nbsp;mi&nbsp;kw), Il-Messiku hu l-ħames l-akbar pajjiż fl-[[Ameriki]] mill-erja totali u t-[[Lista ta' pajjiżi skont l-erja|13 l-akbar nazzjon indipendenti fid-dinja]], b'popolazzjoni stmata ta' aktar minn 124-il miljun,<ref name=World>{{ċita web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/mx.html |titlu=The World Factbook - 2017|pubblikatur=CIA |sena=2018 |lingwa=en}}</ref> huwa l-[[Lista ta' pajjiżi skont il-popolazzjoni|ħdax l-aktar popolat]] u l-aktar pajjiż li jitkellem bl-ispanjol fid-dinja — minbarra li huwa t-tieni l-aktar pajjiż popolat fl-[[Amerika Latina]], wara l-[[Brażil]]. Il-Messiku huwa federazzjoni li jinkludi [[Diviżjonijiet amministrattivi tal-Messiku|wieħed u tletin stat]] u [[Belt tal-Messiku|Distrett Federali]], l-belt kapitali. == Referenzi == {{Referenzi}} {{Amerika ta' Fuq}} [[Kategorija:Messiku| ]] 5mkw85r02wvhdm8sgtien6gq3s17x07 0 20471 279099 223633 2022-08-15T06:11:59Z Chrisportelli 355 infobox wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox plejer tal-futbol | isem_plejer = Frederik Vanderbiest | isem_sħiħ = Frederik Vanderbiest | tul = 1.80 m | stampa = [[Stampa:Frederik Vanderbiest.jpg|200px]] | data_twelid = {{dte|1977|10|10}} | post_twelid = [[Vilvoorde]] | pajjiż_twelid = Belġju | klabb_attwali = | numru = | rwol = [[Midfilder]] (irtirat) | snin_mixtla1 = | klabb_mixtla1 = | snin1 = 1997–1998 | snin2 = 1998–1999 | snin3 = 1999–2000 | snin4 = 2000–2001 | snin5 = 2001–2007 | snin6 = 2008–2009 | snin7 = 2008–2009 | snin8 = 2009–2011 | klabb1 = [[RWD Molenbeek|RWDM]] | klabb2 = [[R. Wallonia Walhain CG|Walhain]] | klabb3 = [[R. Union Saint-Gilloise|Union SG]] | klabb4 = [[RWD Molenbeek|RWDM]] | klabb5 = [[KSV Roeselare|Roeselare]] | klabb6 = [[FC Verbroedering Dender Eendracht Hekelgem|Dender]] | klabb7 = → [[Oud-Heverlee Leuven|OH Leuven]] (self) | klabb8 = [[KV Oostende|Oostende]] | snin_kowċ1 = 2010–2015 | klabb_kowċ1 = [[KV Oostende|Oostende]] | snin_kowċ2 = 2015–2016 | klabb_kowċ2 = [[Cercle Brugge KSV|Cercle Brugge]] | snin_kowċ3 = 2016 | klabb_kowċ3 = [[Royal Antwerp FC|Antwerp]] | snin_kowċ4 = 2016–2017 | klabb_kowċ4 = [[Aris Limassol FC|Aris Limassol]] | snin_kowċ5 = 2017 | klabb_kowċ5 = [[Lierse SK|Lierse]] | snin_kowċ6 = 2017–2018 | klabb_kowċ6 = [[KSV Roeselare|Roeselare]] (assistent) | snin_kowċ7 = 2018–2019 | klabb_kowċ7 = [[KV Mechelen]] (assistent) | snin_kowċ8 = 2019–2020 | klabb_kowċ8 = [[RWDM47]] | snin_kowċ9 = 2020– | klabb_kowċ9 = [[KV Mechelen]] (assistent) }} '''Frederik Vanderbiest''' (twieled fl-10 ta' Ottubru 1977) huwa eks-plejer u kowċ tal-[[futbol]] [[Belġju|Belġjan]]. Fl-2013, huwa wassal lil [[KV Oostende|Oostende]] fil-kwarti tal-finali tat-Tazza Belġjana u rebaħ il-promozzjoni għall-Ewwel Diviżjoni minħabba li rebħu t-Tieni Diviżjoni. ==Ħoloq esterni== * [http://www.transfermarkt.co.uk/en/frederic-vanderbiest/transfers/spieler_19931.html Frederik Vanderbiest] fuq Transfermarkt.co.uk {{DEFAULTSORT:Vanderbiest, Frederik}} [[Kategorija:Nies ħajjin]] [[Kategorija:Twieldu fl-1977]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis Belġjani]] [[Kategorija:Futbolers Belġjani]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' KSV Roeselare]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' R. Union Saint-Gilloise]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' FC Verbroedering Dender EH]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' Oud-Heverlee Leuven]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' KV Oostende]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis tal-Ewwel Diviżjoni Belġjana]] [[Kategorija:Kowċis ta' KV Oostende]] 0fq7kzbrjdebbefqjjmju09hpd0dxii 2 25623 279077 279072 2022-08-14T13:53:34Z Trigcly 17859 aġġornament wikitext text/x-wiki == '''Kontribuzzjonijiet - Artikli ġodda (713)''' == === <u>'''A'''</u> === * [[Abbazija ta' Corvey]] * [[Abbazija ta' Lorsch]] *[[Abbazija ta' Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe]] *[[Abbazija ta' Sankt Gallen]] *[[Abbazija ta’ Vézelay|Abbazija ta' Vezelay]] *[[Abu al-Fida]] *[[Abu Simbel]] *[[Aflaj tal-Oman]] *[[Afrodisja]] *[[Agostino Matrenza]] *[[Aït Benhaddou]] *[[Akkwedott ta' Padre Tembleque]] *[[Akkwedott ta' Pontcysyllte]] *[[Alatyr]] *[[Alberobello]] *[[Albi]] *[[Alcide d'Orbigny]] *[[Aleksandr Yakovlevich Khinchin]] *[[Alenush Terian]] *[[Alessandro Scarlatti]] *[[Alessandro Volta]] *[[Alfred Hermann Fried]] *[[Alfred Nobel]] *[[Alfredo Casella]] *[[Alto Douro]] * [[L-Amerika t'Isfel|Amerka t’Isfel]] * [[L-Amerika ta' Fuq|Amerka ta’ Fuq]] *[[Amilcare Ponchielli]] *[[Anastasia Golovina]] *[[Anders Jonas Ångström]] *[[André Citroën]] *[[André Weil]] * [[Angkor Wat]] * [[Ani]] *[[Anna Seghers]] *[[Anna Sychravová]] *[[Anne-Sophie Mutter]] * [[Antartika]] *[[Antoine de Jussieu]] *[[Antoine de Saint-Exupéry]] *[[Antoinette Miggiani]] *[[Anton Diabelli]] *[[Aquileia]] *[[Arena Tettonika Żvizzera ta' Sardona]] *[[Arġentier]] *[[Arġentier (tad-deheb)]] *[[Ark Ġeodetiku ta’ Struve]] *[[Arkeoloġija]] *[[Arkitett]] *[[Arkitettura tas-Seklu 20 ta' Frank Lloyd Wright]] *[[Arles]] *[[Armata tat-Terrakotta]] *[[Arslantepe]] *[[Arti Paleolitika fl-Għerien tat-Tramuntana ta' Spanja]] *[[Artiġjan]] * [[Assisi]] *[[Asuman Baytop]] *[[Auschwitz]] *[[Austin Camilleri]] *[[Avukat]] === '''<u>B</u>''' === * [[Bagan]] *[[Baħar ta' Wadden]] *[[Bajjad]] *[[Barbier]] *[[Bardejov]] *[[Bartolomé de Escobedo]] *[[Battir]] *[[Baxkortostan]] *[[Bażilika Ewfrasjana ta’ Poreč]] *[[Bażilika ta' San Eġidju]] *[[Beatriz Carrillo]] *[[Beemster]] *[[Belt ta' New York]] *[[Belt ta’ Vicenza u l-Vilel ta’ Palladio fil-Veneto|Belt ta’ Viċenza u l-Vilel ta’ Palladio fil-Veneto]] *[[Bennej]] *[[Bernard Grech]] *[[Bidwi]] *[[Bieb il-Belt]] *[[Borobudur]] *[[Bucha]] *[[Bukhara]] *[[Buskett]] *[[Butrint]] === '''<u>Ċ/C</u>''' === * [[Canaletto]] * [[Caral]] *[[Carl Bosch]] *[[Carla Fracci]] *[[Caroline Mikkelsen]] *[[Castel del Monte, Puglia]] *[[Çatalhöyük]] *[[Ċensu Apap]] *[[Český Krumlov]] *[[Ċetta Chevalier]] *[[Chaîne des Puys]] *[[Charles Jean de la Vallée-Poussin]] *[[Charles Nicolle]] *[[Charlie Watts]] *[[Chersonesus Tawrika]] *[[Chichén Itzá]] *[[Choirokoitia]] *[[Christiansfeld]] *[[Christopher Polhem]] *[[Ċikli ta' affreski tas-seklu 14 ta' Padova]] *[[Cinque Terre]] *[[Ċittadella Imperjali ta' Thăng Long]] *[[Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle]] *[[Crespi d'Adda]] *[[Cristofano Allori]] *[[Cumalıkızık]] *[[Cynthia Turner]] === '''<u>D</u>''' === * [[Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit]] *[[Dar ta’ Rietveld Schröder]] *[[Delta tax-xmara Kızılırmak]] *[[Dentist]] *[[Denys Shmyhal]] *[[Déodat Gratet de Dolomieu]] *[[Diana, Prinċipessa ta' Wales]] *[[Diga ta' Karakaya]] *[[Dikjarazzjoni tal-Indipendenza tal-Ukrajna]] *[[Dizzjunarju]] *[[Djalett]] *[[Djar Ewlenin ta' Victor Horta fi Brussell]] *[[Dolċier]] *[[Dolmen ta' Menga]] *[[Dolmen ta' Viera]] *[[Dolomiti]] *[[Domenico Scarlatti]] *[[Domowina]] *[[Draginja Vuksanović-Stanković]] *[[Dubrovnik]] *[[Durmitor]] * [[Dwejra]] === '''<u>E</u>''' === * [[Edinburgu]] * [[Efesu]] * [[Eise Eisinga]] *[[Ekonomista]] *[[El Torcal]] *[[Elisha Graves Otis]] *[[Emil Nolde]] *[[Emma Andrijewska]] *[[Emma Muscat]] *[[Ernst Schröder]] *[[Esperantoloġija]] *[[Estrazzjoni terminoloġika]] *[[Eugenija Šimkūnaitė]] *[[Eugenio Montale]] *[[Eva Ahnert-Rohlfs]] *[[Evelyn Bonaci]] *[[Ewropa tal-Lvant]] === '''<u>F</u>''' === * [[Fabbrika ta' Fagus]] * [[Fabbrika ta' Van Nelle]] * [[Fabbrika tal-Azzar ta' Völklingen]] * [[Fabbrika tal-Ħadid ta' Engelsberg]] * [[Fanal ta' Cordouan]] *[[Femminiżmu tar-Rom]] *[[Fenno-Skandinavja]] *[[Ferrara]] *[[Festival ta' Sanremo]] *[[Firenze]] *[[Fjords Norveġiżi tal-Punent]] *[[Flora Martirosian]] *[[Fondoq ta' Ironbridge]] *[[Foresti Antiki u Primordjali tal-Fagu tal-Karpazji u ta' Reġjuni Oħra tal-Ewropa]] *[[Foresti Tropikali ta' Gondwana]] * [[Forti ta' Agra]] *[[Forti ta' Bahla]] *[[Fortifikazzjonijiet ta’ Kotor|Fortifikazzjonijiet ta' Kotor]] *[[Fortijiet fl-Għoljiet ta' Rajasthan]] *[[Fortizza ta' Diyarbakır]] *[[Fotografu]] *[[Francesco Guardi]] *[[François-Alphonse Forel]] *[[François Couperin]] *[[Franġisk Zahra]] *[[Franz Ritter von Hauer]] *[[Frédéric Bartholdi]] *[[Fritz Albert Lipmann]] * [[Frott]] * [[Fruntieri Rumani tad-Danubju]] *[[Furnar]] === '''<u>Ġ</u>''' === * [[Ġardinar]] *[[Ġebla ta' Rosetta]] * [[Ġebla tal-Ġeneral]] * [[Ġeoloġija]] * [[Ġibjun ta' Kiev]] * [[Ġnien Botaniku ta' Padova]] * [[Ġonna ta' Hevsel]] *[[Ġurnalist]] === '''<u>G</u>''' === * [[Gammelstad]] * [[Genova: It-Toroq Ġodda u s-Sistema tal-Palazzi tal-Listi]] *[[Georg Ohm]] *[[George Gallup]] *[[Georges Bernanos]] *[[Georges J.F. Kohler]] *[[Getbol, il-Pjanuri tal-Marea tal-Korea t'Isfel]] *[[Giacomo Zanella]] *[[Giampiero Galeazzi]] *[[Gianni Vella]] *[[Giorgio Vasari]] *[[Giosuè Carducci]] *[[Giovanni Arduino]] *[[Giovanni Battista Belzoni]] *[[Giovanni Paisiello]] *[[Giovanni Papini]] *[[Giulio Natta]] *[[Gjirokastër]] *[[Glossarju]] *[[Göbekli Tepe]] *[[Gösta Mittag-Leffler]] *[[Grand Place, Brussell]] *[[Graz]] *[[Grazia Deledda]] *[[Gregorio Allegri]] *[[Gremxula ta' Malta]] *[[Grotta ta' Chauvet]] *[[Grupp ta' Monumenti ta' Khajuraho]] *[[Guillaume Cornelis van Beverloo]] *[[Gustave Charpentier]] * [[Gżejjer Eolji]] * [[Gżejjer Falkland]] * [[Gżejjer Galapagos]] *[[Gżira ta' Jeju]] *[[Gżira tal-Mużewijiet]] === '''<u>GĦ</u>''' === * [[Għajn Tuffieħa]] * [[Għalliem]] *[[Għar Dalam]] *[[Għar ta' Altamira]] *[[Għar ta' Karain]] *[[Għar tal-Irħam]] *[[Għerien ta’ Škocjan|Għerien ta' Škocjan]] *[[Għerien u Arti tal-Era Glaċjali fil-Jura tas-Swabja]] *[[Għoljiet, Djar u Kantini ta' Champagne]] *[[Għoljiet Sagri ta' Piemonte u ta' Lombardia]] *[[Għoljiet ta' Donets]] *[[Għoljiet tal-Prosecco ta' Conegliano u Valdobbiadene]] === '''<u>H</u>''' === * [[Hagia Sophia]] * [[Hallstatt]] *[[Hans Geiger]] *[[Hans Memling]] *[[Hans Spemann]] *[[Hatı Çırpan]] *[[Hattusha]] *[[Heinrich Hertz]] *[[Hermannus Contractus]] *[[Hildesheim]] *[[Holašovice]] *[[Hovgården]] *[[Howard Carter]] *[[Hryhorii Kvitka-Osnovianenko]] *[[Hubert de Givenchy]] === '''<u>Ħ</u>''' === * [[Ħaġar ta' Jelling]] *[[Ħajt il-Kbir taċ-Ċina]] *[[Ħitan Rumani ta' Lugo]] === '''<u>I</u>''' === * [[Idrija]] *[[Impjant tal-Ippompjar bl-Istim ta' Wouda]] *[[Inara Luigas]] *[[Inċiżjonijiet fuq il-Blat f’Valcamonica|Inċiżjonijiet fuq il-Blat f'Valcamonica]] *[[Indiċi]] *[[Ingredjent]] *[[Intaljatur]] *[[Ipoġew ta’ Ħal Saflieni|Ipoġew ta' Ħal Saflieni]] * [[Ipproċessar testwali]] * [[Irħula Kbar bi Spa fl-Ewropa]] * [[Irpin]] *[[Isabella d'Este]] *[[ISBN]] *[[Istmu Kuronjan]] *[[Ivan Turgenev]] *[[Ivrea]] === '''<u>J</u>''' === * [[Jacinto Benavente]] *[[Jantar Mantar, Jaipur]] *[[Jean Antoine Houdon]] *[[Jean Dieudonné]] *[[Jean Picard]] *[[Johan Jensen]] *[[John Edward Critien]] *[[John Kendrew]] *[[John Strutt Rayleigh]] *[[Jongmyo]] *[[Jørgen Pedersen Gram]] *[[Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac]] *[[Jože Plečnik]] *[[Julia Malinova]] *[[Júlia Sigmond]] *[[Julius Wagner-Jauregg]] *[[Jum il-Ġifa]] *[[Jum il-Lingwa Erżjana]] *[[Jum l-Ewropa]] === '''<u>K</u>''' === * [[Kaja Kallas]] *[[Kalwaria Zebrzydowska]] *[[Kampnari tal-Belġju u ta' Franza]] *[[Kappella]] *[[Karl Ferdinand Braun]] *[[Karl Weierstrass]] *[[Kastell ta’ Kroměříž|Kastell ta' Kroměříž]] *[[Kastell ta' Kronborg]] *[[Kastell ta’ Litomyšl|Kastell ta' Litomyšl]] *[[Kastell ta’ Malbork|Kastell ta' Malbork]] *[[Kastell ta' Spiš]] *[[Kastell ta' Wartburg]] *[[Kastelli ta' Bellinzona]] *[[Katarina Vitale]] * [[Katidral]] *[[Katidral ta' Aachen]] *[[Katidral ta' Köln]] *[[Katidral ta' Naumburg]] *[[Katidral ta' Santa Sofija (Kiev)]] *[[Katidral ta’ Šibenik|Katidral ta' Šibenik]] *[[Katina Muntanjuża ta’ Meskheti]] *[[Kauksi Ülle]] * [[Kavallier ta’ San Ġakbu|Kavallier ta' San Ġakbu]] *[[Kelma]] *[[Kernavė]] *[[Khiva]] *[[Kinderdijk]] *[[Kirurgu]] *[[Kladruby nad Labem]] * [[Klima ta' Malta]] *[[Knejjes Impittrin fir-Reġjun ta’ Troodos]] *[[Knejjes tal-Injam tal-Karpazji Slovakki]] *[[Knejjes tal-Injam tan-Nofsinhar ta’ Małopolskie]] *[[Knejjes tal-Moldavja]] *[[Knejjes tal-Paċi]] *[[Knisja tal-Pellegrinaġġ ta’ San Ġwann ta’ Nepomuk]] *[[Knisja ta' Santa Marija tal-Grazzji (Milan)|Knisja ta' Santa Marija tal-Grazzji, Milan]] *[[Knisja ta' San Nikola tas-Saqaf]] *[[Knisja tal-Paċi fi Świdnica]] *[[Knisja tal-Verġni Marija ta' Arakos]] *[[Knisja tal-Vitorja]] *[[Kok]] *[[Kolomenskoye]] *[[Kolonja tal-Artisti ta' Darmstadt]] *[[Kolonna tat-Trinità Mqaddsa, Olomouc]] * [[Kolossew]] *[[Konversazzjoni]] *[[Korfù]] *[[Kosta Ġurassika]] *[[Kosta ta' Amalfi]] *[[Kostituzzjoni ta’ Malta|Kostituzzjoni ta' Malta]] *[[Krater ta' Logoisk]] *[[Kremlin ta' Kazan]] *[[Kremlin ta’ Moska|Kremlin ta' Moska]] *[[Krzemionki]] *[[Kumpanija Ferrovjarja Retika]] *[[Kunvent Benedittin ta' San Ġwann f'Müstair]] *[[Kunvent ta' Spiš]] *[[Kunvent ta’ Novodevichy|Kunvent ta' Novodevichy]] *[[Kutná Hora]] === '''<u>L</u>''' === * [[L-Arti]] *[[Landier]] *[[Lapponja Żvediża]] *[[Las Médulas]] *[[Lascaux]] *[[Lavra tat-Trinità ta' San Serġjo]] *[[Lazzaro Pisani]] *[[Lessikoloġija]] * [[Lessiku]] * [[Letoon]] * [[Levoča, il-Kastell ta' Spiš u l-monumenti kulturali assoċjati]] *[[Lika Kavzharadze]] *[[Lingwa Erżjana]] *[[Linja ferrovjarja ta’ Semmering|Linja ferrovjarja ta' Semmering]] *[[Linji ta' Nazca]] *[[Linji tal-Ilma Difensivi Olandiżi]] *[[Lista ta’ binjiet ta’ Gaudí]] *[[Lista ta' Membri tal-Parlament ta' Malta, 2017–2022]] *[[Lista ta' peniżoli]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Ċipru]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Malta]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji taċ-Ċekja|Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fiċ-Ċekja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Bożnija-Ħerzegovina]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Każakistan]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Kroazja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Latvja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Litwanja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Maċedonja ta' Fuq]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Montenegro]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Polonja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fis-Slovenja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Turkija]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Awstrija]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Estonja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Iran]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Italja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Ukrajna]] *[[Loġġa tal-Ħarir]] *[[Longobardi fl-Italja: Postijiet tal-Poter (568-774 W.K.)]] *[[Lorenzo de' Medici]] *[[Lorenzo Valla]] *[[Lucavsala]] *[[Lučka Kajfež Bogataj]] *[[Ludovico Carracci]] *[[Luigi Boccherini]] *[[Luigi Pirandello]] *[[Lumbini]] *[[Lviv]] === '''<u>M</u>''' === * [[Machu Picchu]] *[[Mafkar tal-Paċi ta' Hiroshima]] * [[Malta taħt il-Franċiżi]] *[[Maltin]] *[[Måneskin]] *[[Manhush]] *[[Manto Mavrogenous]] *[[Mantova]] *[[Maria De Filippi]] *[[Maria Dobroniega ta' Kiev]] *[[Mario Draghi]] *[[Martinu I ta' Sqallija]] *[[Mary Moser]] *[[Mawżolew ta’ Khoja Ahmed Yasawi]] *[[Meteora]] *[[Mikhail Ostrogradsky]] *[[Milan]] *[[Mina tal-Imħabba ta' Klevan]] *[[Minjiera Storika tal-Fidda f'Tarnowskie Góry]] *[[Minjiera tal-Melħ ta’ Wieliczka]] *[[Minjiera tar-Ram ta' Falun]] *[[Minjieri taż-Żnied Neolitiċi ta' Spiennes]] *[[Mira Alečković]] *[[Mirella Freni]] *[[Modena]] *[[Monasteru ta’ Gračanica|Monasteru ta' Gračanica]] *[[Monasteru tal-Ġlormini]] *[[Monasteru Rjali ta' Santa Marija ta' Guadalupe]] *[[Monasteru ta' Voroneț]] *[[Monika Kryemadhi]] *[[Monte San Giorgio]] * [[Monument]] * [[Monumenti Rumani, il-Katidral ta' San Pietru u l-Knisja tal-Madonna fi Trier]] * [[Monumenti Storiċi f'Novgorod u fl-Inħawi]] * [[Monumenti Storiċi ta' Kjoto Antika (Bliet ta' Kjoto, Uji u Ōtsu)]] *[[Monumenti Storiċi ta' Nara]] *[[Moskea l-Kbira u Sptar ta' Divriği]] *[[Moskea ta’ Selimiye, Edirne]] *[[Motoori Norinaga]] *[[Muħammed]] *[[Muniċipju ta' Bremen]] *[[Muntanji tal-Krimea]] *[[Mużew ta' Trojja]] *[[Mystras]] === '''<u>N</u>''' === * [[Nagorno-Karabakh]] * [[Naħla tal-għasel ta' Malta]] * [[Nancy]] *[[Napli]] *[[Nataliya Kobrynska]] *[[Nekropoli ta' Monterozzi]] *[[Nemrut Dağı]] *[[New Secret (jott)]] *[[Nexhmije Pagarusha]] *[[Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc]] *[[Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot]] *[[Nicolau Coelho]] *[[Nikkō]] *[[Nisa (Turkmenistan)]] *[[Nisa f’Malta]] *[[Nisa fl-elezzjonijiet ġenerali ta’ Malta]] *[[Norman Morrison]] *[[Nutar]] === '''<u>O</u>''' === * [[Olga Tass]] *[[Olimpja]] *[[Oplontis]] *[[Opri Venezjani tad-Difiża bejn is-sekli 15 u 17: Stato da Terra – Stato da Mar tal-Punent]] *[[Oqbra imperjali tad-dinastiji Ming u Qing]] *[[Ortografija Litwana]] *[[Osservatorju ta' Jodrell Bank]] *[[Otto Toeplitz]] === '''<u>P</u>''' === * [[Pajsaġġ Agrikolu tan-Nofsinhar ta' Öland]] * [[Pajsaġġ Industrijali ta' Blaenavon]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta’ Lednice-Valtice]] * [[Pajsaġġ tal-Vinji ta' Piemonte: Langhe-Roero u Monferrato]] * [[Pajsaġġ tax-Xogħol fil-Minjieri ta' Cornwall u l-Punent ta' Devon]] *[[Palazz Irjali ta' Caserta]] *[[Palazz ta’ Djoklezjanu|Palazz ta' Djoklezjanu]] *[[Palazz ta' Drottningholm]] *[[Palazz ta’ Schönbrunn|Palazz ta' Schönbrunn]] *[[Palazz ta’ Stoclet|Palazz ta' Stoclet]] *[[Palazzi u Parks ta' Potsdam u Berlin]] *[[Palermo Għarbija-Normanna u l-Katidrali ta' Cefalù u Monreale]] *[[Palestina]] *[[Palianytsia]] *[[Pamukkale]] *[[Parmigianino]] *[[Park Irjali ta' Studley]] *[[Park Naturali Nazzjonali tal-Karpazji]] *[[Park Nazzjonali Storiku ta' Göreme]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta’ Belovezhskaya Pushcha]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Chitwan]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Cilento, Vallo di Diano u Alburni]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta’ Fertő-Hanság]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Garajonay]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Komodo]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Sagarmatha]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Teide]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Ujung Kulon]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Għerien ta' Naracoorte]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Lagi ta’ Plitvice]] *[[Park Storiku ta' Ayutthaya]] *[[Park ta’ Muskau|Park ta' Muskau]] *[[Parrukkier]] *[[Paulo Coelho]] *[[Pavlo Lee]] *[[Pellegrinaġġ ta’ San Ġakbu]] *[[Peña de los Enamorados]] *[[Peniżola]] *[[Pergamon]] *[[Petra]] *[[Philipp Otto Runge]] *[[Pienza]] *[[Piero Angela]] *[[Pierre Fatou]] *[[Pietro Longhi]] *[[Pjanura ta’ Stari Grad]] *[[Pjazza]] * [[Pjazza tal-Mirakli]] *[[Plamer]] *[[Politika]] *[[Pont Antik ta’ Mostar]] *[[Pont ta' Forth]] *[[Pont ta' Malabadi]] *[[Pont ta' Mehmed Paša Sokolović]] *[[Pont ta' Vizcaya]] *[[Porfirio Barba-Jacob]] *[[Port ta’ Marsamxett]] *[[Porta Nigra]] *[[Portiċi ta' Bologna]] *[[Pożati]] *[[Professjoni]] *[[Provins]] === '''<u>Q</u>''' === * [[Qalhat]] * [[Il-Qtugħ ir-Ras ta’ San Ġwann|Qtugħ ir-Ras ta’ San Ġwann Battista (Caravaggio)]] * [[Quedlinburg]] === '''<u>R</u>''' === * [[Ravenna]] * [[Reġjun Naturali, Kulturali u Storiku ta’ Kotor]] * [[Reġjun tal-Estrazzjoni tal-Minerali ta' Erzgebirge/Krušnohoří]] *[[Reichenau]] *[[Relattività (Maurits Cornelis Escher)]] *[[Rembrandt]] *[[Renata Scotto]] *[[Renju tal-Ġonna ta' Dessau-Wörlitz]] *[[Repubblika Sovjetika ta’ Don|Repubblika Sovjetika ta' Don]] *[[Residenza tal-Metropolitani ta' Bukovina u tad-Dalmazja]] *[[Residenzi tal-Familja Savoia]] *[[Residenzi tal-Moderniżmu f'Berlin]] *[[Rewwixta tal-Qassisin]] *[[Riga]] *[[Riversleigh]] *[[Riżerva Naturali ta' Bashkiriya]] *[[Riżerva Naturali ta’ Kaniv]] *[[Riżerva Naturali ta’ Yulen]] *[[Riżerva Naturali tal-Flora fil-Ġibs]] *[[Riżerva tal-Bijosfera Transkonfinali Ohrid-Prespa]] *[[Robert Wilhelm Bunsen]] * [[Roi Mata]] * [[Ronald Searle]] * [[Rotot ta’ Santiago de Compostela fi Franza]] * [[Róža Domašcyna]] *[[Rudolf Diesel]] *[[Ruggiero Leoncavallo]] === '''<u>S</u>''' === * [[Safranbolu]] * [[Saint-Émilion]] * [[Sajjied]] *[[Sala taċ-Ċentenarju]] *[[Salamanca]] *[[Salvatore Accardo]] *[[Salzburg]] *[[Samantha Cristoforetti]] *[[Samarkanda]] *[[San Gimignano]] *[[San Pietruburgu]] *[[Sandra Mondaini]] *[[Sandro Botticelli]] *[[Santiago de Compostela]] *[[Santwarju ta' Itsukushima]] * [[Saryarka]] * [[Sassi ta' Matera]] *[[Schokland]] *[[Seba’ Għeġubijiet Ġodda tad-Dinja]] *[[Sebastian Brant]] *[[Sengħa]] *[[Seokguram]] *[[Seowon]] *[[Severo Ochoa]] *[[Shahrisabz]] *[[Sian Ka'an]] *[[Sidney Webb]] *[[Siena]] *[[Siracusa]] *[[Sistema tal-Ġestjoni tal-Ilma ta' Augsburg]] *[[Sit Arkeoloġiku ta' Atapuerca]] *[[Sit Arkeoloġiku ta’ Paphos]] * [[Sit ta' Wirt Dinji]] *[[Sit tad-Dolmens ta' Antequera]] *[[Siti Arkeoloġiċi ta' Tarraco]] *[[Siti Awstraljani tal-Fossili tal-Mammiferi]] *[[Siti Penitenzjarji Awstraljani]] *[[Siti preistoriċi bil-puntali madwar l-Alpi|Siti Preistoriċi bil-Puntali Madwar l-Alpi]] *[[Skarpan]] *[[Skellig Michael]] *[[Skogskyrkogården]] *[[Skoll il-Kbir tal-Qroll]] *[[Skoll tal-Qroll ta' New Caledonia]] *[[Sophie Germain]] *[[Skrivan]] *[[Statwa]] *[[Statwa ta' Roland ta' Bremen]] *[[Statwa tal-Libertà]] *[[Stazzjon ta' Chhatrapati Shivaji]] *[[Stazzjon tar-Radju ta' Grimeton]] *[[Stećak]] *[[Stevns Klint]] *[[Stonehenge]] *[[Su Nuraxi]] *[[Suq Ċentrali ta' Ljubljana]] === '''<u>T</u>''' === * [[Ta' Bakkja]] * [[Ta' Kandja]] *[[Tabib]] *[[Taħdit]] *[[Taj Mahal]] *[[Tallinn]] *[[Tarraco]] *[[Teatru Akkademiku Reġjonali ta' Donetsk]] *[[Teatru Antik ta’ Epidaurus|Teatru Antik ta' Epidaurus]] *[[Teatru Rjal]] *[[Teatru tal-Opri Margravjali]] *[[Tekniku]] *[[Telč]] * [[Tempji Megalitiċi ta’ Malta u Għawdex|Tempji Megalitiċi ta' Malta u Għawdex]] *[[Tempju ta' Apollo Epikurju f’Bassae|Tempju ta' Apollo Epikurju f'Bassae]] *[[Tempju ta' Asklepju ta' Epidaurus]] *[[Tempju ta' Haeinsa]] *[[Tempju tal-Ġenna]] * [[Terminoloġija]] * [[Tetiana Ostashchenko]] *[[Teżawru]] *[[Tholos ta' El Romeral]] *[[Thomas à Kempis]] *[[Tian Shan]] * [[Tieqa tad-Dwejra]] * [[Tieqa tal-Wied il-Mielaħ]] *[[Tinqix fuq il-Blat f'Tanum]] *[[Tiryns]] *[[Tlacotalpan]] *[[TNMK]] *[[Tobias Michael Carel Asser]] *[[Tomaso Antonio Vitali]] *[[Toroq tal-Ħarir: in-Network ta' Rotot tal-Kuritur ta' Chang'an-Tianshan]] * [[Torri Mmejjel ta' Pisa]] * [[Torri ta' Belém]] *[[Torri ta' Erkole]] *[[Toruń]] *[[Třebíč]] *[[Trogir]] *[[Trojja]] *[[Tropiċi Mistagħdra ta' Queensland]] *[[Tserkva ta' Santa Marija, Owczary]] *[[Tserkva ta' Santa Marija Omm Alla, Chotyniec]] *[[Tserkva tal-Injam tal-Karpazji fil-Polonja u fl-Ukrajna]] *[[Tutankhamun]] === '''<u>U</u>''' === * [[Ugo Foscolo]] *[[Uluru]] *[[Um er-Rasas]] *[[UNESCO]] *[[Unjoni Sovjetika]] *[[Urbino]] *[[Uxmal]] === '''<u>V</u>''' === * [[Val d'Orcia]] *[[Val di Noto]] *[[Valentyna Radzymovska]] *[[Valeria Bruni Tedeschi]] *[[Vallée de Mai]] *[[Velimir Khlebnikov]] *[[Verona]] *[[Vincent van Gogh]] *[[Vilel u Ġonna tal-Familja Medici]] *[[Villa d'Este]] *[[Villa Romana del Casale]] *[[Villa ta' Adrijanu]] *[[Villa Tugendhat]] *[[Vilnius]] *[[Visby]] *[[Vitaliy Kim]] *[[Vito Volterra]] *[[Vittorio De Sica]] *[[Vjenna]] *[[Vladimir Ashkenazy]] *[[Volodymyr Zelenskyy]] *[[Võros]] *[[Vulkan tat-Tajn ta’ Lökbatan]] === '''<u>W</u>''' === * [[Wachau]] *[[Wadi Rum]] *[[Werrej]] *[[Wied ta' Kathmandu]] *[[Wied ta' Madriu-Perafita-Claror]] *[[Wied tat-Tempji]] *[[Wilhelm Grimm]] *[[Wilhelm Röntgen]] *[[Willem de Sitter]] *[[William Boeing]] *[[Wirt tal-Foresti Tropikali ta' Sumatra]] *[[Wolfgang Paul]] === '''<u>X</u>''' === * [[Xatt it-Tiben]] *[[Xeff]] *[[Xogħlijiet ta' Jože Plečnik f'Ljubljana – Disinn Urban Iċċentrat fuq il-Bniedem]] *[[Xjenza spazjali]] === '''<u>Y</u>''' === * [[Yeni-Kale]] *[[Yuliya Gushchina]] *[[Yuri Lysianskyi]] === '''<u>Ż</u>''' === * [[Żiemel Abjad ta' Osmington]] *[[Żona l-Kbira tal-Muntanji Blu]] *[[Żona Protetta ta' Jungfrau-Aletsch]] *[[Żona Protetta ta' Pliva, Janj u r-Riżerva ta' Janjske Otoke]] *[[Żoni Storiċi ta' Baekje]] *[[Żooloġija]] === '''<u>Z</u>''' === * [[Zamość]] * [[Ziba Ganiyeva]] *[[Zofia Zamenhof]] *[[Zollverein]] *[[Zond 5]] 962m4gasbjrektpvvsnezik2un3t5r3 279085 279077 2022-08-14T14:32:04Z Trigcly 17859 aġġornament wikitext text/x-wiki == '''Kontribuzzjonijiet - Artikli ġodda (714)''' == === <u>'''A'''</u> === * [[Abbazija ta' Corvey]] * [[Abbazija ta' Lorsch]] *[[Abbazija ta' Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe]] *[[Abbazija ta' Sankt Gallen]] *[[Abbazija ta’ Vézelay|Abbazija ta' Vezelay]] *[[Abu al-Fida]] *[[Abu Simbel]] *[[Aflaj tal-Oman]] *[[Afrodisja]] *[[Agostino Matrenza]] *[[Aït Benhaddou]] *[[Akkwedott ta' Padre Tembleque]] *[[Akkwedott ta' Pontcysyllte]] *[[Alatyr]] *[[Alberobello]] *[[Albi]] *[[Alcide d'Orbigny]] *[[Aleksandr Yakovlevich Khinchin]] *[[Alenush Terian]] *[[Alessandro Scarlatti]] *[[Alessandro Volta]] *[[Alfred Hermann Fried]] *[[Alfred Nobel]] *[[Alfredo Casella]] *[[Alto Douro]] * [[L-Amerika t'Isfel|Amerka t’Isfel]] * [[L-Amerika ta' Fuq|Amerka ta’ Fuq]] *[[Amilcare Ponchielli]] *[[Anastasia Golovina]] *[[Anders Jonas Ångström]] *[[André Citroën]] *[[André Weil]] * [[Angkor Wat]] * [[Ani]] *[[Anna Seghers]] *[[Anna Sychravová]] *[[Anne-Sophie Mutter]] * [[Antartika]] *[[Antoine de Jussieu]] *[[Antoine de Saint-Exupéry]] *[[Antoinette Miggiani]] *[[Anton Diabelli]] *[[Aquileia]] *[[Arena Tettonika Żvizzera ta' Sardona]] *[[Arġentier]] *[[Arġentier (tad-deheb)]] *[[Ark Ġeodetiku ta’ Struve]] *[[Arkeoloġija]] *[[Arkitett]] *[[Arkitettura tas-Seklu 20 ta' Frank Lloyd Wright]] *[[Arles]] *[[Armata tat-Terrakotta]] *[[Arslantepe]] *[[Arti Paleolitika fl-Għerien tat-Tramuntana ta' Spanja]] *[[Artiġjan]] * [[Assisi]] *[[Asuman Baytop]] *[[Auschwitz]] *[[Austin Camilleri]] *[[Avukat]] === '''<u>B</u>''' === * [[Bagan]] *[[Baħar ta' Wadden]] *[[Bajjad]] *[[Barbier]] *[[Bardejov]] *[[Bartolomé de Escobedo]] *[[Battir]] *[[Baxkortostan]] *[[Bażilika Ewfrasjana ta’ Poreč]] *[[Bażilika ta' San Eġidju]] *[[Beatriz Carrillo]] *[[Beemster]] *[[Belt ta' New York]] *[[Belt ta’ Vicenza u l-Vilel ta’ Palladio fil-Veneto|Belt ta’ Viċenza u l-Vilel ta’ Palladio fil-Veneto]] *[[Bennej]] *[[Bernard Grech]] *[[Bidwi]] *[[Bieb il-Belt]] *[[Borobudur]] *[[Bucha]] *[[Bukhara]] *[[Buskett]] *[[Butrint]] === '''<u>Ċ/C</u>''' === * [[Canaletto]] * [[Caral]] *[[Carl Bosch]] *[[Carla Fracci]] *[[Caroline Mikkelsen]] *[[Castel del Monte, Puglia]] *[[Çatalhöyük]] *[[Ċensu Apap]] *[[Český Krumlov]] *[[Ċetta Chevalier]] *[[Chaîne des Puys]] *[[Charles Jean de la Vallée-Poussin]] *[[Charles Nicolle]] *[[Charlie Watts]] *[[Chersonesus Tawrika]] *[[Chichén Itzá]] *[[Choirokoitia]] *[[Christiansfeld]] *[[Christopher Polhem]] *[[Ċikli ta' affreski tas-seklu 14 ta' Padova]] *[[Cinque Terre]] *[[Ċittadella Imperjali ta' Thăng Long]] *[[Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle]] *[[Crespi d'Adda]] *[[Cristofano Allori]] *[[Cumalıkızık]] *[[Cynthia Turner]] === '''<u>D</u>''' === * [[Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit]] *[[Dar ta’ Rietveld Schröder]] *[[Delta tax-xmara Kızılırmak]] *[[Dentist]] *[[Denys Shmyhal]] *[[Déodat Gratet de Dolomieu]] *[[Diana, Prinċipessa ta' Wales]] *[[Diga ta' Karakaya]] *[[Dikjarazzjoni tal-Indipendenza tal-Ukrajna]] *[[Dizzjunarju]] *[[Djalett]] *[[Djar Ewlenin ta' Victor Horta fi Brussell]] *[[Dolċier]] *[[Dolmen ta' Menga]] *[[Dolmen ta' Viera]] *[[Dolomiti]] *[[Domenico Scarlatti]] *[[Domowina]] *[[Draginja Vuksanović-Stanković]] *[[Dubrovnik]] *[[Durmitor]] * [[Dwejra]] === '''<u>E</u>''' === * [[Edinburgu]] * [[Efesu]] * [[Eise Eisinga]] *[[Ekonomista]] *[[El Torcal]] *[[Elisha Graves Otis]] *[[Emil Nolde]] *[[Emma Andrijewska]] *[[Emma Muscat]] *[[Ernst Schröder]] *[[Esperantoloġija]] *[[Estrazzjoni terminoloġika]] *[[Eugenija Šimkūnaitė]] *[[Eugenio Montale]] *[[Eva Ahnert-Rohlfs]] *[[Evelyn Bonaci]] *[[Ewropa tal-Lvant]] === '''<u>F</u>''' === * [[Fabbrika ta' Fagus]] * [[Fabbrika ta' Van Nelle]] * [[Fabbrika tal-Azzar ta' Völklingen]] * [[Fabbrika tal-Ħadid ta' Engelsberg]] * [[Fanal ta' Cordouan]] *[[Femminiżmu tar-Rom]] *[[Fenno-Skandinavja]] *[[Ferrara]] *[[Festival ta' Sanremo]] *[[Firenze]] *[[Fjords Norveġiżi tal-Punent]] *[[Flora Martirosian]] *[[Fondoq ta' Ironbridge]] *[[Foresti Antiki u Primordjali tal-Fagu tal-Karpazji u ta' Reġjuni Oħra tal-Ewropa]] *[[Foresti Tropikali ta' Gondwana]] * [[Forti ta' Agra]] *[[Forti ta' Bahla]] *[[Fortifikazzjonijiet ta’ Kotor|Fortifikazzjonijiet ta' Kotor]] *[[Fortijiet fl-Għoljiet ta' Rajasthan]] *[[Fortizza ta' Diyarbakır]] *[[Fotografu]] *[[Francesco Guardi]] *[[François-Alphonse Forel]] *[[François Couperin]] *[[Franġisk Zahra]] *[[Franz Ritter von Hauer]] *[[Frédéric Bartholdi]] *[[Fritz Albert Lipmann]] * [[Frott]] * [[Fruntieri Rumani tad-Danubju]] *[[Furnar]] === '''<u>Ġ</u>''' === * [[Ġardinar]] *[[Ġebla ta' Rosetta]] * [[Ġebla tal-Ġeneral]] * [[Ġeoloġija]] * [[Ġibjun ta' Kiev]] * [[Ġnien Botaniku ta' Padova]] * [[Ġonna ta' Hevsel]] *[[Ġurnalist]] === '''<u>G</u>''' === * [[Gammelstad]] * [[Genova: It-Toroq Ġodda u s-Sistema tal-Palazzi tal-Listi]] *[[Georg Ohm]] *[[George Gallup]] *[[Georges Bernanos]] *[[Georges J.F. Kohler]] *[[Getbol, il-Pjanuri tal-Marea tal-Korea t'Isfel]] *[[Giacomo Zanella]] *[[Giampiero Galeazzi]] *[[Gianni Vella]] *[[Giorgio Vasari]] *[[Giosuè Carducci]] *[[Giovanni Arduino]] *[[Giovanni Battista Belzoni]] *[[Giovanni Paisiello]] *[[Giovanni Papini]] *[[Giulio Natta]] *[[Gjirokastër]] *[[Glossarju]] *[[Göbekli Tepe]] *[[Gösta Mittag-Leffler]] *[[Grand Place, Brussell]] *[[Graz]] *[[Grazia Deledda]] *[[Gregorio Allegri]] *[[Gremxula ta' Malta]] *[[Grotta ta' Chauvet]] *[[Grupp ta' Monumenti ta' Khajuraho]] *[[Guillaume Cornelis van Beverloo]] *[[Gustave Charpentier]] * [[Gżejjer Eolji]] * [[Gżejjer Falkland]] * [[Gżejjer Galapagos]] *[[Gżira ta' Jeju]] *[[Gżira tal-Mużewijiet]] === '''<u>GĦ</u>''' === * [[Għajn Tuffieħa]] * [[Għalliem]] *[[Għar Dalam]] *[[Għar ta' Altamira]] *[[Għar ta' Karain]] *[[Għar tal-Irħam]] *[[Għerien ta’ Škocjan|Għerien ta' Škocjan]] *[[Għerien u Arti tal-Era Glaċjali fil-Jura tas-Swabja]] *[[Għoljiet, Djar u Kantini ta' Champagne]] *[[Għoljiet Sagri ta' Piemonte u ta' Lombardia]] *[[Għoljiet ta' Donets]] *[[Għoljiet tal-Prosecco ta' Conegliano u Valdobbiadene]] === '''<u>H</u>''' === * [[Hagia Sophia]] * [[Hallstatt]] *[[Hans Geiger]] *[[Hans Memling]] *[[Hans Spemann]] *[[Hatı Çırpan]] *[[Hattusha]] *[[Heinrich Hertz]] *[[Hermannus Contractus]] *[[Hildesheim]] *[[Holašovice]] *[[Hovgården]] *[[Howard Carter]] *[[Hryhorii Kvitka-Osnovianenko]] *[[Hubert de Givenchy]] === '''<u>Ħ</u>''' === * [[Ħaġar ta' Jelling]] *[[Ħajt il-Kbir taċ-Ċina]] *[[Ħitan Rumani ta' Lugo]] === '''<u>I</u>''' === * [[Idrija]] *[[Impjant tal-Ippompjar bl-Istim ta' Wouda]] *[[Inara Luigas]] *[[Inċiżjonijiet fuq il-Blat f’Valcamonica|Inċiżjonijiet fuq il-Blat f'Valcamonica]] *[[Indiċi]] *[[Ingredjent]] *[[Intaljatur]] *[[Ipoġew ta’ Ħal Saflieni|Ipoġew ta' Ħal Saflieni]] * [[Ipproċessar testwali]] * [[Irħula Kbar bi Spa fl-Ewropa]] * [[Irpin]] *[[Isabella d'Este]] *[[ISBN]] *[[Istmu Kuronjan]] *[[Ivan Turgenev]] *[[Ivrea]] === '''<u>J</u>''' === * [[Jacinto Benavente]] *[[Jantar Mantar, Jaipur]] *[[Jean Antoine Houdon]] *[[Jean Dieudonné]] *[[Jean Picard]] *[[Johan Jensen]] *[[John Edward Critien]] *[[John Kendrew]] *[[John Strutt Rayleigh]] *[[Jongmyo]] *[[Jørgen Pedersen Gram]] *[[Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac]] *[[Jože Plečnik]] *[[Julia Malinova]] *[[Júlia Sigmond]] *[[Julius Wagner-Jauregg]] *[[Jum il-Ġifa]] *[[Jum il-Lingwa Erżjana]] *[[Jum l-Ewropa]] === '''<u>K</u>''' === * [[Kaja Kallas]] *[[Kalwaria Zebrzydowska]] *[[Kampnari tal-Belġju u ta' Franza]] *[[Kappella]] *[[Karl Ferdinand Braun]] *[[Karl Weierstrass]] *[[Kastell ta’ Kroměříž|Kastell ta' Kroměříž]] *[[Kastell ta' Kronborg]] *[[Kastell ta’ Litomyšl|Kastell ta' Litomyšl]] *[[Kastell ta’ Malbork|Kastell ta' Malbork]] *[[Kastell ta' Spiš]] *[[Kastell ta' Wartburg]] *[[Kastelli ta' Bellinzona]] *[[Katarina Vitale]] * [[Katidral]] *[[Katidral ta' Aachen]] *[[Katidral ta' Köln]] *[[Katidral ta' Naumburg]] *[[Katidral ta' Santa Sofija (Kiev)]] *[[Katidral ta’ Šibenik|Katidral ta' Šibenik]] *[[Katina Muntanjuża ta’ Meskheti]] *[[Kauksi Ülle]] * [[Kavallier ta’ San Ġakbu|Kavallier ta' San Ġakbu]] *[[Kelma]] *[[Kernavė]] *[[Khiva]] *[[Kinderdijk]] *[[Kirurgu]] *[[Kladruby nad Labem]] * [[Klima ta' Malta]] *[[Knejjes Impittrin fir-Reġjun ta’ Troodos]] *[[Knejjes tal-Injam tal-Karpazji Slovakki]] *[[Knejjes tal-Injam tan-Nofsinhar ta’ Małopolskie]] *[[Knejjes tal-Moldavja]] *[[Knejjes tal-Paċi]] *[[Knisja tal-Pellegrinaġġ ta’ San Ġwann ta’ Nepomuk]] *[[Knisja ta' Santa Marija tal-Grazzji (Milan)|Knisja ta' Santa Marija tal-Grazzji, Milan]] *[[Knisja ta' San Nikola tas-Saqaf]] *[[Knisja tal-Paċi fi Świdnica]] *[[Knisja tal-Verġni Marija ta' Arakos]] *[[Knisja tal-Vitorja]] *[[Kok]] *[[Kolomenskoye]] *[[Kolonja tal-Artisti ta' Darmstadt]] *[[Kolonna tat-Trinità Mqaddsa, Olomouc]] * [[Kolossew]] *[[Konversazzjoni]] *[[Korfù]] *[[Kosta Ġurassika]] *[[Kosta ta' Amalfi]] *[[Kostituzzjoni ta’ Malta|Kostituzzjoni ta' Malta]] *[[Krater ta' Logoisk]] *[[Kremlin ta' Kazan]] *[[Kremlin ta’ Moska|Kremlin ta' Moska]] *[[Krzemionki]] *[[Kumpanija Ferrovjarja Retika]] *[[Kunvent Benedittin ta' San Ġwann f'Müstair]] *[[Kunvent ta' Spiš]] *[[Kunvent ta’ Novodevichy|Kunvent ta' Novodevichy]] *[[Kutná Hora]] === '''<u>L</u>''' === * [[L-Arti]] *[[Landier]] *[[Lapponja Żvediża]] *[[Las Médulas]] *[[Lascaux]] *[[Lavra tat-Trinità ta' San Serġjo]] *[[Lazzaro Pisani]] *[[Lessikoloġija]] * [[Lessiku]] * [[Letoon]] * [[Levoča, il-Kastell ta' Spiš u l-monumenti kulturali assoċjati]] *[[Lika Kavzharadze]] *[[Lingwa Erżjana]] *[[Linja ferrovjarja ta’ Semmering|Linja ferrovjarja ta' Semmering]] *[[Linji ta' Nazca]] *[[Linji tal-Ilma Difensivi Olandiżi]] *[[Lista ta’ binjiet ta’ Gaudí]] *[[Lista ta' Membri tal-Parlament ta' Malta, 2017–2022]] *[[Lista ta' peniżoli]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Ċipru]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Malta]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji taċ-Ċekja|Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fiċ-Ċekja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Bożnija-Ħerzegovina]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Każakistan]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Kroazja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Latvja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Litwanja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Maċedonja ta' Fuq]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Montenegro]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Polonja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fis-Slovenja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Turkija]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Awstrija]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Estonja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Iran]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Italja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Ukrajna]] *[[Loġġa tal-Ħarir]] *[[Longobardi fl-Italja: Postijiet tal-Poter (568-774 W.K.)]] *[[Lorenzo de' Medici]] *[[Lorenzo Valla]] *[[Lucavsala]] *[[Lučka Kajfež Bogataj]] *[[Ludovico Carracci]] *[[Luigi Boccherini]] *[[Luigi Pirandello]] *[[Lumbini]] *[[Lviv]] === '''<u>M</u>''' === * [[Machu Picchu]] *[[Mafkar tal-Paċi ta' Hiroshima]] * [[Malta taħt il-Franċiżi]] *[[Maltin]] *[[Måneskin]] *[[Manhush]] *[[Manto Mavrogenous]] *[[Mantova]] *[[Maria De Filippi]] *[[Maria Dobroniega ta' Kiev]] *[[Mario Draghi]] *[[Martinu I ta' Sqallija]] *[[Mary Moser]] *[[Mawżolew ta’ Khoja Ahmed Yasawi]] *[[Meteora]] *[[Mikhail Ostrogradsky]] *[[Milan]] *[[Mina tal-Imħabba ta' Klevan]] *[[Minjiera Storika tal-Fidda f'Tarnowskie Góry]] *[[Minjiera tal-Melħ ta’ Wieliczka]] *[[Minjiera tar-Ram ta' Falun]] *[[Minjieri taż-Żnied Neolitiċi ta' Spiennes]] *[[Mira Alečković]] *[[Mirella Freni]] *[[Modena]] *[[Monasteru ta’ Gračanica|Monasteru ta' Gračanica]] *[[Monasteru tal-Ġlormini]] *[[Monasteru Rjali ta' Santa Marija ta' Guadalupe]] *[[Monasteru ta' Voroneț]] *[[Monika Kryemadhi]] *[[Monte San Giorgio]] * [[Monument]] * [[Monumenti Rumani, il-Katidral ta' San Pietru u l-Knisja tal-Madonna fi Trier]] * [[Monumenti Storiċi f'Novgorod u fl-Inħawi]] * [[Monumenti Storiċi ta' Kjoto Antika (Bliet ta' Kjoto, Uji u Ōtsu)]] *[[Monumenti Storiċi ta' Nara]] *[[Moskea l-Kbira u Sptar ta' Divriği]] *[[Moskea ta’ Selimiye, Edirne]] *[[Motoori Norinaga]] *[[Muħammed]] *[[Muniċipju ta' Bremen]] *[[Muntanji tal-Krimea]] *[[Mużew ta' Trojja]] *[[Mystras]] === '''<u>N</u>''' === * [[Nagorno-Karabakh]] * [[Naħla tal-għasel ta' Malta]] * [[Nancy]] *[[Napli]] *[[Nataliya Kobrynska]] *[[Nekropoli ta' Monterozzi]] *[[Nemrut Dağı]] *[[New Secret (jott)]] *[[Nexhmije Pagarusha]] *[[Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc]] *[[Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot]] *[[Nicolau Coelho]] *[[Nikkō]] *[[Nisa (Turkmenistan)]] *[[Nisa f’Malta]] *[[Nisa fl-elezzjonijiet ġenerali ta’ Malta]] *[[Norman Morrison]] *[[Nutar]] === '''<u>O</u>''' === * [[Olga Tass]] *[[Olimpja]] *[[Oplontis]] *[[Opri Venezjani tad-Difiża bejn is-sekli 15 u 17: Stato da Terra – Stato da Mar tal-Punent]] *[[Oqbra imperjali tad-dinastiji Ming u Qing]] *[[Ortografija Litwana]] *[[Osservatorju ta' Jodrell Bank]] *[[Otto Toeplitz]] === '''<u>P</u>''' === * [[Pajsaġġ Agrikolu tan-Nofsinhar ta' Öland]] * [[Pajsaġġ Industrijali ta' Blaenavon]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta’ Lednice-Valtice]] * [[Pajsaġġ tal-Vinji ta' Piemonte: Langhe-Roero u Monferrato]] * [[Pajsaġġ tax-Xogħol fil-Minjieri ta' Cornwall u l-Punent ta' Devon]] *[[Palazz Irjali ta' Caserta]] *[[Palazz ta’ Djoklezjanu|Palazz ta' Djoklezjanu]] *[[Palazz ta' Drottningholm]] *[[Palazz ta’ Schönbrunn|Palazz ta' Schönbrunn]] *[[Palazz ta’ Stoclet|Palazz ta' Stoclet]] *[[Palazzi u Parks ta' Potsdam u Berlin]] *[[Palermo Għarbija-Normanna u l-Katidrali ta' Cefalù u Monreale]] *[[Palestina]] *[[Palianytsia]] *[[Pamukkale]] *[[Parmigianino]] *[[Park Irjali ta' Studley]] *[[Park Naturali Nazzjonali tal-Karpazji]] *[[Park Nazzjonali Storiku ta' Göreme]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta’ Belovezhskaya Pushcha]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Chitwan]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Cilento, Vallo di Diano u Alburni]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta’ Fertő-Hanság]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Garajonay]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Komodo]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Sagarmatha]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Teide]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Ujung Kulon]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Għerien ta' Naracoorte]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Lagi ta’ Plitvice]] *[[Park Storiku ta' Ayutthaya]] *[[Park ta’ Muskau|Park ta' Muskau]] *[[Parrukkier]] *[[Paulo Coelho]] *[[Pavlo Lee]] *[[Pellegrinaġġ ta’ San Ġakbu]] *[[Peña de los Enamorados]] *[[Peniżola]] *[[Pergamon]] *[[Petra]] *[[Philipp Otto Runge]] *[[Pienza]] *[[Piero Angela]] *[[Pierre Fatou]] *[[Pietro Longhi]] *[[Pjanura ta’ Stari Grad]] *[[Pjazza]] * [[Pjazza tal-Mirakli]] *[[Plamer]] *[[Politika]] *[[Pont Antik ta’ Mostar]] *[[Pont ta' Forth]] *[[Pont ta' Malabadi]] *[[Pont ta' Mehmed Paša Sokolović]] *[[Pont ta' Vizcaya]] *[[Porfirio Barba-Jacob]] *[[Port ta’ Marsamxett]] *[[Porta Nigra]] *[[Portiċi ta' Bologna]] *[[Pożati]] *[[Professjoni]] *[[Provins]] === '''<u>Q</u>''' === * [[Qalhat]] * [[Il-Qtugħ ir-Ras ta’ San Ġwann|Qtugħ ir-Ras ta’ San Ġwann Battista (Caravaggio)]] * [[Quedlinburg]] === '''<u>R</u>''' === * [[Ravenna]] * [[Reġjun Naturali, Kulturali u Storiku ta’ Kotor]] * [[Reġjun tal-Estrazzjoni tal-Minerali ta' Erzgebirge/Krušnohoří]] *[[Reichenau]] *[[Relattività (Maurits Cornelis Escher)]] *[[Rembrandt]] *[[Renata Scotto]] *[[Renju tal-Ġonna ta' Dessau-Wörlitz]] *[[Repubblika Sovjetika ta’ Don|Repubblika Sovjetika ta' Don]] *[[Residenza tal-Metropolitani ta' Bukovina u tad-Dalmazja]] *[[Residenzi tal-Familja Savoia]] *[[Residenzi tal-Moderniżmu f'Berlin]] *[[Rewwixta tal-Qassisin]] *[[Riga]] *[[Riversleigh]] *[[Riżerva Naturali ta' Bashkiriya]] *[[Riżerva Naturali ta’ Kaniv]] *[[Riżerva Naturali ta’ Yulen]] *[[Riżerva Naturali tal-Flora fil-Ġibs]] *[[Riżerva tal-Bijosfera Transkonfinali Ohrid-Prespa]] *[[Robert Wilhelm Bunsen]] * [[Roi Mata]] * [[Ronald Searle]] * [[Rotot ta’ Santiago de Compostela fi Franza]] * [[Róža Domašcyna]] *[[Rudolf Diesel]] *[[Ruggiero Leoncavallo]] === '''<u>S</u>''' === * [[Safranbolu]] * [[Saint-Émilion]] * [[Sajjied]] *[[Sala taċ-Ċentenarju]] *[[Salamanca]] *[[Salvatore Accardo]] *[[Salzburg]] *[[Samantha Cristoforetti]] *[[Samarkanda]] *[[San Gimignano]] *[[San Pietruburgu]] *[[Sandra Mondaini]] *[[Sandro Botticelli]] *[[Santiago de Compostela]] *[[Santwarju ta' Itsukushima]] * [[Saryarka]] * [[Sassi ta' Matera]] *[[Schokland]] *[[Seba’ Għeġubijiet Ġodda tad-Dinja]] *[[Sebastian Brant]] *[[Sengħa]] *[[Seokguram]] *[[Seowon]] *[[Severo Ochoa]] *[[Shahrisabz]] *[[Sian Ka'an]] *[[Sidney Webb]] *[[Siena]] *[[Siracusa]] *[[Sistema tal-Ġestjoni tal-Ilma ta' Augsburg]] *[[Sit Arkeoloġiku ta' Atapuerca]] *[[Sit Arkeoloġiku ta’ Paphos]] * [[Sit ta' Wirt Dinji]] *[[Sit tad-Dolmens ta' Antequera]] *[[Siti Arkeoloġiċi ta' Tarraco]] *[[Siti Awstraljani tal-Fossili tal-Mammiferi]] *[[Siti Penitenzjarji Awstraljani]] *[[Siti preistoriċi bil-puntali madwar l-Alpi|Siti Preistoriċi bil-Puntali Madwar l-Alpi]] *[[Skarpan]] *[[Skellig Michael]] *[[Skogskyrkogården]] *[[Skoll il-Kbir tal-Qroll]] *[[Skoll tal-Qroll ta' New Caledonia]] *[[Sophie Germain]] *[[Skrivan]] *[[Statwa]] *[[Statwa ta' Roland ta' Bremen]] *[[Statwa tal-Libertà]] *[[Stazzjon ta' Chhatrapati Shivaji]] *[[Stazzjon tar-Radju ta' Grimeton]] *[[Stećak]] *[[Stevns Klint]] *[[Stonehenge]] *[[Su Nuraxi]] *[[Suq Ċentrali ta' Ljubljana]] === '''<u>T</u>''' === * [[Ta' Bakkja]] * [[Ta' Kandja]] *[[Tabib]] *[[Taħdit]] *[[Taj Mahal]] *[[Tallinn]] *[[Tarraco]] *[[Teatru Akkademiku Reġjonali ta' Donetsk]] *[[Teatru Antik ta’ Epidaurus|Teatru Antik ta' Epidaurus]] *[[Teatru Rjal]] *[[Teatru tal-Opri Margravjali]] *[[Tekniku]] *[[Telč]] * [[Tempji Megalitiċi ta’ Malta u Għawdex|Tempji Megalitiċi ta' Malta u Għawdex]] *[[Tempju ta' Apollo Epikurju f’Bassae|Tempju ta' Apollo Epikurju f'Bassae]] *[[Tempju ta' Asklepju ta' Epidaurus]] *[[Tempju ta' Haeinsa]] *[[Tempju tal-Ġenna]] * [[Terminoloġija]] * [[Tetiana Ostashchenko]] *[[Teżawru]] *[[Tholos ta' El Romeral]] *[[Thomas à Kempis]] *[[Tian Shan]] * [[Tieqa tad-Dwejra]] * [[Tieqa tal-Wied il-Mielaħ]] * [[Tikal]] *[[Tinqix fuq il-Blat f'Tanum]] *[[Tiryns]] *[[Tlacotalpan]] *[[TNMK]] *[[Tobias Michael Carel Asser]] *[[Tomaso Antonio Vitali]] *[[Toroq tal-Ħarir: in-Network ta' Rotot tal-Kuritur ta' Chang'an-Tianshan]] * [[Torri Mmejjel ta' Pisa]] * [[Torri ta' Belém]] *[[Torri ta' Erkole]] *[[Toruń]] *[[Třebíč]] *[[Trogir]] *[[Trojja]] *[[Tropiċi Mistagħdra ta' Queensland]] *[[Tserkva ta' Santa Marija, Owczary]] *[[Tserkva ta' Santa Marija Omm Alla, Chotyniec]] *[[Tserkva tal-Injam tal-Karpazji fil-Polonja u fl-Ukrajna]] *[[Tutankhamun]] === '''<u>U</u>''' === * [[Ugo Foscolo]] *[[Uluru]] *[[Um er-Rasas]] *[[UNESCO]] *[[Unjoni Sovjetika]] *[[Urbino]] *[[Uxmal]] === '''<u>V</u>''' === * [[Val d'Orcia]] *[[Val di Noto]] *[[Valentyna Radzymovska]] *[[Valeria Bruni Tedeschi]] *[[Vallée de Mai]] *[[Velimir Khlebnikov]] *[[Verona]] *[[Vincent van Gogh]] *[[Vilel u Ġonna tal-Familja Medici]] *[[Villa d'Este]] *[[Villa Romana del Casale]] *[[Villa ta' Adrijanu]] *[[Villa Tugendhat]] *[[Vilnius]] *[[Visby]] *[[Vitaliy Kim]] *[[Vito Volterra]] *[[Vittorio De Sica]] *[[Vjenna]] *[[Vladimir Ashkenazy]] *[[Volodymyr Zelenskyy]] *[[Võros]] *[[Vulkan tat-Tajn ta’ Lökbatan]] === '''<u>W</u>''' === * [[Wachau]] *[[Wadi Rum]] *[[Werrej]] *[[Wied ta' Kathmandu]] *[[Wied ta' Madriu-Perafita-Claror]] *[[Wied tat-Tempji]] *[[Wilhelm Grimm]] *[[Wilhelm Röntgen]] *[[Willem de Sitter]] *[[William Boeing]] *[[Wirt tal-Foresti Tropikali ta' Sumatra]] *[[Wolfgang Paul]] === '''<u>X</u>''' === * [[Xatt it-Tiben]] *[[Xeff]] *[[Xogħlijiet ta' Jože Plečnik f'Ljubljana – Disinn Urban Iċċentrat fuq il-Bniedem]] *[[Xjenza spazjali]] === '''<u>Y</u>''' === * [[Yeni-Kale]] *[[Yuliya Gushchina]] *[[Yuri Lysianskyi]] === '''<u>Ż</u>''' === * [[Żiemel Abjad ta' Osmington]] *[[Żona l-Kbira tal-Muntanji Blu]] *[[Żona Protetta ta' Jungfrau-Aletsch]] *[[Żona Protetta ta' Pliva, Janj u r-Riżerva ta' Janjske Otoke]] *[[Żoni Storiċi ta' Baekje]] *[[Żooloġija]] === '''<u>Z</u>''' === * [[Zamość]] * [[Ziba Ganiyeva]] *[[Zofia Zamenhof]] *[[Zollverein]] *[[Zond 5]] nkdg5q4hqd13jlto64ijws1twc7gt5w 279125 279085 2022-08-15T10:24:34Z Trigcly 17859 /* K */ wikitext text/x-wiki == '''Kontribuzzjonijiet - Artikli ġodda (714)''' == === <u>'''A'''</u> === * [[Abbazija ta' Corvey]] * [[Abbazija ta' Lorsch]] *[[Abbazija ta' Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe]] *[[Abbazija ta' Sankt Gallen]] *[[Abbazija ta’ Vézelay|Abbazija ta' Vezelay]] *[[Abu al-Fida]] *[[Abu Simbel]] *[[Aflaj tal-Oman]] *[[Afrodisja]] *[[Agostino Matrenza]] *[[Aït Benhaddou]] *[[Akkwedott ta' Padre Tembleque]] *[[Akkwedott ta' Pontcysyllte]] *[[Alatyr]] *[[Alberobello]] *[[Albi]] *[[Alcide d'Orbigny]] *[[Aleksandr Yakovlevich Khinchin]] *[[Alenush Terian]] *[[Alessandro Scarlatti]] *[[Alessandro Volta]] *[[Alfred Hermann Fried]] *[[Alfred Nobel]] *[[Alfredo Casella]] *[[Alto Douro]] * [[L-Amerika t'Isfel|Amerka t’Isfel]] * [[L-Amerika ta' Fuq|Amerka ta’ Fuq]] *[[Amilcare Ponchielli]] *[[Anastasia Golovina]] *[[Anders Jonas Ångström]] *[[André Citroën]] *[[André Weil]] * [[Angkor Wat]] * [[Ani]] *[[Anna Seghers]] *[[Anna Sychravová]] *[[Anne-Sophie Mutter]] * [[Antartika]] *[[Antoine de Jussieu]] *[[Antoine de Saint-Exupéry]] *[[Antoinette Miggiani]] *[[Anton Diabelli]] *[[Aquileia]] *[[Arena Tettonika Żvizzera ta' Sardona]] *[[Arġentier]] *[[Arġentier (tad-deheb)]] *[[Ark Ġeodetiku ta’ Struve]] *[[Arkeoloġija]] *[[Arkitett]] *[[Arkitettura tas-Seklu 20 ta' Frank Lloyd Wright]] *[[Arles]] *[[Armata tat-Terrakotta]] *[[Arslantepe]] *[[Arti Paleolitika fl-Għerien tat-Tramuntana ta' Spanja]] *[[Artiġjan]] * [[Assisi]] *[[Asuman Baytop]] *[[Auschwitz]] *[[Austin Camilleri]] *[[Avukat]] === '''<u>B</u>''' === * [[Bagan]] *[[Baħar ta' Wadden]] *[[Bajjad]] *[[Barbier]] *[[Bardejov]] *[[Bartolomé de Escobedo]] *[[Battir]] *[[Baxkortostan]] *[[Bażilika Ewfrasjana ta’ Poreč]] *[[Bażilika ta' San Eġidju]] *[[Beatriz Carrillo]] *[[Beemster]] *[[Belt ta' New York]] *[[Belt ta’ Vicenza u l-Vilel ta’ Palladio fil-Veneto|Belt ta’ Viċenza u l-Vilel ta’ Palladio fil-Veneto]] *[[Bennej]] *[[Bernard Grech]] *[[Bidwi]] *[[Bieb il-Belt]] *[[Borobudur]] *[[Bucha]] *[[Bukhara]] *[[Buskett]] *[[Butrint]] === '''<u>Ċ/C</u>''' === * [[Canaletto]] * [[Caral]] *[[Carl Bosch]] *[[Carla Fracci]] *[[Caroline Mikkelsen]] *[[Castel del Monte, Puglia]] *[[Çatalhöyük]] *[[Ċensu Apap]] *[[Český Krumlov]] *[[Ċetta Chevalier]] *[[Chaîne des Puys]] *[[Charles Jean de la Vallée-Poussin]] *[[Charles Nicolle]] *[[Charlie Watts]] *[[Chersonesus Tawrika]] *[[Chichén Itzá]] *[[Choirokoitia]] *[[Christiansfeld]] *[[Christopher Polhem]] *[[Ċikli ta' affreski tas-seklu 14 ta' Padova]] *[[Cinque Terre]] *[[Ċittadella Imperjali ta' Thăng Long]] *[[Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle]] *[[Crespi d'Adda]] *[[Cristofano Allori]] *[[Cumalıkızık]] *[[Cynthia Turner]] === '''<u>D</u>''' === * [[Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit]] *[[Dar ta’ Rietveld Schröder]] *[[Delta tax-xmara Kızılırmak]] *[[Dentist]] *[[Denys Shmyhal]] *[[Déodat Gratet de Dolomieu]] *[[Diana, Prinċipessa ta' Wales]] *[[Diga ta' Karakaya]] *[[Dikjarazzjoni tal-Indipendenza tal-Ukrajna]] *[[Dizzjunarju]] *[[Djalett]] *[[Djar Ewlenin ta' Victor Horta fi Brussell]] *[[Dolċier]] *[[Dolmen ta' Menga]] *[[Dolmen ta' Viera]] *[[Dolomiti]] *[[Domenico Scarlatti]] *[[Domowina]] *[[Draginja Vuksanović-Stanković]] *[[Dubrovnik]] *[[Durmitor]] * [[Dwejra]] === '''<u>E</u>''' === * [[Edinburgu]] * [[Efesu]] * [[Eise Eisinga]] *[[Ekonomista]] *[[El Torcal]] *[[Elisha Graves Otis]] *[[Emil Nolde]] *[[Emma Andrijewska]] *[[Emma Muscat]] *[[Ernst Schröder]] *[[Esperantoloġija]] *[[Estrazzjoni terminoloġika]] *[[Eugenija Šimkūnaitė]] *[[Eugenio Montale]] *[[Eva Ahnert-Rohlfs]] *[[Evelyn Bonaci]] *[[Ewropa tal-Lvant]] === '''<u>F</u>''' === * [[Fabbrika ta' Fagus]] * [[Fabbrika ta' Van Nelle]] * [[Fabbrika tal-Azzar ta' Völklingen]] * [[Fabbrika tal-Ħadid ta' Engelsberg]] * [[Fanal ta' Cordouan]] *[[Femminiżmu tar-Rom]] *[[Fenno-Skandinavja]] *[[Ferrara]] *[[Festival ta' Sanremo]] *[[Firenze]] *[[Fjords Norveġiżi tal-Punent]] *[[Flora Martirosian]] *[[Fondoq ta' Ironbridge]] *[[Foresti Antiki u Primordjali tal-Fagu tal-Karpazji u ta' Reġjuni Oħra tal-Ewropa]] *[[Foresti Tropikali ta' Gondwana]] * [[Forti ta' Agra]] *[[Forti ta' Bahla]] *[[Fortifikazzjonijiet ta’ Kotor|Fortifikazzjonijiet ta' Kotor]] *[[Fortijiet fl-Għoljiet ta' Rajasthan]] *[[Fortizza ta' Diyarbakır]] *[[Fotografu]] *[[Francesco Guardi]] *[[François-Alphonse Forel]] *[[François Couperin]] *[[Franġisk Zahra]] *[[Franz Ritter von Hauer]] *[[Frédéric Bartholdi]] *[[Fritz Albert Lipmann]] * [[Frott]] * [[Fruntieri Rumani tad-Danubju]] *[[Furnar]] === '''<u>Ġ</u>''' === * [[Ġardinar]] *[[Ġebla ta' Rosetta]] * [[Ġebla tal-Ġeneral]] * [[Ġeoloġija]] * [[Ġibjun ta' Kiev]] * [[Ġnien Botaniku ta' Padova]] * [[Ġonna ta' Hevsel]] *[[Ġurnalist]] === '''<u>G</u>''' === * [[Gammelstad]] * [[Genova: It-Toroq Ġodda u s-Sistema tal-Palazzi tal-Listi]] *[[Georg Ohm]] *[[George Gallup]] *[[Georges Bernanos]] *[[Georges J.F. Kohler]] *[[Getbol, il-Pjanuri tal-Marea tal-Korea t'Isfel]] *[[Giacomo Zanella]] *[[Giampiero Galeazzi]] *[[Gianni Vella]] *[[Giorgio Vasari]] *[[Giosuè Carducci]] *[[Giovanni Arduino]] *[[Giovanni Battista Belzoni]] *[[Giovanni Paisiello]] *[[Giovanni Papini]] *[[Giulio Natta]] *[[Gjirokastër]] *[[Glossarju]] *[[Göbekli Tepe]] *[[Gösta Mittag-Leffler]] *[[Grand Place, Brussell]] *[[Graz]] *[[Grazia Deledda]] *[[Gregorio Allegri]] *[[Gremxula ta' Malta]] *[[Grotta ta' Chauvet]] *[[Grupp ta' Monumenti ta' Khajuraho]] *[[Guillaume Cornelis van Beverloo]] *[[Gustave Charpentier]] * [[Gżejjer Eolji]] * [[Gżejjer Falkland]] * [[Gżejjer Galapagos]] *[[Gżira ta' Jeju]] *[[Gżira tal-Mużewijiet]] === '''<u>GĦ</u>''' === * [[Għajn Tuffieħa]] * [[Għalliem]] *[[Għar Dalam]] *[[Għar ta' Altamira]] *[[Għar ta' Karain]] *[[Għar tal-Irħam]] *[[Għerien ta’ Škocjan|Għerien ta' Škocjan]] *[[Għerien u Arti tal-Era Glaċjali fil-Jura tas-Swabja]] *[[Għoljiet, Djar u Kantini ta' Champagne]] *[[Għoljiet Sagri ta' Piemonte u ta' Lombardia]] *[[Għoljiet ta' Donets]] *[[Għoljiet tal-Prosecco ta' Conegliano u Valdobbiadene]] === '''<u>H</u>''' === * [[Hagia Sophia]] * [[Hallstatt]] *[[Hans Geiger]] *[[Hans Memling]] *[[Hans Spemann]] *[[Hatı Çırpan]] *[[Hattusha]] *[[Heinrich Hertz]] *[[Hermannus Contractus]] *[[Hildesheim]] *[[Holašovice]] *[[Hovgården]] *[[Howard Carter]] *[[Hryhorii Kvitka-Osnovianenko]] *[[Hubert de Givenchy]] === '''<u>Ħ</u>''' === * [[Ħaġar ta' Jelling]] *[[Ħajt il-Kbir taċ-Ċina]] *[[Ħitan Rumani ta' Lugo]] === '''<u>I</u>''' === * [[Idrija]] *[[Impjant tal-Ippompjar bl-Istim ta' Wouda]] *[[Inara Luigas]] *[[Inċiżjonijiet fuq il-Blat f’Valcamonica|Inċiżjonijiet fuq il-Blat f'Valcamonica]] *[[Indiċi]] *[[Ingredjent]] *[[Intaljatur]] *[[Ipoġew ta’ Ħal Saflieni|Ipoġew ta' Ħal Saflieni]] * [[Ipproċessar testwali]] * [[Irħula Kbar bi Spa fl-Ewropa]] * [[Irpin]] *[[Isabella d'Este]] *[[ISBN]] *[[Istmu Kuronjan]] *[[Ivan Turgenev]] *[[Ivrea]] === '''<u>J</u>''' === * [[Jacinto Benavente]] *[[Jantar Mantar, Jaipur]] *[[Jean Antoine Houdon]] *[[Jean Dieudonné]] *[[Jean Picard]] *[[Johan Jensen]] *[[John Edward Critien]] *[[John Kendrew]] *[[John Strutt Rayleigh]] *[[Jongmyo]] *[[Jørgen Pedersen Gram]] *[[Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac]] *[[Jože Plečnik]] *[[Julia Malinova]] *[[Júlia Sigmond]] *[[Julius Wagner-Jauregg]] *[[Jum il-Ġifa]] *[[Jum il-Lingwa Erżjana]] *[[Jum l-Ewropa]] === '''<u>K</u>''' === * [[Kaja Kallas]] *[[Kalwaria Zebrzydowska]] *[[Kampnari tal-Belġju u ta' Franza]] *[[Kappella]] *[[Karl Ferdinand Braun]] *[[Karl Weierstrass]] *[[Kastell ta’ Kroměříž|Kastell ta' Kroměříž]] *[[Kastell ta' Kronborg]] *[[Kastell ta’ Litomyšl|Kastell ta' Litomyšl]] *[[Kastell ta’ Malbork|Kastell ta' Malbork]] *[[Kastell ta' Spiš]] *[[Kastell ta' Wartburg]] *[[Kastelli ta' Bellinzona]] *[[Katarina Vitale]] * [[Katidral]] *[[Katidral ta' Aachen]] *[[Katidral ta' Köln]] *[[Katidral ta' Naumburg]] *[[Katidral ta' Santa Sofija (Kiev)]] *[[Katidral ta’ Šibenik|Katidral ta' Šibenik]] *[[Katina Muntanjuża ta’ Meskheti]] *[[Kauksi Ülle]] * [[Kavallier ta’ San Ġakbu|Kavallier ta' San Ġakbu]] *[[Kelma]] *[[Kernavė]] *[[Khiva]] *[[Kinderdijk]] *[[Kirurgu]] *[[Kladruby nad Labem]] * [[Klima ta' Malta]] *[[Knejjes Impittrin fir-Reġjun ta’ Troodos|Knejjes Impittrin fir-Reġjun ta' Troodos]] *[[Knejjes tal-Injam tal-Karpazji Slovakki]] *[[Knejjes tal-Injam tan-Nofsinhar ta’ Małopolskie]] *[[Knejjes tal-Moldavja]] *[[Knejjes tal-Paċi]] *[[Knisja tal-Pellegrinaġġ ta' San Ġwann ta' Nepomuk|Knisja tal-Pellegrinaġġ ta’ San Ġwann ta' Nepomuk]] *[[Knisja ta' Santa Marija tal-Grazzji (Milan)|Knisja ta' Santa Marija tal-Grazzji, Milan]] *[[Knisja ta' San Nikola tas-Saqaf]] *[[Knisja tal-Paċi fi Świdnica]] *[[Knisja tal-Verġni Marija ta' Arakos]] *[[Knisja tal-Vitorja]] *[[Kok]] *[[Kolomenskoye]] *[[Kolonja tal-Artisti ta' Darmstadt]] *[[Kolonna tat-Trinità Mqaddsa, Olomouc]] * [[Kolossew]] *[[Konversazzjoni]] *[[Korfù]] *[[Kosta Ġurassika]] *[[Kosta ta' Amalfi]] *[[Kostituzzjoni ta’ Malta|Kostituzzjoni ta' Malta]] *[[Krater ta' Logoisk]] *[[Kremlin ta' Kazan]] *[[Kremlin ta’ Moska|Kremlin ta' Moska]] *[[Krzemionki]] *[[Kumpanija Ferrovjarja Retika]] *[[Kunvent Benedittin ta' San Ġwann f'Müstair]] *[[Kunvent ta' Spiš]] *[[Kunvent ta’ Novodevichy|Kunvent ta' Novodevichy]] *[[Kutná Hora]] === '''<u>L</u>''' === * [[L-Arti]] *[[Landier]] *[[Lapponja Żvediża]] *[[Las Médulas]] *[[Lascaux]] *[[Lavra tat-Trinità ta' San Serġjo]] *[[Lazzaro Pisani]] *[[Lessikoloġija]] * [[Lessiku]] * [[Letoon]] * [[Levoča, il-Kastell ta' Spiš u l-monumenti kulturali assoċjati]] *[[Lika Kavzharadze]] *[[Lingwa Erżjana]] *[[Linja ferrovjarja ta’ Semmering|Linja ferrovjarja ta' Semmering]] *[[Linji ta' Nazca]] *[[Linji tal-Ilma Difensivi Olandiżi]] *[[Lista ta’ binjiet ta’ Gaudí]] *[[Lista ta' Membri tal-Parlament ta' Malta, 2017–2022]] *[[Lista ta' peniżoli]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Ċipru]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Malta]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji taċ-Ċekja|Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fiċ-Ċekja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Bożnija-Ħerzegovina]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Każakistan]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Kroazja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Latvja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Litwanja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Maċedonja ta' Fuq]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Montenegro]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Polonja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fis-Slovenja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Turkija]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Awstrija]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Estonja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Iran]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Italja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Ukrajna]] *[[Loġġa tal-Ħarir]] *[[Longobardi fl-Italja: Postijiet tal-Poter (568-774 W.K.)]] *[[Lorenzo de' Medici]] *[[Lorenzo Valla]] *[[Lucavsala]] *[[Lučka Kajfež Bogataj]] *[[Ludovico Carracci]] *[[Luigi Boccherini]] *[[Luigi Pirandello]] *[[Lumbini]] *[[Lviv]] === '''<u>M</u>''' === * [[Machu Picchu]] *[[Mafkar tal-Paċi ta' Hiroshima]] * [[Malta taħt il-Franċiżi]] *[[Maltin]] *[[Måneskin]] *[[Manhush]] *[[Manto Mavrogenous]] *[[Mantova]] *[[Maria De Filippi]] *[[Maria Dobroniega ta' Kiev]] *[[Mario Draghi]] *[[Martinu I ta' Sqallija]] *[[Mary Moser]] *[[Mawżolew ta’ Khoja Ahmed Yasawi]] *[[Meteora]] *[[Mikhail Ostrogradsky]] *[[Milan]] *[[Mina tal-Imħabba ta' Klevan]] *[[Minjiera Storika tal-Fidda f'Tarnowskie Góry]] *[[Minjiera tal-Melħ ta’ Wieliczka]] *[[Minjiera tar-Ram ta' Falun]] *[[Minjieri taż-Żnied Neolitiċi ta' Spiennes]] *[[Mira Alečković]] *[[Mirella Freni]] *[[Modena]] *[[Monasteru ta’ Gračanica|Monasteru ta' Gračanica]] *[[Monasteru tal-Ġlormini]] *[[Monasteru Rjali ta' Santa Marija ta' Guadalupe]] *[[Monasteru ta' Voroneț]] *[[Monika Kryemadhi]] *[[Monte San Giorgio]] * [[Monument]] * [[Monumenti Rumani, il-Katidral ta' San Pietru u l-Knisja tal-Madonna fi Trier]] * [[Monumenti Storiċi f'Novgorod u fl-Inħawi]] * [[Monumenti Storiċi ta' Kjoto Antika (Bliet ta' Kjoto, Uji u Ōtsu)]] *[[Monumenti Storiċi ta' Nara]] *[[Moskea l-Kbira u Sptar ta' Divriği]] *[[Moskea ta’ Selimiye, Edirne]] *[[Motoori Norinaga]] *[[Muħammed]] *[[Muniċipju ta' Bremen]] *[[Muntanji tal-Krimea]] *[[Mużew ta' Trojja]] *[[Mystras]] === '''<u>N</u>''' === * [[Nagorno-Karabakh]] * [[Naħla tal-għasel ta' Malta]] * [[Nancy]] *[[Napli]] *[[Nataliya Kobrynska]] *[[Nekropoli ta' Monterozzi]] *[[Nemrut Dağı]] *[[New Secret (jott)]] *[[Nexhmije Pagarusha]] *[[Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc]] *[[Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot]] *[[Nicolau Coelho]] *[[Nikkō]] *[[Nisa (Turkmenistan)]] *[[Nisa f’Malta]] *[[Nisa fl-elezzjonijiet ġenerali ta’ Malta]] *[[Norman Morrison]] *[[Nutar]] === '''<u>O</u>''' === * [[Olga Tass]] *[[Olimpja]] *[[Oplontis]] *[[Opri Venezjani tad-Difiża bejn is-sekli 15 u 17: Stato da Terra – Stato da Mar tal-Punent]] *[[Oqbra imperjali tad-dinastiji Ming u Qing]] *[[Ortografija Litwana]] *[[Osservatorju ta' Jodrell Bank]] *[[Otto Toeplitz]] === '''<u>P</u>''' === * [[Pajsaġġ Agrikolu tan-Nofsinhar ta' Öland]] * [[Pajsaġġ Industrijali ta' Blaenavon]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta’ Lednice-Valtice]] * [[Pajsaġġ tal-Vinji ta' Piemonte: Langhe-Roero u Monferrato]] * [[Pajsaġġ tax-Xogħol fil-Minjieri ta' Cornwall u l-Punent ta' Devon]] *[[Palazz Irjali ta' Caserta]] *[[Palazz ta’ Djoklezjanu|Palazz ta' Djoklezjanu]] *[[Palazz ta' Drottningholm]] *[[Palazz ta’ Schönbrunn|Palazz ta' Schönbrunn]] *[[Palazz ta’ Stoclet|Palazz ta' Stoclet]] *[[Palazzi u Parks ta' Potsdam u Berlin]] *[[Palermo Għarbija-Normanna u l-Katidrali ta' Cefalù u Monreale]] *[[Palestina]] *[[Palianytsia]] *[[Pamukkale]] *[[Parmigianino]] *[[Park Irjali ta' Studley]] *[[Park Naturali Nazzjonali tal-Karpazji]] *[[Park Nazzjonali Storiku ta' Göreme]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta’ Belovezhskaya Pushcha]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Chitwan]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Cilento, Vallo di Diano u Alburni]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta’ Fertő-Hanság]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Garajonay]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Komodo]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Sagarmatha]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Teide]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Ujung Kulon]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Għerien ta' Naracoorte]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Lagi ta’ Plitvice]] *[[Park Storiku ta' Ayutthaya]] *[[Park ta’ Muskau|Park ta' Muskau]] *[[Parrukkier]] *[[Paulo Coelho]] *[[Pavlo Lee]] *[[Pellegrinaġġ ta’ San Ġakbu]] *[[Peña de los Enamorados]] *[[Peniżola]] *[[Pergamon]] *[[Petra]] *[[Philipp Otto Runge]] *[[Pienza]] *[[Piero Angela]] *[[Pierre Fatou]] *[[Pietro Longhi]] *[[Pjanura ta’ Stari Grad]] *[[Pjazza]] * [[Pjazza tal-Mirakli]] *[[Plamer]] *[[Politika]] *[[Pont Antik ta’ Mostar]] *[[Pont ta' Forth]] *[[Pont ta' Malabadi]] *[[Pont ta' Mehmed Paša Sokolović]] *[[Pont ta' Vizcaya]] *[[Porfirio Barba-Jacob]] *[[Port ta’ Marsamxett]] *[[Porta Nigra]] *[[Portiċi ta' Bologna]] *[[Pożati]] *[[Professjoni]] *[[Provins]] === '''<u>Q</u>''' === * [[Qalhat]] * [[Il-Qtugħ ir-Ras ta’ San Ġwann|Qtugħ ir-Ras ta’ San Ġwann Battista (Caravaggio)]] * [[Quedlinburg]] === '''<u>R</u>''' === * [[Ravenna]] * [[Reġjun Naturali, Kulturali u Storiku ta’ Kotor]] * [[Reġjun tal-Estrazzjoni tal-Minerali ta' Erzgebirge/Krušnohoří]] *[[Reichenau]] *[[Relattività (Maurits Cornelis Escher)]] *[[Rembrandt]] *[[Renata Scotto]] *[[Renju tal-Ġonna ta' Dessau-Wörlitz]] *[[Repubblika Sovjetika ta’ Don|Repubblika Sovjetika ta' Don]] *[[Residenza tal-Metropolitani ta' Bukovina u tad-Dalmazja]] *[[Residenzi tal-Familja Savoia]] *[[Residenzi tal-Moderniżmu f'Berlin]] *[[Rewwixta tal-Qassisin]] *[[Riga]] *[[Riversleigh]] *[[Riżerva Naturali ta' Bashkiriya]] *[[Riżerva Naturali ta’ Kaniv]] *[[Riżerva Naturali ta’ Yulen]] *[[Riżerva Naturali tal-Flora fil-Ġibs]] *[[Riżerva tal-Bijosfera Transkonfinali Ohrid-Prespa]] *[[Robert Wilhelm Bunsen]] * [[Roi Mata]] * [[Ronald Searle]] * [[Rotot ta’ Santiago de Compostela fi Franza]] * [[Róža Domašcyna]] *[[Rudolf Diesel]] *[[Ruggiero Leoncavallo]] === '''<u>S</u>''' === * [[Safranbolu]] * [[Saint-Émilion]] * [[Sajjied]] *[[Sala taċ-Ċentenarju]] *[[Salamanca]] *[[Salvatore Accardo]] *[[Salzburg]] *[[Samantha Cristoforetti]] *[[Samarkanda]] *[[San Gimignano]] *[[San Pietruburgu]] *[[Sandra Mondaini]] *[[Sandro Botticelli]] *[[Santiago de Compostela]] *[[Santwarju ta' Itsukushima]] * [[Saryarka]] * [[Sassi ta' Matera]] *[[Schokland]] *[[Seba’ Għeġubijiet Ġodda tad-Dinja]] *[[Sebastian Brant]] *[[Sengħa]] *[[Seokguram]] *[[Seowon]] *[[Severo Ochoa]] *[[Shahrisabz]] *[[Sian Ka'an]] *[[Sidney Webb]] *[[Siena]] *[[Siracusa]] *[[Sistema tal-Ġestjoni tal-Ilma ta' Augsburg]] *[[Sit Arkeoloġiku ta' Atapuerca]] *[[Sit Arkeoloġiku ta’ Paphos]] * [[Sit ta' Wirt Dinji]] *[[Sit tad-Dolmens ta' Antequera]] *[[Siti Arkeoloġiċi ta' Tarraco]] *[[Siti Awstraljani tal-Fossili tal-Mammiferi]] *[[Siti Penitenzjarji Awstraljani]] *[[Siti preistoriċi bil-puntali madwar l-Alpi|Siti Preistoriċi bil-Puntali Madwar l-Alpi]] *[[Skarpan]] *[[Skellig Michael]] *[[Skogskyrkogården]] *[[Skoll il-Kbir tal-Qroll]] *[[Skoll tal-Qroll ta' New Caledonia]] *[[Sophie Germain]] *[[Skrivan]] *[[Statwa]] *[[Statwa ta' Roland ta' Bremen]] *[[Statwa tal-Libertà]] *[[Stazzjon ta' Chhatrapati Shivaji]] *[[Stazzjon tar-Radju ta' Grimeton]] *[[Stećak]] *[[Stevns Klint]] *[[Stonehenge]] *[[Su Nuraxi]] *[[Suq Ċentrali ta' Ljubljana]] === '''<u>T</u>''' === * [[Ta' Bakkja]] * [[Ta' Kandja]] *[[Tabib]] *[[Taħdit]] *[[Taj Mahal]] *[[Tallinn]] *[[Tarraco]] *[[Teatru Akkademiku Reġjonali ta' Donetsk]] *[[Teatru Antik ta’ Epidaurus|Teatru Antik ta' Epidaurus]] *[[Teatru Rjal]] *[[Teatru tal-Opri Margravjali]] *[[Tekniku]] *[[Telč]] * [[Tempji Megalitiċi ta’ Malta u Għawdex|Tempji Megalitiċi ta' Malta u Għawdex]] *[[Tempju ta' Apollo Epikurju f’Bassae|Tempju ta' Apollo Epikurju f'Bassae]] *[[Tempju ta' Asklepju ta' Epidaurus]] *[[Tempju ta' Haeinsa]] *[[Tempju tal-Ġenna]] * [[Terminoloġija]] * [[Tetiana Ostashchenko]] *[[Teżawru]] *[[Tholos ta' El Romeral]] *[[Thomas à Kempis]] *[[Tian Shan]] * [[Tieqa tad-Dwejra]] * [[Tieqa tal-Wied il-Mielaħ]] * [[Tikal]] *[[Tinqix fuq il-Blat f'Tanum]] *[[Tiryns]] *[[Tlacotalpan]] *[[TNMK]] *[[Tobias Michael Carel Asser]] *[[Tomaso Antonio Vitali]] *[[Toroq tal-Ħarir: in-Network ta' Rotot tal-Kuritur ta' Chang'an-Tianshan]] * [[Torri Mmejjel ta' Pisa]] * [[Torri ta' Belém]] *[[Torri ta' Erkole]] *[[Toruń]] *[[Třebíč]] *[[Trogir]] *[[Trojja]] *[[Tropiċi Mistagħdra ta' Queensland]] *[[Tserkva ta' Santa Marija, Owczary]] *[[Tserkva ta' Santa Marija Omm Alla, Chotyniec]] *[[Tserkva tal-Injam tal-Karpazji fil-Polonja u fl-Ukrajna]] *[[Tutankhamun]] === '''<u>U</u>''' === * [[Ugo Foscolo]] *[[Uluru]] *[[Um er-Rasas]] *[[UNESCO]] *[[Unjoni Sovjetika]] *[[Urbino]] *[[Uxmal]] === '''<u>V</u>''' === * [[Val d'Orcia]] *[[Val di Noto]] *[[Valentyna Radzymovska]] *[[Valeria Bruni Tedeschi]] *[[Vallée de Mai]] *[[Velimir Khlebnikov]] *[[Verona]] *[[Vincent van Gogh]] *[[Vilel u Ġonna tal-Familja Medici]] *[[Villa d'Este]] *[[Villa Romana del Casale]] *[[Villa ta' Adrijanu]] *[[Villa Tugendhat]] *[[Vilnius]] *[[Visby]] *[[Vitaliy Kim]] *[[Vito Volterra]] *[[Vittorio De Sica]] *[[Vjenna]] *[[Vladimir Ashkenazy]] *[[Volodymyr Zelenskyy]] *[[Võros]] *[[Vulkan tat-Tajn ta’ Lökbatan]] === '''<u>W</u>''' === * [[Wachau]] *[[Wadi Rum]] *[[Werrej]] *[[Wied ta' Kathmandu]] *[[Wied ta' Madriu-Perafita-Claror]] *[[Wied tat-Tempji]] *[[Wilhelm Grimm]] *[[Wilhelm Röntgen]] *[[Willem de Sitter]] *[[William Boeing]] *[[Wirt tal-Foresti Tropikali ta' Sumatra]] *[[Wolfgang Paul]] === '''<u>X</u>''' === * [[Xatt it-Tiben]] *[[Xeff]] *[[Xogħlijiet ta' Jože Plečnik f'Ljubljana – Disinn Urban Iċċentrat fuq il-Bniedem]] *[[Xjenza spazjali]] === '''<u>Y</u>''' === * [[Yeni-Kale]] *[[Yuliya Gushchina]] *[[Yuri Lysianskyi]] === '''<u>Ż</u>''' === * [[Żiemel Abjad ta' Osmington]] *[[Żona l-Kbira tal-Muntanji Blu]] *[[Żona Protetta ta' Jungfrau-Aletsch]] *[[Żona Protetta ta' Pliva, Janj u r-Riżerva ta' Janjske Otoke]] *[[Żoni Storiċi ta' Baekje]] *[[Żooloġija]] === '''<u>Z</u>''' === * [[Zamość]] * [[Ziba Ganiyeva]] *[[Zofia Zamenhof]] *[[Zollverein]] *[[Zond 5]] 2yflndjvca7c5hcv4ivl7n7zcbkfj1h 279126 279125 2022-08-15T10:25:22Z Trigcly 17859 /* A */ wikitext text/x-wiki == '''Kontribuzzjonijiet - Artikli ġodda (714)''' == === <u>'''A'''</u> === * [[Abbazija ta' Corvey]] * [[Abbazija ta' Lorsch]] *[[Abbazija ta' Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe]] *[[Abbazija ta' Sankt Gallen]] *[[Abbazija ta’ Vézelay|Abbazija ta' Vezelay]] *[[Abu al-Fida]] *[[Abu Simbel]] *[[Aflaj tal-Oman]] *[[Afrodisja]] *[[Agostino Matrenza]] *[[Aït Benhaddou]] *[[Akkwedott ta' Padre Tembleque]] *[[Akkwedott ta' Pontcysyllte]] *[[Alatyr]] *[[Alberobello]] *[[Albi]] *[[Alcide d'Orbigny]] *[[Aleksandr Yakovlevich Khinchin]] *[[Alenush Terian]] *[[Alessandro Scarlatti]] *[[Alessandro Volta]] *[[Alfred Hermann Fried]] *[[Alfred Nobel]] *[[Alfredo Casella]] *[[Alto Douro]] * [[L-Amerika t'Isfel|Amerka t’Isfel]] * [[L-Amerika ta' Fuq|Amerka ta’ Fuq]] *[[Amilcare Ponchielli]] *[[Anastasia Golovina]] *[[Anders Jonas Ångström]] *[[André Citroën]] *[[André Weil]] * [[Angkor Wat]] * [[Ani]] *[[Anna Seghers]] *[[Anna Sychravová]] *[[Anne-Sophie Mutter]] * [[Antartika]] *[[Antoine de Jussieu]] *[[Antoine de Saint-Exupéry]] *[[Antoinette Miggiani]] *[[Anton Diabelli]] *[[Aquileia]] *[[Arena Tettonika Żvizzera ta' Sardona]] *[[Arġentier]] *[[Arġentier (tad-deheb)]] *[[Ark Ġeodetiku ta’ Struve|Ark Ġeodetiku ta' Struve]] *[[Arkeoloġija]] *[[Arkitett]] *[[Arkitettura tas-Seklu 20 ta' Frank Lloyd Wright]] *[[Arles]] *[[Armata tat-Terrakotta]] *[[Arslantepe]] *[[Arti Paleolitika fl-Għerien tat-Tramuntana ta' Spanja]] *[[Artiġjan]] * [[Assisi]] *[[Asuman Baytop]] *[[Auschwitz]] *[[Austin Camilleri]] *[[Avukat]] === '''<u>B</u>''' === * [[Bagan]] *[[Baħar ta' Wadden]] *[[Bajjad]] *[[Barbier]] *[[Bardejov]] *[[Bartolomé de Escobedo]] *[[Battir]] *[[Baxkortostan]] *[[Bażilika Ewfrasjana ta’ Poreč]] *[[Bażilika ta' San Eġidju]] *[[Beatriz Carrillo]] *[[Beemster]] *[[Belt ta' New York]] *[[Belt ta’ Vicenza u l-Vilel ta’ Palladio fil-Veneto|Belt ta’ Viċenza u l-Vilel ta’ Palladio fil-Veneto]] *[[Bennej]] *[[Bernard Grech]] *[[Bidwi]] *[[Bieb il-Belt]] *[[Borobudur]] *[[Bucha]] *[[Bukhara]] *[[Buskett]] *[[Butrint]] === '''<u>Ċ/C</u>''' === * [[Canaletto]] * [[Caral]] *[[Carl Bosch]] *[[Carla Fracci]] *[[Caroline Mikkelsen]] *[[Castel del Monte, Puglia]] *[[Çatalhöyük]] *[[Ċensu Apap]] *[[Český Krumlov]] *[[Ċetta Chevalier]] *[[Chaîne des Puys]] *[[Charles Jean de la Vallée-Poussin]] *[[Charles Nicolle]] *[[Charlie Watts]] *[[Chersonesus Tawrika]] *[[Chichén Itzá]] *[[Choirokoitia]] *[[Christiansfeld]] *[[Christopher Polhem]] *[[Ċikli ta' affreski tas-seklu 14 ta' Padova]] *[[Cinque Terre]] *[[Ċittadella Imperjali ta' Thăng Long]] *[[Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle]] *[[Crespi d'Adda]] *[[Cristofano Allori]] *[[Cumalıkızık]] *[[Cynthia Turner]] === '''<u>D</u>''' === * [[Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit]] *[[Dar ta’ Rietveld Schröder]] *[[Delta tax-xmara Kızılırmak]] *[[Dentist]] *[[Denys Shmyhal]] *[[Déodat Gratet de Dolomieu]] *[[Diana, Prinċipessa ta' Wales]] *[[Diga ta' Karakaya]] *[[Dikjarazzjoni tal-Indipendenza tal-Ukrajna]] *[[Dizzjunarju]] *[[Djalett]] *[[Djar Ewlenin ta' Victor Horta fi Brussell]] *[[Dolċier]] *[[Dolmen ta' Menga]] *[[Dolmen ta' Viera]] *[[Dolomiti]] *[[Domenico Scarlatti]] *[[Domowina]] *[[Draginja Vuksanović-Stanković]] *[[Dubrovnik]] *[[Durmitor]] * [[Dwejra]] === '''<u>E</u>''' === * [[Edinburgu]] * [[Efesu]] * [[Eise Eisinga]] *[[Ekonomista]] *[[El Torcal]] *[[Elisha Graves Otis]] *[[Emil Nolde]] *[[Emma Andrijewska]] *[[Emma Muscat]] *[[Ernst Schröder]] *[[Esperantoloġija]] *[[Estrazzjoni terminoloġika]] *[[Eugenija Šimkūnaitė]] *[[Eugenio Montale]] *[[Eva Ahnert-Rohlfs]] *[[Evelyn Bonaci]] *[[Ewropa tal-Lvant]] === '''<u>F</u>''' === * [[Fabbrika ta' Fagus]] * [[Fabbrika ta' Van Nelle]] * [[Fabbrika tal-Azzar ta' Völklingen]] * [[Fabbrika tal-Ħadid ta' Engelsberg]] * [[Fanal ta' Cordouan]] *[[Femminiżmu tar-Rom]] *[[Fenno-Skandinavja]] *[[Ferrara]] *[[Festival ta' Sanremo]] *[[Firenze]] *[[Fjords Norveġiżi tal-Punent]] *[[Flora Martirosian]] *[[Fondoq ta' Ironbridge]] *[[Foresti Antiki u Primordjali tal-Fagu tal-Karpazji u ta' Reġjuni Oħra tal-Ewropa]] *[[Foresti Tropikali ta' Gondwana]] * [[Forti ta' Agra]] *[[Forti ta' Bahla]] *[[Fortifikazzjonijiet ta’ Kotor|Fortifikazzjonijiet ta' Kotor]] *[[Fortijiet fl-Għoljiet ta' Rajasthan]] *[[Fortizza ta' Diyarbakır]] *[[Fotografu]] *[[Francesco Guardi]] *[[François-Alphonse Forel]] *[[François Couperin]] *[[Franġisk Zahra]] *[[Franz Ritter von Hauer]] *[[Frédéric Bartholdi]] *[[Fritz Albert Lipmann]] * [[Frott]] * [[Fruntieri Rumani tad-Danubju]] *[[Furnar]] === '''<u>Ġ</u>''' === * [[Ġardinar]] *[[Ġebla ta' Rosetta]] * [[Ġebla tal-Ġeneral]] * [[Ġeoloġija]] * [[Ġibjun ta' Kiev]] * [[Ġnien Botaniku ta' Padova]] * [[Ġonna ta' Hevsel]] *[[Ġurnalist]] === '''<u>G</u>''' === * [[Gammelstad]] * [[Genova: It-Toroq Ġodda u s-Sistema tal-Palazzi tal-Listi]] *[[Georg Ohm]] *[[George Gallup]] *[[Georges Bernanos]] *[[Georges J.F. Kohler]] *[[Getbol, il-Pjanuri tal-Marea tal-Korea t'Isfel]] *[[Giacomo Zanella]] *[[Giampiero Galeazzi]] *[[Gianni Vella]] *[[Giorgio Vasari]] *[[Giosuè Carducci]] *[[Giovanni Arduino]] *[[Giovanni Battista Belzoni]] *[[Giovanni Paisiello]] *[[Giovanni Papini]] *[[Giulio Natta]] *[[Gjirokastër]] *[[Glossarju]] *[[Göbekli Tepe]] *[[Gösta Mittag-Leffler]] *[[Grand Place, Brussell]] *[[Graz]] *[[Grazia Deledda]] *[[Gregorio Allegri]] *[[Gremxula ta' Malta]] *[[Grotta ta' Chauvet]] *[[Grupp ta' Monumenti ta' Khajuraho]] *[[Guillaume Cornelis van Beverloo]] *[[Gustave Charpentier]] * [[Gżejjer Eolji]] * [[Gżejjer Falkland]] * [[Gżejjer Galapagos]] *[[Gżira ta' Jeju]] *[[Gżira tal-Mużewijiet]] === '''<u>GĦ</u>''' === * [[Għajn Tuffieħa]] * [[Għalliem]] *[[Għar Dalam]] *[[Għar ta' Altamira]] *[[Għar ta' Karain]] *[[Għar tal-Irħam]] *[[Għerien ta’ Škocjan|Għerien ta' Škocjan]] *[[Għerien u Arti tal-Era Glaċjali fil-Jura tas-Swabja]] *[[Għoljiet, Djar u Kantini ta' Champagne]] *[[Għoljiet Sagri ta' Piemonte u ta' Lombardia]] *[[Għoljiet ta' Donets]] *[[Għoljiet tal-Prosecco ta' Conegliano u Valdobbiadene]] === '''<u>H</u>''' === * [[Hagia Sophia]] * [[Hallstatt]] *[[Hans Geiger]] *[[Hans Memling]] *[[Hans Spemann]] *[[Hatı Çırpan]] *[[Hattusha]] *[[Heinrich Hertz]] *[[Hermannus Contractus]] *[[Hildesheim]] *[[Holašovice]] *[[Hovgården]] *[[Howard Carter]] *[[Hryhorii Kvitka-Osnovianenko]] *[[Hubert de Givenchy]] === '''<u>Ħ</u>''' === * [[Ħaġar ta' Jelling]] *[[Ħajt il-Kbir taċ-Ċina]] *[[Ħitan Rumani ta' Lugo]] === '''<u>I</u>''' === * [[Idrija]] *[[Impjant tal-Ippompjar bl-Istim ta' Wouda]] *[[Inara Luigas]] *[[Inċiżjonijiet fuq il-Blat f’Valcamonica|Inċiżjonijiet fuq il-Blat f'Valcamonica]] *[[Indiċi]] *[[Ingredjent]] *[[Intaljatur]] *[[Ipoġew ta’ Ħal Saflieni|Ipoġew ta' Ħal Saflieni]] * [[Ipproċessar testwali]] * [[Irħula Kbar bi Spa fl-Ewropa]] * [[Irpin]] *[[Isabella d'Este]] *[[ISBN]] *[[Istmu Kuronjan]] *[[Ivan Turgenev]] *[[Ivrea]] === '''<u>J</u>''' === * [[Jacinto Benavente]] *[[Jantar Mantar, Jaipur]] *[[Jean Antoine Houdon]] *[[Jean Dieudonné]] *[[Jean Picard]] *[[Johan Jensen]] *[[John Edward Critien]] *[[John Kendrew]] *[[John Strutt Rayleigh]] *[[Jongmyo]] *[[Jørgen Pedersen Gram]] *[[Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac]] *[[Jože Plečnik]] *[[Julia Malinova]] *[[Júlia Sigmond]] *[[Julius Wagner-Jauregg]] *[[Jum il-Ġifa]] *[[Jum il-Lingwa Erżjana]] *[[Jum l-Ewropa]] === '''<u>K</u>''' === * [[Kaja Kallas]] *[[Kalwaria Zebrzydowska]] *[[Kampnari tal-Belġju u ta' Franza]] *[[Kappella]] *[[Karl Ferdinand Braun]] *[[Karl Weierstrass]] *[[Kastell ta’ Kroměříž|Kastell ta' Kroměříž]] *[[Kastell ta' Kronborg]] *[[Kastell ta’ Litomyšl|Kastell ta' Litomyšl]] *[[Kastell ta’ Malbork|Kastell ta' Malbork]] *[[Kastell ta' Spiš]] *[[Kastell ta' Wartburg]] *[[Kastelli ta' Bellinzona]] *[[Katarina Vitale]] * [[Katidral]] *[[Katidral ta' Aachen]] *[[Katidral ta' Köln]] *[[Katidral ta' Naumburg]] *[[Katidral ta' Santa Sofija (Kiev)]] *[[Katidral ta’ Šibenik|Katidral ta' Šibenik]] *[[Katina Muntanjuża ta’ Meskheti]] *[[Kauksi Ülle]] * [[Kavallier ta’ San Ġakbu|Kavallier ta' San Ġakbu]] *[[Kelma]] *[[Kernavė]] *[[Khiva]] *[[Kinderdijk]] *[[Kirurgu]] *[[Kladruby nad Labem]] * [[Klima ta' Malta]] *[[Knejjes Impittrin fir-Reġjun ta’ Troodos|Knejjes Impittrin fir-Reġjun ta' Troodos]] *[[Knejjes tal-Injam tal-Karpazji Slovakki]] *[[Knejjes tal-Injam tan-Nofsinhar ta’ Małopolskie]] *[[Knejjes tal-Moldavja]] *[[Knejjes tal-Paċi]] *[[Knisja tal-Pellegrinaġġ ta' San Ġwann ta' Nepomuk|Knisja tal-Pellegrinaġġ ta’ San Ġwann ta' Nepomuk]] *[[Knisja ta' Santa Marija tal-Grazzji (Milan)|Knisja ta' Santa Marija tal-Grazzji, Milan]] *[[Knisja ta' San Nikola tas-Saqaf]] *[[Knisja tal-Paċi fi Świdnica]] *[[Knisja tal-Verġni Marija ta' Arakos]] *[[Knisja tal-Vitorja]] *[[Kok]] *[[Kolomenskoye]] *[[Kolonja tal-Artisti ta' Darmstadt]] *[[Kolonna tat-Trinità Mqaddsa, Olomouc]] * [[Kolossew]] *[[Konversazzjoni]] *[[Korfù]] *[[Kosta Ġurassika]] *[[Kosta ta' Amalfi]] *[[Kostituzzjoni ta’ Malta|Kostituzzjoni ta' Malta]] *[[Krater ta' Logoisk]] *[[Kremlin ta' Kazan]] *[[Kremlin ta’ Moska|Kremlin ta' Moska]] *[[Krzemionki]] *[[Kumpanija Ferrovjarja Retika]] *[[Kunvent Benedittin ta' San Ġwann f'Müstair]] *[[Kunvent ta' Spiš]] *[[Kunvent ta’ Novodevichy|Kunvent ta' Novodevichy]] *[[Kutná Hora]] === '''<u>L</u>''' === * [[L-Arti]] *[[Landier]] *[[Lapponja Żvediża]] *[[Las Médulas]] *[[Lascaux]] *[[Lavra tat-Trinità ta' San Serġjo]] *[[Lazzaro Pisani]] *[[Lessikoloġija]] * [[Lessiku]] * [[Letoon]] * [[Levoča, il-Kastell ta' Spiš u l-monumenti kulturali assoċjati]] *[[Lika Kavzharadze]] *[[Lingwa Erżjana]] *[[Linja ferrovjarja ta’ Semmering|Linja ferrovjarja ta' Semmering]] *[[Linji ta' Nazca]] *[[Linji tal-Ilma Difensivi Olandiżi]] *[[Lista ta’ binjiet ta’ Gaudí]] *[[Lista ta' Membri tal-Parlament ta' Malta, 2017–2022]] *[[Lista ta' peniżoli]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Ċipru]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Malta]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji taċ-Ċekja|Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fiċ-Ċekja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Bożnija-Ħerzegovina]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Każakistan]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Kroazja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Latvja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Litwanja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Maċedonja ta' Fuq]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Montenegro]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Polonja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fis-Slovenja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Turkija]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Awstrija]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Estonja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Iran]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Italja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Ukrajna]] *[[Loġġa tal-Ħarir]] *[[Longobardi fl-Italja: Postijiet tal-Poter (568-774 W.K.)]] *[[Lorenzo de' Medici]] *[[Lorenzo Valla]] *[[Lucavsala]] *[[Lučka Kajfež Bogataj]] *[[Ludovico Carracci]] *[[Luigi Boccherini]] *[[Luigi Pirandello]] *[[Lumbini]] *[[Lviv]] === '''<u>M</u>''' === * [[Machu Picchu]] *[[Mafkar tal-Paċi ta' Hiroshima]] * [[Malta taħt il-Franċiżi]] *[[Maltin]] *[[Måneskin]] *[[Manhush]] *[[Manto Mavrogenous]] *[[Mantova]] *[[Maria De Filippi]] *[[Maria Dobroniega ta' Kiev]] *[[Mario Draghi]] *[[Martinu I ta' Sqallija]] *[[Mary Moser]] *[[Mawżolew ta’ Khoja Ahmed Yasawi]] *[[Meteora]] *[[Mikhail Ostrogradsky]] *[[Milan]] *[[Mina tal-Imħabba ta' Klevan]] *[[Minjiera Storika tal-Fidda f'Tarnowskie Góry]] *[[Minjiera tal-Melħ ta’ Wieliczka]] *[[Minjiera tar-Ram ta' Falun]] *[[Minjieri taż-Żnied Neolitiċi ta' Spiennes]] *[[Mira Alečković]] *[[Mirella Freni]] *[[Modena]] *[[Monasteru ta’ Gračanica|Monasteru ta' Gračanica]] *[[Monasteru tal-Ġlormini]] *[[Monasteru Rjali ta' Santa Marija ta' Guadalupe]] *[[Monasteru ta' Voroneț]] *[[Monika Kryemadhi]] *[[Monte San Giorgio]] * [[Monument]] * [[Monumenti Rumani, il-Katidral ta' San Pietru u l-Knisja tal-Madonna fi Trier]] * [[Monumenti Storiċi f'Novgorod u fl-Inħawi]] * [[Monumenti Storiċi ta' Kjoto Antika (Bliet ta' Kjoto, Uji u Ōtsu)]] *[[Monumenti Storiċi ta' Nara]] *[[Moskea l-Kbira u Sptar ta' Divriği]] *[[Moskea ta’ Selimiye, Edirne]] *[[Motoori Norinaga]] *[[Muħammed]] *[[Muniċipju ta' Bremen]] *[[Muntanji tal-Krimea]] *[[Mużew ta' Trojja]] *[[Mystras]] === '''<u>N</u>''' === * [[Nagorno-Karabakh]] * [[Naħla tal-għasel ta' Malta]] * [[Nancy]] *[[Napli]] *[[Nataliya Kobrynska]] *[[Nekropoli ta' Monterozzi]] *[[Nemrut Dağı]] *[[New Secret (jott)]] *[[Nexhmije Pagarusha]] *[[Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc]] *[[Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot]] *[[Nicolau Coelho]] *[[Nikkō]] *[[Nisa (Turkmenistan)]] *[[Nisa f’Malta]] *[[Nisa fl-elezzjonijiet ġenerali ta’ Malta]] *[[Norman Morrison]] *[[Nutar]] === '''<u>O</u>''' === * [[Olga Tass]] *[[Olimpja]] *[[Oplontis]] *[[Opri Venezjani tad-Difiża bejn is-sekli 15 u 17: Stato da Terra – Stato da Mar tal-Punent]] *[[Oqbra imperjali tad-dinastiji Ming u Qing]] *[[Ortografija Litwana]] *[[Osservatorju ta' Jodrell Bank]] *[[Otto Toeplitz]] === '''<u>P</u>''' === * [[Pajsaġġ Agrikolu tan-Nofsinhar ta' Öland]] * [[Pajsaġġ Industrijali ta' Blaenavon]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta’ Lednice-Valtice]] * [[Pajsaġġ tal-Vinji ta' Piemonte: Langhe-Roero u Monferrato]] * [[Pajsaġġ tax-Xogħol fil-Minjieri ta' Cornwall u l-Punent ta' Devon]] *[[Palazz Irjali ta' Caserta]] *[[Palazz ta’ Djoklezjanu|Palazz ta' Djoklezjanu]] *[[Palazz ta' Drottningholm]] *[[Palazz ta’ Schönbrunn|Palazz ta' Schönbrunn]] *[[Palazz ta’ Stoclet|Palazz ta' Stoclet]] *[[Palazzi u Parks ta' Potsdam u Berlin]] *[[Palermo Għarbija-Normanna u l-Katidrali ta' Cefalù u Monreale]] *[[Palestina]] *[[Palianytsia]] *[[Pamukkale]] *[[Parmigianino]] *[[Park Irjali ta' Studley]] *[[Park Naturali Nazzjonali tal-Karpazji]] *[[Park Nazzjonali Storiku ta' Göreme]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta’ Belovezhskaya Pushcha]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Chitwan]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Cilento, Vallo di Diano u Alburni]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta’ Fertő-Hanság]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Garajonay]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Komodo]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Sagarmatha]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Teide]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Ujung Kulon]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Għerien ta' Naracoorte]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Lagi ta’ Plitvice]] *[[Park Storiku ta' Ayutthaya]] *[[Park ta’ Muskau|Park ta' Muskau]] *[[Parrukkier]] *[[Paulo Coelho]] *[[Pavlo Lee]] *[[Pellegrinaġġ ta’ San Ġakbu]] *[[Peña de los Enamorados]] *[[Peniżola]] *[[Pergamon]] *[[Petra]] *[[Philipp Otto Runge]] *[[Pienza]] *[[Piero Angela]] *[[Pierre Fatou]] *[[Pietro Longhi]] *[[Pjanura ta’ Stari Grad]] *[[Pjazza]] * [[Pjazza tal-Mirakli]] *[[Plamer]] *[[Politika]] *[[Pont Antik ta’ Mostar]] *[[Pont ta' Forth]] *[[Pont ta' Malabadi]] *[[Pont ta' Mehmed Paša Sokolović]] *[[Pont ta' Vizcaya]] *[[Porfirio Barba-Jacob]] *[[Port ta’ Marsamxett]] *[[Porta Nigra]] *[[Portiċi ta' Bologna]] *[[Pożati]] *[[Professjoni]] *[[Provins]] === '''<u>Q</u>''' === * [[Qalhat]] * [[Il-Qtugħ ir-Ras ta’ San Ġwann|Qtugħ ir-Ras ta’ San Ġwann Battista (Caravaggio)]] * [[Quedlinburg]] === '''<u>R</u>''' === * [[Ravenna]] * [[Reġjun Naturali, Kulturali u Storiku ta’ Kotor]] * [[Reġjun tal-Estrazzjoni tal-Minerali ta' Erzgebirge/Krušnohoří]] *[[Reichenau]] *[[Relattività (Maurits Cornelis Escher)]] *[[Rembrandt]] *[[Renata Scotto]] *[[Renju tal-Ġonna ta' Dessau-Wörlitz]] *[[Repubblika Sovjetika ta’ Don|Repubblika Sovjetika ta' Don]] *[[Residenza tal-Metropolitani ta' Bukovina u tad-Dalmazja]] *[[Residenzi tal-Familja Savoia]] *[[Residenzi tal-Moderniżmu f'Berlin]] *[[Rewwixta tal-Qassisin]] *[[Riga]] *[[Riversleigh]] *[[Riżerva Naturali ta' Bashkiriya]] *[[Riżerva Naturali ta’ Kaniv]] *[[Riżerva Naturali ta’ Yulen]] *[[Riżerva Naturali tal-Flora fil-Ġibs]] *[[Riżerva tal-Bijosfera Transkonfinali Ohrid-Prespa]] *[[Robert Wilhelm Bunsen]] * [[Roi Mata]] * [[Ronald Searle]] * [[Rotot ta’ Santiago de Compostela fi Franza]] * [[Róža Domašcyna]] *[[Rudolf Diesel]] *[[Ruggiero Leoncavallo]] === '''<u>S</u>''' === * [[Safranbolu]] * [[Saint-Émilion]] * [[Sajjied]] *[[Sala taċ-Ċentenarju]] *[[Salamanca]] *[[Salvatore Accardo]] *[[Salzburg]] *[[Samantha Cristoforetti]] *[[Samarkanda]] *[[San Gimignano]] *[[San Pietruburgu]] *[[Sandra Mondaini]] *[[Sandro Botticelli]] *[[Santiago de Compostela]] *[[Santwarju ta' Itsukushima]] * [[Saryarka]] * [[Sassi ta' Matera]] *[[Schokland]] *[[Seba’ Għeġubijiet Ġodda tad-Dinja]] *[[Sebastian Brant]] *[[Sengħa]] *[[Seokguram]] *[[Seowon]] *[[Severo Ochoa]] *[[Shahrisabz]] *[[Sian Ka'an]] *[[Sidney Webb]] *[[Siena]] *[[Siracusa]] *[[Sistema tal-Ġestjoni tal-Ilma ta' Augsburg]] *[[Sit Arkeoloġiku ta' Atapuerca]] *[[Sit Arkeoloġiku ta’ Paphos]] * [[Sit ta' Wirt Dinji]] *[[Sit tad-Dolmens ta' Antequera]] *[[Siti Arkeoloġiċi ta' Tarraco]] *[[Siti Awstraljani tal-Fossili tal-Mammiferi]] *[[Siti Penitenzjarji Awstraljani]] *[[Siti preistoriċi bil-puntali madwar l-Alpi|Siti Preistoriċi bil-Puntali Madwar l-Alpi]] *[[Skarpan]] *[[Skellig Michael]] *[[Skogskyrkogården]] *[[Skoll il-Kbir tal-Qroll]] *[[Skoll tal-Qroll ta' New Caledonia]] *[[Sophie Germain]] *[[Skrivan]] *[[Statwa]] *[[Statwa ta' Roland ta' Bremen]] *[[Statwa tal-Libertà]] *[[Stazzjon ta' Chhatrapati Shivaji]] *[[Stazzjon tar-Radju ta' Grimeton]] *[[Stećak]] *[[Stevns Klint]] *[[Stonehenge]] *[[Su Nuraxi]] *[[Suq Ċentrali ta' Ljubljana]] === '''<u>T</u>''' === * [[Ta' Bakkja]] * [[Ta' Kandja]] *[[Tabib]] *[[Taħdit]] *[[Taj Mahal]] *[[Tallinn]] *[[Tarraco]] *[[Teatru Akkademiku Reġjonali ta' Donetsk]] *[[Teatru Antik ta’ Epidaurus|Teatru Antik ta' Epidaurus]] *[[Teatru Rjal]] *[[Teatru tal-Opri Margravjali]] *[[Tekniku]] *[[Telč]] * [[Tempji Megalitiċi ta’ Malta u Għawdex|Tempji Megalitiċi ta' Malta u Għawdex]] *[[Tempju ta' Apollo Epikurju f’Bassae|Tempju ta' Apollo Epikurju f'Bassae]] *[[Tempju ta' Asklepju ta' Epidaurus]] *[[Tempju ta' Haeinsa]] *[[Tempju tal-Ġenna]] * [[Terminoloġija]] * [[Tetiana Ostashchenko]] *[[Teżawru]] *[[Tholos ta' El Romeral]] *[[Thomas à Kempis]] *[[Tian Shan]] * [[Tieqa tad-Dwejra]] * [[Tieqa tal-Wied il-Mielaħ]] * [[Tikal]] *[[Tinqix fuq il-Blat f'Tanum]] *[[Tiryns]] *[[Tlacotalpan]] *[[TNMK]] *[[Tobias Michael Carel Asser]] *[[Tomaso Antonio Vitali]] *[[Toroq tal-Ħarir: in-Network ta' Rotot tal-Kuritur ta' Chang'an-Tianshan]] * [[Torri Mmejjel ta' Pisa]] * [[Torri ta' Belém]] *[[Torri ta' Erkole]] *[[Toruń]] *[[Třebíč]] *[[Trogir]] *[[Trojja]] *[[Tropiċi Mistagħdra ta' Queensland]] *[[Tserkva ta' Santa Marija, Owczary]] *[[Tserkva ta' Santa Marija Omm Alla, Chotyniec]] *[[Tserkva tal-Injam tal-Karpazji fil-Polonja u fl-Ukrajna]] *[[Tutankhamun]] === '''<u>U</u>''' === * [[Ugo Foscolo]] *[[Uluru]] *[[Um er-Rasas]] *[[UNESCO]] *[[Unjoni Sovjetika]] *[[Urbino]] *[[Uxmal]] === '''<u>V</u>''' === * [[Val d'Orcia]] *[[Val di Noto]] *[[Valentyna Radzymovska]] *[[Valeria Bruni Tedeschi]] *[[Vallée de Mai]] *[[Velimir Khlebnikov]] *[[Verona]] *[[Vincent van Gogh]] *[[Vilel u Ġonna tal-Familja Medici]] *[[Villa d'Este]] *[[Villa Romana del Casale]] *[[Villa ta' Adrijanu]] *[[Villa Tugendhat]] *[[Vilnius]] *[[Visby]] *[[Vitaliy Kim]] *[[Vito Volterra]] *[[Vittorio De Sica]] *[[Vjenna]] *[[Vladimir Ashkenazy]] *[[Volodymyr Zelenskyy]] *[[Võros]] *[[Vulkan tat-Tajn ta’ Lökbatan]] === '''<u>W</u>''' === * [[Wachau]] *[[Wadi Rum]] *[[Werrej]] *[[Wied ta' Kathmandu]] *[[Wied ta' Madriu-Perafita-Claror]] *[[Wied tat-Tempji]] *[[Wilhelm Grimm]] *[[Wilhelm Röntgen]] *[[Willem de Sitter]] *[[William Boeing]] *[[Wirt tal-Foresti Tropikali ta' Sumatra]] *[[Wolfgang Paul]] === '''<u>X</u>''' === * [[Xatt it-Tiben]] *[[Xeff]] *[[Xogħlijiet ta' Jože Plečnik f'Ljubljana – Disinn Urban Iċċentrat fuq il-Bniedem]] *[[Xjenza spazjali]] === '''<u>Y</u>''' === * [[Yeni-Kale]] *[[Yuliya Gushchina]] *[[Yuri Lysianskyi]] === '''<u>Ż</u>''' === * [[Żiemel Abjad ta' Osmington]] *[[Żona l-Kbira tal-Muntanji Blu]] *[[Żona Protetta ta' Jungfrau-Aletsch]] *[[Żona Protetta ta' Pliva, Janj u r-Riżerva ta' Janjske Otoke]] *[[Żoni Storiċi ta' Baekje]] *[[Żooloġija]] === '''<u>Z</u>''' === * [[Zamość]] * [[Ziba Ganiyeva]] *[[Zofia Zamenhof]] *[[Zollverein]] *[[Zond 5]] lr1nia1ga4zfzko2brm61nj4dl2gazt 0 25952 279116 267644 2022-08-15T09:45:43Z Chrisportelli 355 Chrisportelli mexxa l-paġna [[Knisja tal-Pellegrinaġġ ta’ San Ġwann ta’ Nepomuk]] għal [[Knisja tal-Pellegrinaġġ ta' San Ġwann ta' Nepomuk]]: [[:w:WP:'|WP:']] wikitext text/x-wiki [[Stampa:KLG 4953 CZ - Žďár nad Sázavou, Wallfahrtskirche Zelená Hora.jpg|daqsminuri|316x316px|Veduta tal-knisja mill-ajru]] Il-'''Knisja tal-Pellegrinaġġ ta’ San Ġwann ta’ Nepomuk''' (biċ-Ċek: ''Poutní kostel svatého Jana Nepomuckého'') f’[[Zelená hora]] (preċedentement magħrufa bil-Ġermaniż bħala ''Grünberg'', li tfisser “Għolja ħadra”) hija binja reliġjuża fil-limiti ta’ [[Žďár nad Sázavou]], ir-[[Ċekja|Repubblika Ċeka]], ħdejn il-fruntiera storika bejn il-[[Moravja]] u l-[[Boemja]]. Il-knisja hija x-xogħol aħħari ta’ [[Jan Santini Aichel]], [[arkitett]] mill-Boemja li kkombina l-[[Barokk]] ta’ [[Borromini]] b’referenzi għal elementi [[Gotiċi]] kemm fil-kostruzzjoni kif ukoll fid-dekorazzjoni. Fl-1719, meta l-[[Knisja Kattolika|Knisja Kattolika Rumana]] ddikjarat li ilsien [[Ġwanni ta’ Nepomuk]] ma kienx korruttibbli, inbeda x-xogħol biex tinbena knisja f’Zelená hora, fejn il-qaddis futur kien irċieva l-edukazzjoni bikrija tiegħu. Il-knisja ġiet ikkonsagrata immedjatament wara l-beatifikazzjoni ta’ Ġwanni ta’ Nepomuk fl-1720, għalkemm ix-xogħlijiet tal-kostruzzjoni baqgħu sejrin sal-1727. Nofs seklu wara, wara li l-knisja nħakmet min-nirien, l-għamla tas-saqaf tagħha ġie mmodifikat. Il-knisja, b’ħafna oġġetti ddisinjati minn Santini nnifsu, hija notevoli għall-karatteristiċi Gotiċi u għas-simboliżmu kumpless tagħha, li ma kinux tas-soltu għal dak iż-żmien. Fl-1994, il-knisja tniżżlet fil-lista tas-Siti ta’ Wirt Dinji tal-UNESCO. Id-dokument tan-nominazzjoni saħaq fuq il-proporzjonijiet matematiċi ta’ Santini fl-arkitettura tal-knisja bl-għan li “tinħoloq realtà spazjali indipendenti, bid-dominanza tan-numru ħamsa fil-pjanta u tal-proporzjonijiet” tal-knisja.<ref name=":0">{{Ċita web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/690/|titlu=Pilgrimage Church of St John of Nepomuk at Zelená Hora|kunjom=Centre|isem=UNESCO World Heritage|sit=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2021-04-04}}</ref> == Impuls u tħejjija tal-knisja == [[Stampa:Pilgrimage Church-Zelena Hora(js).jpg|xellug|daqsminuri|305x305px|Il-ħitan mad-dawra tal-knisja]] Il-Knisja tal-Pellegrinaġġ ta’ San Ġwann ta’ Nepomuk ħdejn il-monasteru fi Žďár inbniet bis-saħħa tal-kooperazzjoni fit-tul u mill-qrib ta’ żewġ persuni notevoli. L-impuls biex tinbena l-knisja ġie minn [[Václav Vejmluva]], is-superjur tal-patrijiet tal-monasteru Ċisterċens fi Žďár, li kien devot kbir ta’ Ġwanni ta’ Nepomuk qabel ma ġie bbeatifikat kif ukoll wara li ġie kkanonizzat. It-tħejjija tal-proġett tmur lura għall-perjodu mill-aħħar ta’ April sal-bidu ta’ Awwissu 1719 u titqies bħala reazzjoni diretta tas-superjur malli skopra li kien hemm tessuti umani ppreservati fil-qabar ta’ Ġwanni ta’ Nepomuk fil-Katidral ta’ San Vitus fil-15 ta’ April 1719.<ref name=":1">{{Ċita ktieb|kunjom=Sváček|isem=Libor|sena=2015|titlu=UNESCO|paġni=46-49|isbn=978-80-7339-067-9}}</ref> [[Stampa:Zdar Zelena hora 29.jpg|daqsminuri|305x305px|Is-saqaf iddekorat tal-ħitan mad-dawra tal-knisja]] Id-disinn tal-binja ġie fdat lill-arkitett famuż Jan Blažej Santini-Aichel, li s-superjur Vejmluva allegatament ippreżentalu l-ideat tiegħu dwar is-santwarju l-ġdid u s-simboli li kellhom jintużaw, li kienu konformi għalkollox mar-rekwiżit tal-Knisja: “il-patrijiet jipproponu, l-artisti joħolqu”. L-arkitett imbagħad ħadem abbażi ta’ dawk l-ideat. Santini ħa ħsieb il-proġett pjuttost individwalment, mingħajr ma rrispetta t-tradizzjonijiet fir-rigward tal-għamliet tal-binjiet reliġjużi; huwa aċċetta biss il-veduta kontemporanja tal-istruttura bħala destinazzjoni ta’ pellegrinaġġ. L-arkitett wettaq l-idea tas-superjur tal-patrijiet, li kienet tagħti rwol ċentrali lid-disinn ta’ kewkba, f’għamla ferm impressjonanti li ġiet apprezzata tassew dan l-aħħar biss, iżda mhux dejjem intlaqgħet tajjeb. [[Friedrich Radnitzký]], membru tal-Kumitat Ċentrali, irrefera għall-knisja bħala “fenomenu viżiv misterjuż” fl-1886. Il-proġett tlesta pjuttost malajr, xi ħaġa oħra li ma kinitx tas-soltu iżda Santini kien magħruf għall-ħeffa tat-twettiq tal-proġetti tiegħu wkoll. Barra minn hekk, is-superjur tal-patrijiet u l-arkitett kienu kkooperaw flimkien għal ħafna snin u kienu speċjalisti tas-simboloġija u tat-tagħlim tal-''Kabbalah'' li użaw b’mod sostanzjali fil-proġett. Santini kien jaf sew xi jrid minnu s-superjur tal-patrijiet. Għaldaqstant, l-arkitettura tal-knisja kellha tiġi affettwata pożittivament mill-atmosfera ta’ fehim reċiproku. L-għamla definittiva tal-binja ma tantx tvarja mill-ewwel disinn u saru biss ftit bidliet.<ref name=":1" /> == Arkitettura == === Pjanta === [[Stampa:Jan Santini Aichel - Zelená Hora Drawing 02.jpg|xellug|daqsminuri|304x304px|Il-pjanta oriġinali tal-knisja mfassla minn Santini]] Il-knisja ċentrali, flimkien mal-kjostru ta’ madwarha, hija struttura pjuttost uniformi. L-arkitettura tal-binja hija minimalista ferm u immensament effettiva. Tikkombina elementi Barokki ma’ elementi Gotiċi, li fil-fatt jindika ż-żmien meta Ġwanni ta’ Nepomuk għex, ħadem u miet martri. Il-kostruzzjoni tal-knisja hija bbażata fuq il-ġeometrija taċ-ċirku filwaqt li ttenni b’mod kostanti n-numru ħamsa bħala referenza għall-ħames kwiekeb ta’ Ġwanni ta’ Nepomuk. Skont leġġenda, dawk il-kwiekeb dehru fuq il-post fejn miet. Il-knisja hija eżempju mill-aqwa ta’ kif Santini kien jipproġetta l-istrutturi tiegħu—prattikament bl-użu ta’ kumpass biss, kien ifassal il-pjanta tal-binja kollha abbażi ta’ arkijiet ta’ ċrieki b’raġġ li ġeneralment kien ikun moltiplikazzjoni tal-modulu tal-binja. Apparti n-numru ħamsa, Santini tenna wkoll in-numru tlieta b’referenza għat-Trinità Mqaddsa, u n-numru sitta b’referenza għall-Madonna peress li Ġwanni ta’ Nepomuk kien devot kbir tagħha. Għalhekk, mal-perimetru tal-knisja, Santini bena ħames [[Kappella|kappelli]] bi pjanta triangolari u ħames kappelli bi pjanta ovali. Fl-istess ħin, il-knisja kollha qisha l-parti trasversali ta’ kor ta’ katidral Gotiku bir-riffieda. Iċ-ċentralità tal-Knisja tal-Pellegrinaġġ ta’ San Ġwann ta’ Nepomuk toħloq vertikal bħal fenomenu simboliku, peress li l-biċċa l-kbira tal-viżitaturi x’aktarx li jħarsu ’l fuq, allegorikament bħallikieku qed iħarsu lejn il-ġenna.<ref name=":1" /> [[Stampa:Zdar Zelena hora 07.jpg|daqsminuri|Il-knisja minn ġewwa]] === Żona ċentrali === Fin-naħa ta’ ġewwa taż-żona ċentrali tal-knisja hemm kappelli ovali li huma kkollegati ma’ spazju ċilindriku ċentrali permezz ta’ ħnejjiet Gotiċi dojoq. Iż-żona ċentrali hija msaqqfa b’volti bil-lunetti li jserrħu fuq għaxar pilastri. Fl-ewwel sular hemm tribuni li jikkorrispondu għall-kappelli t’isfel. It-tieni sular huwa ddekorat b’gallerija li fiha għaxar opri tal-[[arti]]. Id-dekorazzjoni bl-istukko hija limitata għal ftit motivi mal-ħnejjiet imqabbża u ta’ intersezzjoni, li huma simili għall-volti Gotiċi. Bħal f’binjiet oħra ta’ Santini, f’din il-knisja wkoll id-dawl jintuża biex isawwar l-ispazju fuq ġewwa.<ref name=":0" /> Dan l-approċċ huwa bbażat fuq l-interpretazzjoni Barokka tad-dawl bħala sinjal tal-preżenza t’Alla, tant li wħud isejħulu d-“dawl sagru”. It-tidwil tal-knisja fuq ġewwa joħloq paradoss uniku. Dan għaliex iż-żona ċentrali hija mdawla biss indirettament, filwaqt li l-partijiet mal-ġnub tal-knisja għandhom abbundanza ta’ dawl. Dan id-dawl jasal saż-żona ċentrali tal-knisja mill-ħnejjiet Gotiċi li jinsabu fil-post fejn is-soltu jkun hemm il-pilastri ewlenin. <ref name=":1" /> [[Stampa:Zdar Zelena hora 65.jpg|xellug|daqsminuri|303x303px|L-artal prinċipali]] Id-dekorazzjoni bl-istukko tenfasizza dan il-paradoss billi toħloq rabta bejn il-ħajt u l-ħnejja partikolari li tagħmel parti mill-ħajt. Permezz ta’ din ir-rabta, il-ħitan jidhru bħallikieku huma biss qafas li jispikka bis-saħħa tad-dawl naturali. Il-knisja nnifisha titqies bħala relikwarju fejn tinżamm ir-relikwa ta’ lsien San Ġwann ta’ Nepomuk.<ref name=":1" /> === Artal prinċipali === L-artal prinċipali fuq in-naħa tal-Lvant tal-knisja jinsab fi ħdan arkata għolja. Il-quċċata tal-artal tlaħħaq mal-poġġaman tal-gallerija fit-tieni sular. Ix-xogħol tat-tinqix tal-ħames anġli tal-artal prinċipali li jippuntaw lejn Ġwanni ta’ Nepomuk, u tal-erba’ evanġelisti, sar mill-iskultur [[Jan Pavel Čechpauer]] minn [[Chrudim]] bejn l-1725 u l-1727. Tlieta mill-ħames anġli qed iżommu sfera li tirrappreżenta s-smewwiet tal-ġenna u li hija ddekorata bi ħames kwiekeb. Fuq l-isfera hemm l-i[[skultura]] ta’ San Ġwann ta’ Nepomuk magħmula minn [[Řehoř Theny]]. [[Stampa:Kostel sv. Jana Nepomuckého (Žďár nad Sázavou), Zelená hora, Žďár nad Sázavou 1.JPG|daqsminuri|294x294px|Il-ħitan bil-ħames kappelli tal-kjostru madwar il-knisja]] Huwa għamel ukoll il-lavur fuq l-istatwa tal-fidda tal-pellegrinaġġ ta’ San Ġwann ta’ Nepomuk fl-1729 maħduma mill-arġentier [[Jan Diesbach]] ta’ [[Praga]]. Din l-istatwa għebet wara l-1784. L-għażla li jiġu kkuntattjati skulturi qrib [[Matthias Braun]] saret apposta peress li Santini kkollobora miegħu kemm-il darba, u mid-dehra il-lingwaġġ ta’ Braun espress fl-iskultura kien qrib ħafna tal-personalità ta’ Santini.<ref name=":1" /> === Madwar il-knisja === Madwar il-knisja hemm kjostru ġej għat-tond li huwa maqsum f’għaxar sezzjonijiet minn ħames kappelli u ħames daħliet jew bibien. Is-saqaf ta’ kull waħda mill-kappelli oriġinarjament kien mirfud minn ħames pilastri. Dawn kienu jenfasizzaw id-dawl u kienu simbolu tal-eternità. Il-kjostru flimkiem mal-kappelli kien post fejn il-pellegrini kienu jieqfu jitolbu fih u kien jistkennu fih ukoll meta kien ikun hemm maltemp. Mhux biss il-knisja iżda anke il-madwar tagħha – il-kjostru bil-kappelli – huma xhieda tal-ħila kreattiva u arkitettonika kbira ta’ Santini.<ref name=":1" /> == Nirien == Fl-17 ta’ Lulju 1784, il-knisja ħadet in-nar u kien hemm sogru reali li tinqered għalkollox. B’xorti tajba, iċ-ċittadini lokali bl-għajnuna ta’ [[Matěj Sychra]] rnexxielhom jitfu n-nirien fiż-żona kollha tal-knisja u salvawha għall-ġenerazzjonijiet futuri. Fl-1792, l-unità amministrattiva lokali tat permess biex il-knisja tiġi rrestawrata, bil-kundizzjoni li l-knisja ma tibqax knisja tal-pellegrinaġġ, u li ċ-ċimiterju ta’ Žďár nad Sázavou jitressaq fiż-żona tal-kjostru tal-knisja. Illum il-ġurnata, iċ-ċimiterju reġa’ tressaq ’il barra mill-kjostru ftit ’il bogħod mill-knisja, sabiex il-knisja terġa’ tingħata d-dehra oriġinali skont il-pjanta ta’ Santini.<ref name=":1" /> == Sit ta’ Wirt Dinji == Il-'''Knisja tal-Pellegrinaġġ ta’ San Ġwann ta’ Nepomuk''' ġiet iddeżinjata bħala Sit ta’ Wirt Dinji tal-UNESCO fl-1994.<ref name=":0" /> Il-valur universali straordinarju tas-sit ġie rrikonoxxut abbażi tal-'''kriterju (iv)''' “Eżempju straordinarju ta’ tip ta’ bini, ta’ grupp ta’ siti jew ta’ pajsaġġ arkitettoniku jew teknoloġiku li joħroġ fid-dieher stadju/i sinifikanti fl-istorja tal-bniedem”, ladarba l-knisja hija eżempju straordinarju ta’ stil arkitettoniku li joħroġ fid-dieher it-tranżizzjoni bejn it-tradizzjonijiet Gotiċi u Barokki fis-seklu 18.<ref name=":0" /> == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Siti ta' Wirt Dinji]] [[Kategorija:Ċekja]] [[Kategorija:Knisja Kattolika Rumana]] h647oxbz8krylcycopd23st2yyvk3en 279120 279116 2022-08-15T09:46:37Z Chrisportelli 355 [[:w:WP:'|WP:']] wikitext text/x-wiki [[Stampa:KLG 4953 CZ - Žďár nad Sázavou, Wallfahrtskirche Zelená Hora.jpg|daqsminuri|316x316px|Veduta tal-knisja mill-ajru]] Il-'''Knisja tal-Pellegrinaġġ ta' San Ġwann ta' Nepomuk''' (biċ-Ċek: ''Poutní kostel svatého Jana Nepomuckého'') f'[[Zelená hora]] (preċedentement magħrufa bil-Ġermaniż bħala ''Grünberg'', li tfisser “Għolja ħadra”) hija binja reliġjuża fil-limiti ta' [[Žďár nad Sázavou]], ir-[[Ċekja|Repubblika Ċeka]], ħdejn il-fruntiera storika bejn il-[[Moravja]] u l-[[Boemja]]. Il-knisja hija x-xogħol aħħari ta' [[Jan Santini Aichel]], [[arkitett]] mill-Boemja li kkombina l-[[Barokk]] ta' [[Borromini]] b'referenzi għal elementi [[Gotiċi]] kemm fil-kostruzzjoni kif ukoll fid-dekorazzjoni. Fl-1719, meta l-[[Knisja Kattolika|Knisja Kattolika Rumana]] ddikjarat li ilsien [[Ġwanni ta' Nepomuk]] ma kienx korruttibbli, inbeda x-xogħol biex tinbena knisja f'Zelená hora, fejn il-qaddis futur kien irċieva l-edukazzjoni bikrija tiegħu. Il-knisja ġiet ikkonsagrata immedjatament wara l-beatifikazzjoni ta' Ġwanni ta' Nepomuk fl-1720, għalkemm ix-xogħlijiet tal-kostruzzjoni baqgħu sejrin sal-1727. Nofs seklu wara, wara li l-knisja nħakmet min-nirien, l-għamla tas-saqaf tagħha ġie mmodifikat. Il-knisja, b'ħafna oġġetti ddisinjati minn Santini nnifsu, hija notevoli għall-karatteristiċi Gotiċi u għas-simboliżmu kumpless tagħha, li ma kinux tas-soltu għal dak iż-żmien. Fl-1994, il-knisja tniżżlet fil-lista tas-Siti ta' Wirt Dinji tal-UNESCO. Id-dokument tan-nominazzjoni saħaq fuq il-proporzjonijiet matematiċi ta' Santini fl-arkitettura tal-knisja bl-għan li “tinħoloq realtà spazjali indipendenti, bid-dominanza tan-numru ħamsa fil-pjanta u tal-proporzjonijiet” tal-knisja.<ref name=":0">{{Ċita web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/690/|titlu=Pilgrimage Church of St John of Nepomuk at Zelená Hora|kunjom=Centre|isem=UNESCO World Heritage|sit=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2021-04-04}}</ref> == Impuls u tħejjija tal-knisja == [[Stampa:Pilgrimage Church-Zelena Hora(js).jpg|xellug|daqsminuri|305x305px|Il-ħitan mad-dawra tal-knisja]] Il-Knisja tal-Pellegrinaġġ ta' San Ġwann ta' Nepomuk ħdejn il-monasteru fi Žďár inbniet bis-saħħa tal-kooperazzjoni fit-tul u mill-qrib ta' żewġ persuni notevoli. L-impuls biex tinbena l-knisja ġie minn [[Václav Vejmluva]], is-superjur tal-patrijiet tal-monasteru Ċisterċens fi Žďár, li kien devot kbir ta' Ġwanni ta' Nepomuk qabel ma ġie bbeatifikat kif ukoll wara li ġie kkanonizzat. It-tħejjija tal-proġett tmur lura għall-perjodu mill-aħħar ta' April sal-bidu ta' Awwissu 1719 u titqies bħala reazzjoni diretta tas-superjur malli skopra li kien hemm tessuti umani ppreservati fil-qabar ta' Ġwanni ta' Nepomuk fil-Katidral ta' San Vitus fil-15 ta' April 1719.<ref name=":1">{{Ċita ktieb|kunjom=Sváček|isem=Libor|sena=2015|titlu=UNESCO|paġni=46-49|isbn=978-80-7339-067-9}}</ref> [[Stampa:Zdar Zelena hora 29.jpg|daqsminuri|305x305px|Is-saqaf iddekorat tal-ħitan mad-dawra tal-knisja]] Id-disinn tal-binja ġie fdat lill-arkitett famuż Jan Blažej Santini-Aichel, li s-superjur Vejmluva allegatament ippreżentalu l-ideat tiegħu dwar is-santwarju l-ġdid u s-simboli li kellhom jintużaw, li kienu konformi għalkollox mar-rekwiżit tal-Knisja: “il-patrijiet jipproponu, l-artisti joħolqu”. L-arkitett imbagħad ħadem abbażi ta' dawk l-ideat. Santini ħa ħsieb il-proġett pjuttost individwalment, mingħajr ma rrispetta t-tradizzjonijiet fir-rigward tal-għamliet tal-binjiet reliġjużi; huwa aċċetta biss il-veduta kontemporanja tal-istruttura bħala destinazzjoni ta' pellegrinaġġ. L-arkitett wettaq l-idea tas-superjur tal-patrijiet, li kienet tagħti rwol ċentrali lid-disinn ta' kewkba, f'għamla ferm impressjonanti li ġiet apprezzata tassew dan l-aħħar biss, iżda mhux dejjem intlaqgħet tajjeb. [[Friedrich Radnitzký]], membru tal-Kumitat Ċentrali, irrefera għall-knisja bħala “fenomenu viżiv misterjuż” fl-1886. Il-proġett tlesta pjuttost malajr, xi ħaġa oħra li ma kinitx tas-soltu iżda Santini kien magħruf għall-ħeffa tat-twettiq tal-proġetti tiegħu wkoll. Barra minn hekk, is-superjur tal-patrijiet u l-arkitett kienu kkooperaw flimkien għal ħafna snin u kienu speċjalisti tas-simboloġija u tat-tagħlim tal-''Kabbalah'' li użaw b'mod sostanzjali fil-proġett. Santini kien jaf sew xi jrid minnu s-superjur tal-patrijiet. Għaldaqstant, l-arkitettura tal-knisja kellha tiġi affettwata pożittivament mill-atmosfera ta' fehim reċiproku. L-għamla definittiva tal-binja ma tantx tvarja mill-ewwel disinn u saru biss ftit bidliet.<ref name=":1" /> == Arkitettura == === Pjanta === [[Stampa:Jan Santini Aichel - Zelená Hora Drawing 02.jpg|xellug|daqsminuri|304x304px|Il-pjanta oriġinali tal-knisja mfassla minn Santini]] Il-knisja ċentrali, flimkien mal-kjostru ta' madwarha, hija struttura pjuttost uniformi. L-arkitettura tal-binja hija minimalista ferm u immensament effettiva. Tikkombina elementi Barokki ma' elementi Gotiċi, li fil-fatt jindika ż-żmien meta Ġwanni ta' Nepomuk għex, ħadem u miet martri. Il-kostruzzjoni tal-knisja hija bbażata fuq il-ġeometrija taċ-ċirku filwaqt li ttenni b'mod kostanti n-numru ħamsa bħala referenza għall-ħames kwiekeb ta' Ġwanni ta' Nepomuk. Skont leġġenda, dawk il-kwiekeb dehru fuq il-post fejn miet. Il-knisja hija eżempju mill-aqwa ta' kif Santini kien jipproġetta l-istrutturi tiegħu—prattikament bl-użu ta' kumpass biss, kien ifassal il-pjanta tal-binja kollha abbażi ta' arkijiet ta' ċrieki b'raġġ li ġeneralment kien ikun moltiplikazzjoni tal-modulu tal-binja. Apparti n-numru ħamsa, Santini tenna wkoll in-numru tlieta b'referenza għat-Trinità Mqaddsa, u n-numru sitta b'referenza għall-Madonna peress li Ġwanni ta' Nepomuk kien devot kbir tagħha. Għalhekk, mal-perimetru tal-knisja, Santini bena ħames [[Kappella|kappelli]] bi pjanta triangolari u ħames kappelli bi pjanta ovali. Fl-istess ħin, il-knisja kollha qisha l-parti trasversali ta' kor ta' katidral Gotiku bir-riffieda. Iċ-ċentralità tal-Knisja tal-Pellegrinaġġ ta' San Ġwann ta' Nepomuk toħloq vertikal bħal fenomenu simboliku, peress li l-biċċa l-kbira tal-viżitaturi x'aktarx li jħarsu 'l fuq, allegorikament bħallikieku qed iħarsu lejn il-ġenna.<ref name=":1" /> [[Stampa:Zdar Zelena hora 07.jpg|daqsminuri|Il-knisja minn ġewwa]] === Żona ċentrali === Fin-naħa ta' ġewwa taż-żona ċentrali tal-knisja hemm kappelli ovali li huma kkollegati ma' spazju ċilindriku ċentrali permezz ta' ħnejjiet Gotiċi dojoq. Iż-żona ċentrali hija msaqqfa b'volti bil-lunetti li jserrħu fuq għaxar pilastri. Fl-ewwel sular hemm tribuni li jikkorrispondu għall-kappelli t'isfel. It-tieni sular huwa ddekorat b'gallerija li fiha għaxar opri tal-[[arti]]. Id-dekorazzjoni bl-istukko hija limitata għal ftit motivi mal-ħnejjiet imqabbża u ta' intersezzjoni, li huma simili għall-volti Gotiċi. Bħal f'binjiet oħra ta' Santini, f'din il-knisja wkoll id-dawl jintuża biex isawwar l-ispazju fuq ġewwa.<ref name=":0" /> Dan l-approċċ huwa bbażat fuq l-interpretazzjoni Barokka tad-dawl bħala sinjal tal-preżenza t'Alla, tant li wħud isejħulu d-“dawl sagru”. It-tidwil tal-knisja fuq ġewwa joħloq paradoss uniku. Dan għaliex iż-żona ċentrali hija mdawla biss indirettament, filwaqt li l-partijiet mal-ġnub tal-knisja għandhom abbundanza ta' dawl. Dan id-dawl jasal saż-żona ċentrali tal-knisja mill-ħnejjiet Gotiċi li jinsabu fil-post fejn is-soltu jkun hemm il-pilastri ewlenin. <ref name=":1" /> [[Stampa:Zdar Zelena hora 65.jpg|xellug|daqsminuri|303x303px|L-artal prinċipali]] Id-dekorazzjoni bl-istukko tenfasizza dan il-paradoss billi toħloq rabta bejn il-ħajt u l-ħnejja partikolari li tagħmel parti mill-ħajt. Permezz ta' din ir-rabta, il-ħitan jidhru bħallikieku huma biss qafas li jispikka bis-saħħa tad-dawl naturali. Il-knisja nnifisha titqies bħala relikwarju fejn tinżamm ir-relikwa ta' lsien San Ġwann ta' Nepomuk.<ref name=":1" /> === Artal prinċipali === L-artal prinċipali fuq in-naħa tal-Lvant tal-knisja jinsab fi ħdan arkata għolja. Il-quċċata tal-artal tlaħħaq mal-poġġaman tal-gallerija fit-tieni sular. Ix-xogħol tat-tinqix tal-ħames anġli tal-artal prinċipali li jippuntaw lejn Ġwanni ta' Nepomuk, u tal-erba' evanġelisti, sar mill-iskultur [[Jan Pavel Čechpauer]] minn [[Chrudim]] bejn l-1725 u l-1727. Tlieta mill-ħames anġli qed iżommu sfera li tirrappreżenta s-smewwiet tal-ġenna u li hija ddekorata bi ħames kwiekeb. Fuq l-isfera hemm l-i[[skultura]] ta' San Ġwann ta' Nepomuk magħmula minn [[Řehoř Theny]]. [[Stampa:Kostel sv. Jana Nepomuckého (Žďár nad Sázavou), Zelená hora, Žďár nad Sázavou 1.JPG|daqsminuri|294x294px|Il-ħitan bil-ħames kappelli tal-kjostru madwar il-knisja]] Huwa għamel ukoll il-lavur fuq l-istatwa tal-fidda tal-pellegrinaġġ ta' San Ġwann ta' Nepomuk fl-1729 maħduma mill-arġentier [[Jan Diesbach]] ta' [[Praga]]. Din l-istatwa għebet wara l-1784. L-għażla li jiġu kkuntattjati skulturi qrib [[Matthias Braun]] saret apposta peress li Santini kkollobora miegħu kemm-il darba, u mid-dehra il-lingwaġġ ta' Braun espress fl-iskultura kien qrib ħafna tal-personalità ta' Santini.<ref name=":1" /> === Madwar il-knisja === Madwar il-knisja hemm kjostru ġej għat-tond li huwa maqsum f'għaxar sezzjonijiet minn ħames kappelli u ħames daħliet jew bibien. Is-saqaf ta' kull waħda mill-kappelli oriġinarjament kien mirfud minn ħames pilastri. Dawn kienu jenfasizzaw id-dawl u kienu simbolu tal-eternità. Il-kjostru flimkiem mal-kappelli kien post fejn il-pellegrini kienu jieqfu jitolbu fih u kien jistkennu fih ukoll meta kien ikun hemm maltemp. Mhux biss il-knisja iżda anke il-madwar tagħha – il-kjostru bil-kappelli – huma xhieda tal-ħila kreattiva u arkitettonika kbira ta' Santini.<ref name=":1" /> == Nirien == Fl-17 ta' Lulju 1784, il-knisja ħadet in-nar u kien hemm sogru reali li tinqered għalkollox. B'xorti tajba, iċ-ċittadini lokali bl-għajnuna ta' [[Matěj Sychra]] rnexxielhom jitfu n-nirien fiż-żona kollha tal-knisja u salvawha għall-ġenerazzjonijiet futuri. Fl-1792, l-unità amministrattiva lokali tat permess biex il-knisja tiġi rrestawrata, bil-kundizzjoni li l-knisja ma tibqax knisja tal-pellegrinaġġ, u li ċ-ċimiterju ta' Žďár nad Sázavou jitressaq fiż-żona tal-kjostru tal-knisja. Illum il-ġurnata, iċ-ċimiterju reġa' tressaq 'il barra mill-kjostru ftit 'il bogħod mill-knisja, sabiex il-knisja terġa' tingħata d-dehra oriġinali skont il-pjanta ta' Santini.<ref name=":1" /> == Sit ta' Wirt Dinji == Il-Knisja tal-Pellegrinaġġ ta' San Ġwann ta' Nepomuk ġiet iddeżinjata bħala Sit ta' Wirt Dinji tal-UNESCO fl-1994.<ref name=":0" /> Il-valur universali straordinarju tas-sit ġie rrikonoxxut abbażi tal-'''kriterju (iv)''' “Eżempju straordinarju ta' tip ta' bini, ta' grupp ta' siti jew ta' pajsaġġ arkitettoniku jew teknoloġiku li joħroġ fid-dieher stadju/i sinifikanti fl-istorja tal-bniedem”, ladarba l-knisja hija eżempju straordinarju ta' stil arkitettoniku li joħroġ fid-dieher it-tranżizzjoni bejn it-tradizzjonijiet Gotiċi u Barokki fis-seklu 18.<ref name=":0" /> == Referenzi == {{referenzi}} [[Kategorija:Siti ta' Wirt Dinji]] [[Kategorija:Ċekja]] [[Kategorija:Knisja Kattolika Rumana]] f7gu2mfno1xi00ecu27zfu9y2svb6yu 1 25953 279118 264132 2022-08-15T09:45:44Z Chrisportelli 355 Chrisportelli mexxa l-paġna [[Diskussjoni:Knisja tal-Pellegrinaġġ ta’ San Ġwann ta’ Nepomuk]] għal [[Diskussjoni:Knisja tal-Pellegrinaġġ ta' San Ġwann ta' Nepomuk]]: [[:w:WP:'|WP:']] wikitext text/x-wiki {{CEE Spring 2021 | utent = Trigcly | pajjiż = Ċekja}} 8621y744ieqrjg5l1mwj67r9jwq142o 0 28810 279073 2022-08-14T13:50:36Z Trigcly 17859 Kontenut, infobox, stampi, kwotazzjonijiet u ħoloq wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox city}} '''Tlacotalpan''' huwa raħal fil-Muniċipalità ta' Tlacotalpan fl-istat [[Messiku|Messikan]] ta' [[Veracruz]], li jiġi ddeżinjat bħal [[Sit ta' Wirt Dinji]] tal-[[UNESCO]] fl-1998 primarjament għall-arkitettura u għall-konfigurazzjoni kolonjali tiegħu. Ir-raħal ġie stabbilit fl-1550 fuq dik li oriġinarjament kienet gżira fix-xmara [[Papaloapan]]. Mill-era kolonjali sas-seklu 20, kien port importanti, wieħed mill-ftit portijiet tax-xmajjar interni fl-[[L-Amerika t'Isfel|Amerka Latina]]. Madankollu, bil-kostruzzjoni tal-linja ferrovjarja, l-importanza ta' Tlacotalpan majnat ferm. Mill-aħħar tas-seklu 20, bdew isiru sforzi biex jiġu kkonservati l-arkitettura u l-konfigurazzjoni Spanjoli/tal-Karibew tar-raħal, sa ma laħqu l-qofol tagħhom bid-deżinjazzjoni mill-UNESCO. Illum il-ġurnata, ir-riżorsi ekonomiċi prinċipali tar-raħal huma s-sajd u t-turiżmu, speċjalment għall-ħabta tal-festa annwali f'ġieħ il-[[Santa Marija|Madonna]] tal-Preżentazzjoni ta' [[Ġesù|Kristu]]. == Deskrizzjoni == Ir-raħal huwa mlaqqam "il-ġawhra tax-xmara Papaloapan".<ref>González, Víctor Manuel Jiménez; Vázquez, Itos, eds. (2010). ''Veracruz: Guía para descubrir los encantos del estado''. [[Belt tal-Messiku]]: Editorial Océano de México. pp. 67–69. ISBN <bdi>978-607-400-323-9</bdi>.</ref> Tlacotalpan huwa uniku fost il-biċċa l-kbira tal-insedjamenti urbani fl-Amerka Latina peress li huwa port ta' xmara interna, 'il ġewwa mill-ocean. Jitqies bħala Sit ta' Wirt Dinji tal-UNESCO minħabba l-konfigurazzjoni, l-arkitettura, l-istorja u t-tradizzjonijiet tiegħu.<ref name=":0">{{Ċita web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/862/|titlu=Historic Monuments Zone of Tlacotalpan|kunjom=Centre|isem=UNESCO World Heritage|sit=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2022-08-14}}</ref> Il-konfigurazzjoni urbana u l-arkitettura tiegħu jmorru lura għas-[[seklu 17]], u r-raħal irnexxielu jikkonservahom sew. Il-konfigurazzjoni tar-raħal qisha checkboard, u tkopri 153 blokka fuq 75 ettaru, maqsuma fuq żewġ sezzjonijiet: sezzjoni "[[Spanja|Spanjola]]" fil-Punent u sezzjoni "nattiva" iżgħar fil-Lvant, isseparati b'żona pubblika b'binjiet kummerċjali u uffiċjali flimkien ma' xi spazji pubbliċi. Is-sezzjoni Spanjola tar-raħal hija kkaratterizzata b'toroq wesgħin b'mod parallel max-xmara Papaloapan u kkollegati ma' xulxin b'karreġġati dojoq. F'din iż-żona hemm parks u spazji pubbliċi b'siġar maturi, bħall-Parque Hidalgo, magħruf għall-mużiċisti jdoqqu fih, u l-Plazuela de Doña Maria, ftit fil-Lvant miċ-ċentru, fl-eqdem parti tar-raħal, imdawra bi ħwienet fejn jinħadmu l-għamara, l-istrumenti mużikali u prodotti fini oħra tal-[[injam]]. L-arkitettura hija kkaratterizzata minn djar ta' sular jew tnejn bil-kolonni u bi btieħi interni bi stil tal-Andalucia, b'arkati bi stil tal-Karibew, b'soqfa b'tegoli ħomor u b'faċċati kkuluriti, li wħud minnhom imorru lura għas-seklu 18. Dawn huma partikolarment abbundanti fil-kwartieri ta' San Miguelito u ta' La Candelaria. Ħafna mid-djar għad għandhom il-konfigurazzjoni tradizzjonali minn ġewwa u saħansitra l-għamara tradizzjonali.<ref>"Mexico Desconocido Guía Especial Descubre Veracruz". ''México Desconocido''. Belt tal-Messiku: Mexico Desconocido: 70–73. April 2014. ISSN 1870-9397.</ref> Għalkemm l-aqwa żmien tar-raħal kien fis-seklu 19, Tlacotalpan għadu kklassifikat bħala port ta' xmara mill-gvern Messikan, u jaqdi l-iktar lid-dgħajjes tas-sajd u xi dgħajjes żgħar tar-rondi navali. Għandu moll tal-konkos twil 160 metru, u biċċa xatt tul ix-xmara fejn wieħed jista' jagħmel passejn u jmur jiekol f'wieħed mill-bosta ristoranti.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=http://digaohm.semar.gob.mx/derrotero/cuestionarios/cnarioTlacotalpan.pdf|titlu="Tlacotalpan, Veracruz" (PDF). Messiku: SEMAR.}}</ref> Ftit lura mix-xatt tax-xmara hemm il-[[pjazza]] prinċipali tar-raħal imsejħa Plaza Zaragoza. Il-pjazza hija pavimentata bl-irħam abjad u mimlija siġar tal-palm. Fin-nofs tal-pjazza hemm kjosk tas-seklu 19 iddisinjat mill-iskultur lokali [[Francisco Sanchez Terán]]. == Attrazzjonijiet == [[Stampa:LaraMuseumTlacotalpan02.JPG|daqsminuri|Il-Mużew tad-Dar ta' Agustín Lara]] L-attrazzjoni prinċipali f'din il-pjazza hi s-Santwarju tal-Madonna tal-Preżentazzjoni ta' Kristu (Nuestra Señora de la Candelaria) fuq in-naħa tat-Tramuntana. Din il-knisja nbniet fl-aħħar tas-seklu 18 (il-kostruzzjoni bdiet fl-1770) taħt [[Juan de Medina]] bil-ġebel mill-Golf tal-Messiku biex tħaddan fiha x-xbieha tal-Madonna, li ġabu magħhom il-baħħara fis-seklu 17. Iċ-ċelebrazzjoni annwali ewlenija tar-raħal timla din il-knisja bix-xemgħat u bil-fjuri.<ref name=":1">{{Ċita web|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140424035854/http://www.e-local.gob.mx/work/templates/enciclo/EMM30veracruz/municipios/30178a.html|titlu=Veracruz - Tlacotalpan|data=2014-04-24|sit=web.archive.org|data-aċċess=2022-08-14}}</ref> Il-knisja l-oħra fil-pjazza hija l-Knisja Parrokkjali ta' San Cristóbal, li tmur lura għall-1849. Il-knisja hi Neoklassika b'xi influwenzi [[Għarab]], u għandha arloġġ fit-torri tagħha li jingħad li ġie mill-[[Renju Unit|Ingilterra]] xi żewġ sekli ilu. L-artali prinċipali tagħha ġew skolpiti mill-injam u fihom ix-xbieha notevoli tal-Madonna ta' Guadalupe. Hemm artal importanti ddedikat lil Ġesù fil-[[kappella]] laterali maġenb iż-żona tal-artal prinċipali. Madankollu, la s-santwarju u lanqas il-knisja parrokkjali mhuma l-eqdem knisja fir-raħal. L-eqdem waħda hi l-Knisja ta' San Miguelito, li tinsab fil-Plaza de las Madres. Din inbniet fl-1785 fl-eqqel żmien tal-[[Barokk]] fil-Messiku. L-aħħar struttura prinċipali fi Plaza Zaragoza huwa l-palazz muniċipali. Dan inbena fl-1849 u fih bosta pitturi biż-żejt magħmula minn [[Salvador Ferrando]] kif ukoll arkivju ta' dokumenti li jmorru lura għall-perjodu kolonjali. Fil-Lvant tas-Santwarju hemm pjazza żgħira msejħa Plazuela [[Agustín Lara]], li ssemmiet għall-kantawtur li għandu [[statwa]] ddedikata lilu f'nofs il-pjazza. Il-Casa Artesanal Rafaela Murillo de Barbero tinsab fin-naħa tan-Nofsinhar ta' din il-pjazza, u din fl-imgħoddi kienet tintuża bħala l-ħabs muniċipali. Illum il-ġurnata fiha lbiesi tan-nisa b'rakkmu fin, ilbiesi tradizzjonali tal-irġiel, għamara tal-injam u prodotti oħra. Il-[[Mużew]] ta' Salvador Ferrando jinsab fuq in-naħa tal-Lvant, u huwa ddedikat lill-pittur u l-pijunier tal-preservazzjoni tal-wirt [[Kultura|kulturali]] ta' Veracruz, f'dar li kienet tiegħu. Il-mużew fih xi xogħlijiet tal-artist u ta' artisti oħra, b'oġġetti antiki ta' żmienu. Il-Mużew tad-Dar ta' Agustín Lara jinsab fit-Triq Gonzalo Aguirre Beltran fil-Lvant tal-pjazza prinċipali u huwa wieħed mill-iktar ċentri kulturali attivi. Ġie ddedikat lill-kantawtur u l-[[poeta]] li għex ħafna minn ħajtu fir-raħal. Fih ritratti u oġġetti marbuta ma' Lara u mal-karriera tiegħu, kif ukoll ma' artisti importanti oħra taż-żona bħal Salvador Ferrando, [[Alberto Fuster]] u [[Eric Arana]] (iktar kontemporanju). Attrazzjoni oħra marbuta mal-ħajja ta' Lara hija l-Blanca Nieves Cantina, magħrufa wkoll bħala l-Mużew-Bar ta' Tobías Carbajal Rivera. Kien post għall-qalb il-kantawtur, fejn kien jixrob ix-xarba alkoħolika lokali msejħa ''toritos'' mal-ħbieb. Ilu jopera għal iktar minn sittin sena, iżda oriġinarjament kien imsejjaħ El Encango de Tobías. L-isem attwali tiegħu, "Snow White" bl-[[Lingwa Spanjola|Ispanjol]], ġej minn Lara stess, b'risq is-sid ta' dak iż-żmien Tobías Carbajal u s-sebat itfal tiegħu. Is-sezzjoni tal-mużew tal-bar fiha l-uniku statwa ta' Lara liebes guayabera u kappell magħmul bil-friegħi tal-palm.<ref name=":1" /> Iċ-ċentru kulturali tar-raħal ingħata kunjom Lara wkoll (Casa de Cultura Agustín Lara). Jinsab fit-Triq Venustiano Carranza u jservi bħala post fejn jiltaqgħu l-artisti, il-mużiċisti u ż-żeffiena, u huwa post fejn jiġu offruti klassijiet taż-[[żifna]] tradizzjonali ta' Veracruz magħrufa bħala ''zapateado'' u ta' diversi strumenti mużikali. Fih wirja permanenti ta' oġġetti relatati ma' Lara, flimkien ma' [[Pittura|pitturi]] ta' Salvador Ferrando u ta' Alberto Fuster. It-Teatru Nezahuacoyotl jinsab ukoll tul it-Triq Venustiano Carranza u nbena fl-1891 bi stil [[Franza|Franċiż]] matul il-perjodu ta' Porfirio Díaz. Dar oħra li ġiet ikkonvertita f'attrazzjoni hi l-"Mini-Żu". L-istruttura u l-kollezzjoni kienu ta' [[Pío Barrán]]. Fiha hemm kollezzjoni ta' oġġetti u ta' [[Annimal|annimali]], speċjalment mill-ġbid tal-films li Barrán kien jikkollezzjona matul ħajtu kollha, inkluż kollezzjoni notevoli marbuta ma' Agustín Lara. L-iżjed aspett mhux tas-soltu tas-sit hu l-kollezzjoni ta' annimali eżotiċi, u wħud minnhom jgħixu liberi f'din il-proprjetà. Il-kollezzjoni tinkludi [[Kukkudrill|kukkudrilli]], fkieren tal-ilma, pellikani u għasafar tal-priża. Il-Jardín del Arte Tlacotalpeño (il-Ġnien tal-Arti ta' Tlacotalpan) jesponi u jbigħ opri tal-arti ta' artisti tar-reġjun. Il-ġnien jinsab fin-Nofsinhar tal-pjazza prinċipali.<ref name=":1" /> == Sit ta' Wirt Dinji == [[Stampa:WorldHeritageSiteTlacotalpan.JPG|daqsminuri|Il-plakka tal-UNESCO fil-pjazza prinċipali]] Iż-Żona tal-Monumenti Storiċi ta' Tlacotalpan ġiet iddeżinjata bħala Sit ta' Wirt Dinji tal-UNESCO fl-1998.<ref name=":0" /> Il-valur universali straordinarju tas-sit ġie rrikonoxxut abbażi ta' żewġ kriterji tal-għażla tal-UNESCO: il-'''kriterju (ii)''' "Wirja ta' skambju importanti ta' valuri umani, tul perjodu ta' żmien jew fi ħdan żona kulturali fid-dinja, dwar l-iżviluppi fl-arkitettura jew it-teknoloġija, l-arti monumentali, l-ippjanar tal-bliet jew id-disinn tal-pajsaġġ"; u l-'''kriterju (iv)''' "Eżempju straordinarju ta' tip ta' bini, ta' grupp ta' siti jew ta' pajsaġġ arkitettoniku jew teknoloġiku li joħroġ fid-dieher stadju/i sinifikanti fl-istorja tal-bniedem".<ref name=":0" /> == Festa == Fil-kalendarju intensiv tal-festi tal-Messiku, iċ-ċelebrazzjoni tal-Virgen de la Candelaria f'Tlacotalpan, Veracruz, hija famuża ħafna. Mill-31 ta' Jannar sat-2 ta' Frar ta' kull sena, eluf ta' nies jiffullaw fit-toroq ta' Tlacotalpan. Matul il-festa, il-biċċa l-kbira taċ-ċittadini ta' Tlacotalpan jiftħu d-djar tagħhom biex jilqgħu l-eluf ta' viżitaturi. Matul il-jiem tal-festa, issir il-Laqgħa Nazzjonali tal-''jaraneros'' u tal-''versadores'' fi Plaza Doña Martha ġeneralment filgħaxija. == Ġeografija u ambjent == [[Stampa:Flooding2010Tlacotalpan 02.JPG|daqsminuri|Dar fi Tlacotalpan li turi l-livell tal-għargħar tal-2010]] Tlacotalpan jinsab fiċ-ċentru tal-istat Messikan tal-Lvant ta' Veracruz, madwar 90 kilometru mill-port ta' Veracruz u 203 kilometri fix-Xlokk tal-belt kapitali statali, [[Xalapa]]. Jagħmel parti mir-reġjun ta' Sotavento tal-istat. Il-[[ġeografija]] taż-żona hija pjuttost ċatta, bi ftit għoljiet lejn il-Punent. Il-biċċa l-kbira tat-territorju (60 %) jintuża biex jirgħu l-bhejjem, bi 15 % għat-tkabbir tal-għelejjel u b'20 % mgħerreq fl-ilma. It-territorju huwa ddefinit mix-xmara Papaloapan, flimkien max-xmajjar San Juan u Tuxpan li huma tributarji tagħha. Ix-xmara Papaloapan hija navigabbli, iżda ma tantx hemm servizzi jew sinjalar għat-traffiku tad-dgħajjes. Ir-raħal għandu klima semitropikali, b'temperatura annwali medja ta' 25.1&nbsp;°C. Ikun hemm żewġ staġuni distinti. Minn Ottubru sa April, it-temp ikun iddominat mill-kurrenti tal-arja kiesħa mit-Tramuntana, magħrufa bħala "nortes". Dawn il-kurrenti jistgħu jikkawżaw irwiefen qawwija u trombi tal-arja. Matul il-kumplament tas-sena, it-temp ikun iddominat mill-Kurrent [[Oċean Atlantiku|Atlantiku]] (Corriente Atlántica), li jġib miegħu rjieħ sħan u umdużi mix-Xlokk tal-Messiku, li jikkawżaw il-biċċa l-kbira tax-xita annwali. Settembru jkun l-iktar xahar bil-maltempati u ż-żona tkun affettwata wkoll regolarment mill-uragani. Dawn jistgħu jikkawżaw għargħar kbir bħal fil-każ tal-Uragan Roxanne fl-1995, l-Uragani Dean u Felix fl-1997, l-Uragan Karl fl-2010 u l-Uragan Ernesto fl-2012. Il-veġetazzjoni hija ħorfija, u l-ispeċijiet prinċipali tas-siġar huma l-ballut, il-fraxxnu, iż-żafżafa u l-luq. Hemm ukoll żoni bil-mangrovji. Fiż-żona ta' Tlacotalpan hemm xi depożiti taż-żejt. == Storja == [[Stampa:SalvadorFerrandoMuseum22.JPG|daqsminuri|260x260px|Mappa kolonjali bikrija li turi lil Tlacotalpan bħala gżira fil-Mużew ta' Salvador Ferrando]] L-isem "Tlacotalpan" huwa modifika Spanjola tat-terminu bin-Nahuatl "Tlaxcotaliapan" li jfisser "art bejn l-ilmijiet". Dan jirreferi għall-gżira tal-insedjament oriġinali fix-xmara Papaloapan. Meta x-xatt tat-Tramuntana tax-xmara ġie mmodifikat, il-gżira ġiet magħquda mal-art kontinentali. F'nofs is-seklu 19, l-isem tar-raħal kien San Cristobal Tlacotalpan, iżda mbagħad tqassar. Ma tantx għandna tagħrif dwar l-[[Storja|istorja]] pre-Ispanika taż-żona, iżda oriġinarjament kienet abitata mit-Totonac. Iktar 'il quddiem ħadulhom posthom it-Toltec fis-seklu 12. Fl-1461, [[Moctezuma Ilhuicamina]] beda l-ewwel sforzi [[Azteki]] ta' espansjoni hawnhekk, li iktar 'il quddiem ġew ikkontrollati mid-dominju ta' Cotaxtlan. Fl-1475, Axayacatl ħakem ir-raħal flimkien ma' Coixtlahuaca, Tochtepec u Cosamaloapan, u ta l-ismijiet attwali lil dawn il-postijiet kollha. Fl-1518, [[Pedro de Alvarado]] għamel spedizzjoni u baħħar 'il fuq mix-xmara Papaloapan, u fl-1521 [[Hernán Cortés]] bagħat lil [[Gonzalo de Sandoval]] hawnhekk biex ifittex għad-deheb. Wara l-Konkwista fl-1521, [[Alfonso Romero]] ngħata din iż-żona bħala ''encomienda''. Fil-muniċipalità attwali, f'post li dak iż-żmien kien jissejjaħ Coanapa-Ayotzinapa, Cortes stabbilixxa l-ewwel impjant tal-kannamiela fil-Messiku fl-1532. Fl-1550 it-territorju ngħata mir-re Spanjol lil [[Gaspar Rivakeneyra]] u użah għar-ragħa tal-bhejjem tiegħu. Huwa ma setax jipprevjeni lis-[[Sajjied|sajjieda]] milli jistabbilixxu r-raħal iżda rrikjeda li tinbena [[kappella]] ddedikata lill-Madonna tal-Preżentazzjoni ta' Kristu. Il-kolonizzazzjoni taż-żona saret bil-mod, bi 12-il Spanjol biss fl-1544 u mhux iktar minn 320 sal-1777. Iċ-ċifri ta' popolazzjonijiet oħra matul il-perjodu kolonjali huma neqsin iżda fl-1808 kien hemm 1,156 abitant indiġenu u 1,616-il "pardos" jew nies ta' nisel indiġenu u [[Afrika|Afrikan]]. Fil-bidu tas-[[seklu 17]], kien hemm tentattiv ta' subordinazzjoni taż-żona għal Cosamaloapan, iżda l-indiġeni rnexxielhom jirreżistu. Fis-seklu 17, ir-raħal sar ċentru kummerċjali għall-haciendas tal-madwar, u dan wassal għat-tkabbir fil-popolazzjoni Spanjola tiegħu. Il-ġid u l-istatus tar-raħal bħala port attira lill-pirati Ingliżi fis-sekli 17 u 18, u fl-1667 tawh in-nar. Fl-1714, ix-xmara Papaloapan faret u r-raħal kellu jiċċaqlaq fil-post attwali tiegħu, li dak iż-żmien kien jissejjaħ Chuniapa. Ir-raħal ġarrab tliet nirien kbar oħra fl-1698, fl-1788 u fl-1790. L-aħħar tnejn wasslu biex l-awtoritajiet jirrikjedu l-bini mill-ġdid b'ħitan tal-ġebel, b'soqfa bit-tegoli, u bl-istabbiliment ta' spazji miftuħa u bis-siġar. Dawk li ma setgħux jibnu b'dan il-mod kellhom jiċċaqilqu fil-parti tal-Lvant tar-raħal li kellha rekwiżiti inqas rigorużi. Il-biċċa l-kbira tal-eqdem binjiet huma ta' dan iż-żmien u ddeterminaw l-istil komuni tad-djar kbar bil-btieħi, bis-soqfa bit-tegoli u bil-passaġġi bl-arkati. It-territorju tal-muniċipalità ġie ffissat sal-aħħar tas-seklu 18. Tlacotalpan laħaq il-qofol tiegħu bħala raħal portwali fis-seklu 19. Fil-bidu ta' dak is-seklu, immigranti Franċiżi, Ġermaniżi u Taljani ġew jgħixu fiż-żona biex jiżirgħu, jaħsdu u jinsġu l-qoton, sabiex imbagħad jinbigħ fis-swieq Ingliżi. Mill-1821, Tlacotalpan esperjenza tkabbir ekonomiku bħala port għall-prodotti minn [[Oaxaca]] u minn [[Puebla]] lejn Veracruz u 'l barra mill-pajjiż lejn [[New Orleans]], [[Ħavana|Havana]] u [[Bordeaux]]. Sal-1855 ospita tmintax-il vapur tal-istim u vapur kbir tat-tbaħħir li kienu jittrasportaw l-injam, it-tabakk, il-qoton, il-qmuħ, iz-zokkor, il-brandy, il-ġlud, il-laħam immellaħ, il-kukkudrilli, ir-rix tar-russetti, l-għamara u s-sapun. Fl-1825 infetaħ wieħed mill-ewwel kulleġġi nawtiċi tal-Messiku, stabbilit minn [[Guadalupe Victoria]]. Fl-1847, Tlacotalpan ġie ddikjarat uffiċjalment bħala raħal bħala rikonoxximent tal-parteċipazzjoni tiegħu fid-difiża kontra l-forzi tal-Istati Uniti fil-Gwerra bejn il-Messikani u l-Amerikani. Fl-1864 ir-raħal ittieħed mill-forzi Franċiżi taħt Marechal jum wara li ttieħed Alvarado. Iktar tard f'dik l-istess sena, il-forzi Repubblikani taħt [[Alejandro Garcia]] reġgħu ħadu ż-żona f'idejhom. Fl-1865 ir-raħal ġie ddikjarat belt u belt kapitali proviżorja għar-reżistenza kontra l-Franċiżi. Fl-1879, [[Miguel Z. Cházaro]] stabbilixxa t-tielet skola preparatorja ta' Veracruz. Hemmhekk Porfirio Díaz organizza rewwixta kontra l-gvern ta' [[Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada]], li wasslet għall-bidla fl-isem ta' Tlacotalpan de Porfirio Díaz fl-1896. Dan l-isem inbidel għal kif inhu llum il-ġurnata wara r-Rivoluzzjoni Messikana. Fil-bidu tas-seklu 20, ir-raħal kellu tmien skejjel, tliet lukandi, disa' fabbriki u 100 dar ta' sular. Madankollu, fl-ewwel parti tas-seklu 20, l-importanza ta' Tlacotalpan bħala port, li kienet sostnietu mill-perjodu kolonjali, majnat minħabba l-kostruzzjoni tal-linja ferrovjarja tal-Ferrocarril del Istmo. Il-popolazzjoni tiegħu kibret kemxejn biss mill-1950 sal-1980 u baqgħet stabbli minn dak iż-żmien, bi ftit iktar minn 8,800 ruħ. Fl-1968 bdew isiru sforzi ta' konservazzjoni meta Tlacotalpan ġie ddikjarat bħala "raħal tipiku" tal-Messiku mill-istat ta' Veracruz. Fl-1986 ġie ddikjarat bħala Żona tal-Monumenti Storiċi mill-gvern federali li kellha tiġi ġestita mill-Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia (INAH) u mill-Instituto Nacional de Bellas Artes (INBA). Fl-1985 u fl-1997 ġiet stabbilita żona ta' tranżizzjoni li tinkludi ż-żoni fuq in-naħa l-oħra tax-xmara, li sservi bħala żona ta' lqugħ għaż-żona prinċipali ta' konservazzjoni. Fl-1998 Tlacotalpan ġiet iddeżinjata bħala Sit ta' Wirt Dinji tal-UNESCO għall-istorja tiegħu bħala port ta' xmara, għall-arkitettura tiegħu u għat-tradizzjonijiet tiegħu fil-[[poeżija]], fil-[[mużika]] u fiż-[[żfin]].<ref name=":0" /> Minn dak iż-żmien 'l hawn, l-INAH u l-Fondo Nacional para la Cultura y las Arts (FONCA) ħadmu sabiex jerġgħu jagħtu ħajja lir-raħal u jtejbu l-ekonomija tiegħu, b'mod partikolari permezz tat-turiżmu.<ref name=":1" /> == Referenzi == h7931h4x56u6bdl34fs0av3ycbmxcu5 279074 279073 2022-08-14T13:52:49Z Trigcly 17859 added [[Category:Bliet]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox city}} '''Tlacotalpan''' huwa raħal fil-Muniċipalità ta' Tlacotalpan fl-istat [[Messiku|Messikan]] ta' [[Veracruz]], li jiġi ddeżinjat bħal [[Sit ta' Wirt Dinji]] tal-[[UNESCO]] fl-1998 primarjament għall-arkitettura u għall-konfigurazzjoni kolonjali tiegħu. Ir-raħal ġie stabbilit fl-1550 fuq dik li oriġinarjament kienet gżira fix-xmara [[Papaloapan]]. Mill-era kolonjali sas-seklu 20, kien port importanti, wieħed mill-ftit portijiet tax-xmajjar interni fl-[[L-Amerika t'Isfel|Amerka Latina]]. Madankollu, bil-kostruzzjoni tal-linja ferrovjarja, l-importanza ta' Tlacotalpan majnat ferm. Mill-aħħar tas-seklu 20, bdew isiru sforzi biex jiġu kkonservati l-arkitettura u l-konfigurazzjoni Spanjoli/tal-Karibew tar-raħal, sa ma laħqu l-qofol tagħhom bid-deżinjazzjoni mill-UNESCO. Illum il-ġurnata, ir-riżorsi ekonomiċi prinċipali tar-raħal huma s-sajd u t-turiżmu, speċjalment għall-ħabta tal-festa annwali f'ġieħ il-[[Santa Marija|Madonna]] tal-Preżentazzjoni ta' [[Ġesù|Kristu]]. == Deskrizzjoni == Ir-raħal huwa mlaqqam "il-ġawhra tax-xmara Papaloapan".<ref>González, Víctor Manuel Jiménez; Vázquez, Itos, eds. (2010). ''Veracruz: Guía para descubrir los encantos del estado''. [[Belt tal-Messiku]]: Editorial Océano de México. pp. 67–69. ISBN <bdi>978-607-400-323-9</bdi>.</ref> Tlacotalpan huwa uniku fost il-biċċa l-kbira tal-insedjamenti urbani fl-Amerka Latina peress li huwa port ta' xmara interna, 'il ġewwa mill-ocean. Jitqies bħala Sit ta' Wirt Dinji tal-UNESCO minħabba l-konfigurazzjoni, l-arkitettura, l-istorja u t-tradizzjonijiet tiegħu.<ref name=":0">{{Ċita web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/862/|titlu=Historic Monuments Zone of Tlacotalpan|kunjom=Centre|isem=UNESCO World Heritage|sit=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2022-08-14}}</ref> Il-konfigurazzjoni urbana u l-arkitettura tiegħu jmorru lura għas-[[seklu 17]], u r-raħal irnexxielu jikkonservahom sew. Il-konfigurazzjoni tar-raħal qisha checkboard, u tkopri 153 blokka fuq 75 ettaru, maqsuma fuq żewġ sezzjonijiet: sezzjoni "[[Spanja|Spanjola]]" fil-Punent u sezzjoni "nattiva" iżgħar fil-Lvant, isseparati b'żona pubblika b'binjiet kummerċjali u uffiċjali flimkien ma' xi spazji pubbliċi. Is-sezzjoni Spanjola tar-raħal hija kkaratterizzata b'toroq wesgħin b'mod parallel max-xmara Papaloapan u kkollegati ma' xulxin b'karreġġati dojoq. F'din iż-żona hemm parks u spazji pubbliċi b'siġar maturi, bħall-Parque Hidalgo, magħruf għall-mużiċisti jdoqqu fih, u l-Plazuela de Doña Maria, ftit fil-Lvant miċ-ċentru, fl-eqdem parti tar-raħal, imdawra bi ħwienet fejn jinħadmu l-għamara, l-istrumenti mużikali u prodotti fini oħra tal-[[injam]]. L-arkitettura hija kkaratterizzata minn djar ta' sular jew tnejn bil-kolonni u bi btieħi interni bi stil tal-Andalucia, b'arkati bi stil tal-Karibew, b'soqfa b'tegoli ħomor u b'faċċati kkuluriti, li wħud minnhom imorru lura għas-seklu 18. Dawn huma partikolarment abbundanti fil-kwartieri ta' San Miguelito u ta' La Candelaria. Ħafna mid-djar għad għandhom il-konfigurazzjoni tradizzjonali minn ġewwa u saħansitra l-għamara tradizzjonali.<ref>"Mexico Desconocido Guía Especial Descubre Veracruz". ''México Desconocido''. Belt tal-Messiku: Mexico Desconocido: 70–73. April 2014. ISSN 1870-9397.</ref> Għalkemm l-aqwa żmien tar-raħal kien fis-seklu 19, Tlacotalpan għadu kklassifikat bħala port ta' xmara mill-gvern Messikan, u jaqdi l-iktar lid-dgħajjes tas-sajd u xi dgħajjes żgħar tar-rondi navali. Għandu moll tal-konkos twil 160 metru, u biċċa xatt tul ix-xmara fejn wieħed jista' jagħmel passejn u jmur jiekol f'wieħed mill-bosta ristoranti.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=http://digaohm.semar.gob.mx/derrotero/cuestionarios/cnarioTlacotalpan.pdf|titlu="Tlacotalpan, Veracruz" (PDF). Messiku: SEMAR.}}</ref> Ftit lura mix-xatt tax-xmara hemm il-[[pjazza]] prinċipali tar-raħal imsejħa Plaza Zaragoza. Il-pjazza hija pavimentata bl-irħam abjad u mimlija siġar tal-palm. Fin-nofs tal-pjazza hemm kjosk tas-seklu 19 iddisinjat mill-iskultur lokali [[Francisco Sanchez Terán]]. == Attrazzjonijiet == [[Stampa:LaraMuseumTlacotalpan02.JPG|daqsminuri|Il-Mużew tad-Dar ta' Agustín Lara]] L-attrazzjoni prinċipali f'din il-pjazza hi s-Santwarju tal-Madonna tal-Preżentazzjoni ta' Kristu (Nuestra Señora de la Candelaria) fuq in-naħa tat-Tramuntana. Din il-knisja nbniet fl-aħħar tas-seklu 18 (il-kostruzzjoni bdiet fl-1770) taħt [[Juan de Medina]] bil-ġebel mill-Golf tal-Messiku biex tħaddan fiha x-xbieha tal-Madonna, li ġabu magħhom il-baħħara fis-seklu 17. Iċ-ċelebrazzjoni annwali ewlenija tar-raħal timla din il-knisja bix-xemgħat u bil-fjuri.<ref name=":1">{{Ċita web|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140424035854/http://www.e-local.gob.mx/work/templates/enciclo/EMM30veracruz/municipios/30178a.html|titlu=Veracruz - Tlacotalpan|data=2014-04-24|sit=web.archive.org|data-aċċess=2022-08-14}}</ref> Il-knisja l-oħra fil-pjazza hija l-Knisja Parrokkjali ta' San Cristóbal, li tmur lura għall-1849. Il-knisja hi Neoklassika b'xi influwenzi [[Għarab]], u għandha arloġġ fit-torri tagħha li jingħad li ġie mill-[[Renju Unit|Ingilterra]] xi żewġ sekli ilu. L-artali prinċipali tagħha ġew skolpiti mill-injam u fihom ix-xbieha notevoli tal-Madonna ta' Guadalupe. Hemm artal importanti ddedikat lil Ġesù fil-[[kappella]] laterali maġenb iż-żona tal-artal prinċipali. Madankollu, la s-santwarju u lanqas il-knisja parrokkjali mhuma l-eqdem knisja fir-raħal. L-eqdem waħda hi l-Knisja ta' San Miguelito, li tinsab fil-Plaza de las Madres. Din inbniet fl-1785 fl-eqqel żmien tal-[[Barokk]] fil-Messiku. L-aħħar struttura prinċipali fi Plaza Zaragoza huwa l-palazz muniċipali. Dan inbena fl-1849 u fih bosta pitturi biż-żejt magħmula minn [[Salvador Ferrando]] kif ukoll arkivju ta' dokumenti li jmorru lura għall-perjodu kolonjali. Fil-Lvant tas-Santwarju hemm pjazza żgħira msejħa Plazuela [[Agustín Lara]], li ssemmiet għall-kantawtur li għandu [[statwa]] ddedikata lilu f'nofs il-pjazza. Il-Casa Artesanal Rafaela Murillo de Barbero tinsab fin-naħa tan-Nofsinhar ta' din il-pjazza, u din fl-imgħoddi kienet tintuża bħala l-ħabs muniċipali. Illum il-ġurnata fiha lbiesi tan-nisa b'rakkmu fin, ilbiesi tradizzjonali tal-irġiel, għamara tal-injam u prodotti oħra. Il-[[Mużew]] ta' Salvador Ferrando jinsab fuq in-naħa tal-Lvant, u huwa ddedikat lill-pittur u l-pijunier tal-preservazzjoni tal-wirt [[Kultura|kulturali]] ta' Veracruz, f'dar li kienet tiegħu. Il-mużew fih xi xogħlijiet tal-artist u ta' artisti oħra, b'oġġetti antiki ta' żmienu. Il-Mużew tad-Dar ta' Agustín Lara jinsab fit-Triq Gonzalo Aguirre Beltran fil-Lvant tal-pjazza prinċipali u huwa wieħed mill-iktar ċentri kulturali attivi. Ġie ddedikat lill-kantawtur u l-[[poeta]] li għex ħafna minn ħajtu fir-raħal. Fih ritratti u oġġetti marbuta ma' Lara u mal-karriera tiegħu, kif ukoll ma' artisti importanti oħra taż-żona bħal Salvador Ferrando, [[Alberto Fuster]] u [[Eric Arana]] (iktar kontemporanju). Attrazzjoni oħra marbuta mal-ħajja ta' Lara hija l-Blanca Nieves Cantina, magħrufa wkoll bħala l-Mużew-Bar ta' Tobías Carbajal Rivera. Kien post għall-qalb il-kantawtur, fejn kien jixrob ix-xarba alkoħolika lokali msejħa ''toritos'' mal-ħbieb. Ilu jopera għal iktar minn sittin sena, iżda oriġinarjament kien imsejjaħ El Encango de Tobías. L-isem attwali tiegħu, "Snow White" bl-[[Lingwa Spanjola|Ispanjol]], ġej minn Lara stess, b'risq is-sid ta' dak iż-żmien Tobías Carbajal u s-sebat itfal tiegħu. Is-sezzjoni tal-mużew tal-bar fiha l-uniku statwa ta' Lara liebes guayabera u kappell magħmul bil-friegħi tal-palm.<ref name=":1" /> Iċ-ċentru kulturali tar-raħal ingħata kunjom Lara wkoll (Casa de Cultura Agustín Lara). Jinsab fit-Triq Venustiano Carranza u jservi bħala post fejn jiltaqgħu l-artisti, il-mużiċisti u ż-żeffiena, u huwa post fejn jiġu offruti klassijiet taż-[[żifna]] tradizzjonali ta' Veracruz magħrufa bħala ''zapateado'' u ta' diversi strumenti mużikali. Fih wirja permanenti ta' oġġetti relatati ma' Lara, flimkien ma' [[Pittura|pitturi]] ta' Salvador Ferrando u ta' Alberto Fuster. It-Teatru Nezahuacoyotl jinsab ukoll tul it-Triq Venustiano Carranza u nbena fl-1891 bi stil [[Franza|Franċiż]] matul il-perjodu ta' Porfirio Díaz. Dar oħra li ġiet ikkonvertita f'attrazzjoni hi l-"Mini-Żu". L-istruttura u l-kollezzjoni kienu ta' [[Pío Barrán]]. Fiha hemm kollezzjoni ta' oġġetti u ta' [[Annimal|annimali]], speċjalment mill-ġbid tal-films li Barrán kien jikkollezzjona matul ħajtu kollha, inkluż kollezzjoni notevoli marbuta ma' Agustín Lara. L-iżjed aspett mhux tas-soltu tas-sit hu l-kollezzjoni ta' annimali eżotiċi, u wħud minnhom jgħixu liberi f'din il-proprjetà. Il-kollezzjoni tinkludi [[Kukkudrill|kukkudrilli]], fkieren tal-ilma, pellikani u għasafar tal-priża. Il-Jardín del Arte Tlacotalpeño (il-Ġnien tal-Arti ta' Tlacotalpan) jesponi u jbigħ opri tal-arti ta' artisti tar-reġjun. Il-ġnien jinsab fin-Nofsinhar tal-pjazza prinċipali.<ref name=":1" /> == Sit ta' Wirt Dinji == [[Stampa:WorldHeritageSiteTlacotalpan.JPG|daqsminuri|Il-plakka tal-UNESCO fil-pjazza prinċipali]] Iż-Żona tal-Monumenti Storiċi ta' Tlacotalpan ġiet iddeżinjata bħala Sit ta' Wirt Dinji tal-UNESCO fl-1998.<ref name=":0" /> Il-valur universali straordinarju tas-sit ġie rrikonoxxut abbażi ta' żewġ kriterji tal-għażla tal-UNESCO: il-'''kriterju (ii)''' "Wirja ta' skambju importanti ta' valuri umani, tul perjodu ta' żmien jew fi ħdan żona kulturali fid-dinja, dwar l-iżviluppi fl-arkitettura jew it-teknoloġija, l-arti monumentali, l-ippjanar tal-bliet jew id-disinn tal-pajsaġġ"; u l-'''kriterju (iv)''' "Eżempju straordinarju ta' tip ta' bini, ta' grupp ta' siti jew ta' pajsaġġ arkitettoniku jew teknoloġiku li joħroġ fid-dieher stadju/i sinifikanti fl-istorja tal-bniedem".<ref name=":0" /> == Festa == Fil-kalendarju intensiv tal-festi tal-Messiku, iċ-ċelebrazzjoni tal-Virgen de la Candelaria f'Tlacotalpan, Veracruz, hija famuża ħafna. Mill-31 ta' Jannar sat-2 ta' Frar ta' kull sena, eluf ta' nies jiffullaw fit-toroq ta' Tlacotalpan. Matul il-festa, il-biċċa l-kbira taċ-ċittadini ta' Tlacotalpan jiftħu d-djar tagħhom biex jilqgħu l-eluf ta' viżitaturi. Matul il-jiem tal-festa, issir il-Laqgħa Nazzjonali tal-''jaraneros'' u tal-''versadores'' fi Plaza Doña Martha ġeneralment filgħaxija. == Ġeografija u ambjent == [[Stampa:Flooding2010Tlacotalpan 02.JPG|daqsminuri|Dar fi Tlacotalpan li turi l-livell tal-għargħar tal-2010]] Tlacotalpan jinsab fiċ-ċentru tal-istat Messikan tal-Lvant ta' Veracruz, madwar 90 kilometru mill-port ta' Veracruz u 203 kilometri fix-Xlokk tal-belt kapitali statali, [[Xalapa]]. Jagħmel parti mir-reġjun ta' Sotavento tal-istat. Il-[[ġeografija]] taż-żona hija pjuttost ċatta, bi ftit għoljiet lejn il-Punent. Il-biċċa l-kbira tat-territorju (60 %) jintuża biex jirgħu l-bhejjem, bi 15 % għat-tkabbir tal-għelejjel u b'20 % mgħerreq fl-ilma. It-territorju huwa ddefinit mix-xmara Papaloapan, flimkien max-xmajjar San Juan u Tuxpan li huma tributarji tagħha. Ix-xmara Papaloapan hija navigabbli, iżda ma tantx hemm servizzi jew sinjalar għat-traffiku tad-dgħajjes. Ir-raħal għandu klima semitropikali, b'temperatura annwali medja ta' 25.1&nbsp;°C. Ikun hemm żewġ staġuni distinti. Minn Ottubru sa April, it-temp ikun iddominat mill-kurrenti tal-arja kiesħa mit-Tramuntana, magħrufa bħala "nortes". Dawn il-kurrenti jistgħu jikkawżaw irwiefen qawwija u trombi tal-arja. Matul il-kumplament tas-sena, it-temp ikun iddominat mill-Kurrent [[Oċean Atlantiku|Atlantiku]] (Corriente Atlántica), li jġib miegħu rjieħ sħan u umdużi mix-Xlokk tal-Messiku, li jikkawżaw il-biċċa l-kbira tax-xita annwali. Settembru jkun l-iktar xahar bil-maltempati u ż-żona tkun affettwata wkoll regolarment mill-uragani. Dawn jistgħu jikkawżaw għargħar kbir bħal fil-każ tal-Uragan Roxanne fl-1995, l-Uragani Dean u Felix fl-1997, l-Uragan Karl fl-2010 u l-Uragan Ernesto fl-2012. Il-veġetazzjoni hija ħorfija, u l-ispeċijiet prinċipali tas-siġar huma l-ballut, il-fraxxnu, iż-żafżafa u l-luq. Hemm ukoll żoni bil-mangrovji. Fiż-żona ta' Tlacotalpan hemm xi depożiti taż-żejt. == Storja == [[Stampa:SalvadorFerrandoMuseum22.JPG|daqsminuri|260x260px|Mappa kolonjali bikrija li turi lil Tlacotalpan bħala gżira fil-Mużew ta' Salvador Ferrando]] L-isem "Tlacotalpan" huwa modifika Spanjola tat-terminu bin-Nahuatl "Tlaxcotaliapan" li jfisser "art bejn l-ilmijiet". Dan jirreferi għall-gżira tal-insedjament oriġinali fix-xmara Papaloapan. Meta x-xatt tat-Tramuntana tax-xmara ġie mmodifikat, il-gżira ġiet magħquda mal-art kontinentali. F'nofs is-seklu 19, l-isem tar-raħal kien San Cristobal Tlacotalpan, iżda mbagħad tqassar. Ma tantx għandna tagħrif dwar l-[[Storja|istorja]] pre-Ispanika taż-żona, iżda oriġinarjament kienet abitata mit-Totonac. Iktar 'il quddiem ħadulhom posthom it-Toltec fis-seklu 12. Fl-1461, [[Moctezuma Ilhuicamina]] beda l-ewwel sforzi [[Azteki]] ta' espansjoni hawnhekk, li iktar 'il quddiem ġew ikkontrollati mid-dominju ta' Cotaxtlan. Fl-1475, Axayacatl ħakem ir-raħal flimkien ma' Coixtlahuaca, Tochtepec u Cosamaloapan, u ta l-ismijiet attwali lil dawn il-postijiet kollha. Fl-1518, [[Pedro de Alvarado]] għamel spedizzjoni u baħħar 'il fuq mix-xmara Papaloapan, u fl-1521 [[Hernán Cortés]] bagħat lil [[Gonzalo de Sandoval]] hawnhekk biex ifittex għad-deheb. Wara l-Konkwista fl-1521, [[Alfonso Romero]] ngħata din iż-żona bħala ''encomienda''. Fil-muniċipalità attwali, f'post li dak iż-żmien kien jissejjaħ Coanapa-Ayotzinapa, Cortes stabbilixxa l-ewwel impjant tal-kannamiela fil-Messiku fl-1532. Fl-1550 it-territorju ngħata mir-re Spanjol lil [[Gaspar Rivakeneyra]] u użah għar-ragħa tal-bhejjem tiegħu. Huwa ma setax jipprevjeni lis-[[Sajjied|sajjieda]] milli jistabbilixxu r-raħal iżda rrikjeda li tinbena [[kappella]] ddedikata lill-Madonna tal-Preżentazzjoni ta' Kristu. Il-kolonizzazzjoni taż-żona saret bil-mod, bi 12-il Spanjol biss fl-1544 u mhux iktar minn 320 sal-1777. Iċ-ċifri ta' popolazzjonijiet oħra matul il-perjodu kolonjali huma neqsin iżda fl-1808 kien hemm 1,156 abitant indiġenu u 1,616-il "pardos" jew nies ta' nisel indiġenu u [[Afrika|Afrikan]]. Fil-bidu tas-[[seklu 17]], kien hemm tentattiv ta' subordinazzjoni taż-żona għal Cosamaloapan, iżda l-indiġeni rnexxielhom jirreżistu. Fis-seklu 17, ir-raħal sar ċentru kummerċjali għall-haciendas tal-madwar, u dan wassal għat-tkabbir fil-popolazzjoni Spanjola tiegħu. Il-ġid u l-istatus tar-raħal bħala port attira lill-pirati Ingliżi fis-sekli 17 u 18, u fl-1667 tawh in-nar. Fl-1714, ix-xmara Papaloapan faret u r-raħal kellu jiċċaqlaq fil-post attwali tiegħu, li dak iż-żmien kien jissejjaħ Chuniapa. Ir-raħal ġarrab tliet nirien kbar oħra fl-1698, fl-1788 u fl-1790. L-aħħar tnejn wasslu biex l-awtoritajiet jirrikjedu l-bini mill-ġdid b'ħitan tal-ġebel, b'soqfa bit-tegoli, u bl-istabbiliment ta' spazji miftuħa u bis-siġar. Dawk li ma setgħux jibnu b'dan il-mod kellhom jiċċaqilqu fil-parti tal-Lvant tar-raħal li kellha rekwiżiti inqas rigorużi. Il-biċċa l-kbira tal-eqdem binjiet huma ta' dan iż-żmien u ddeterminaw l-istil komuni tad-djar kbar bil-btieħi, bis-soqfa bit-tegoli u bil-passaġġi bl-arkati. It-territorju tal-muniċipalità ġie ffissat sal-aħħar tas-seklu 18. Tlacotalpan laħaq il-qofol tiegħu bħala raħal portwali fis-seklu 19. Fil-bidu ta' dak is-seklu, immigranti Franċiżi, Ġermaniżi u Taljani ġew jgħixu fiż-żona biex jiżirgħu, jaħsdu u jinsġu l-qoton, sabiex imbagħad jinbigħ fis-swieq Ingliżi. Mill-1821, Tlacotalpan esperjenza tkabbir ekonomiku bħala port għall-prodotti minn [[Oaxaca]] u minn [[Puebla]] lejn Veracruz u 'l barra mill-pajjiż lejn [[New Orleans]], [[Ħavana|Havana]] u [[Bordeaux]]. Sal-1855 ospita tmintax-il vapur tal-istim u vapur kbir tat-tbaħħir li kienu jittrasportaw l-injam, it-tabakk, il-qoton, il-qmuħ, iz-zokkor, il-brandy, il-ġlud, il-laħam immellaħ, il-kukkudrilli, ir-rix tar-russetti, l-għamara u s-sapun. Fl-1825 infetaħ wieħed mill-ewwel kulleġġi nawtiċi tal-Messiku, stabbilit minn [[Guadalupe Victoria]]. Fl-1847, Tlacotalpan ġie ddikjarat uffiċjalment bħala raħal bħala rikonoxximent tal-parteċipazzjoni tiegħu fid-difiża kontra l-forzi tal-Istati Uniti fil-Gwerra bejn il-Messikani u l-Amerikani. Fl-1864 ir-raħal ittieħed mill-forzi Franċiżi taħt Marechal jum wara li ttieħed Alvarado. Iktar tard f'dik l-istess sena, il-forzi Repubblikani taħt [[Alejandro Garcia]] reġgħu ħadu ż-żona f'idejhom. Fl-1865 ir-raħal ġie ddikjarat belt u belt kapitali proviżorja għar-reżistenza kontra l-Franċiżi. Fl-1879, [[Miguel Z. Cházaro]] stabbilixxa t-tielet skola preparatorja ta' Veracruz. Hemmhekk Porfirio Díaz organizza rewwixta kontra l-gvern ta' [[Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada]], li wasslet għall-bidla fl-isem ta' Tlacotalpan de Porfirio Díaz fl-1896. Dan l-isem inbidel għal kif inhu llum il-ġurnata wara r-Rivoluzzjoni Messikana. Fil-bidu tas-seklu 20, ir-raħal kellu tmien skejjel, tliet lukandi, disa' fabbriki u 100 dar ta' sular. Madankollu, fl-ewwel parti tas-seklu 20, l-importanza ta' Tlacotalpan bħala port, li kienet sostnietu mill-perjodu kolonjali, majnat minħabba l-kostruzzjoni tal-linja ferrovjarja tal-Ferrocarril del Istmo. Il-popolazzjoni tiegħu kibret kemxejn biss mill-1950 sal-1980 u baqgħet stabbli minn dak iż-żmien, bi ftit iktar minn 8,800 ruħ. Fl-1968 bdew isiru sforzi ta' konservazzjoni meta Tlacotalpan ġie ddikjarat bħala "raħal tipiku" tal-Messiku mill-istat ta' Veracruz. Fl-1986 ġie ddikjarat bħala Żona tal-Monumenti Storiċi mill-gvern federali li kellha tiġi ġestita mill-Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia (INAH) u mill-Instituto Nacional de Bellas Artes (INBA). Fl-1985 u fl-1997 ġiet stabbilita żona ta' tranżizzjoni li tinkludi ż-żoni fuq in-naħa l-oħra tax-xmara, li sservi bħala żona ta' lqugħ għaż-żona prinċipali ta' konservazzjoni. Fl-1998 Tlacotalpan ġiet iddeżinjata bħala Sit ta' Wirt Dinji tal-UNESCO għall-istorja tiegħu bħala port ta' xmara, għall-arkitettura tiegħu u għat-tradizzjonijiet tiegħu fil-[[poeżija]], fil-[[mużika]] u fiż-[[żfin]].<ref name=":0" /> Minn dak iż-żmien 'l hawn, l-INAH u l-Fondo Nacional para la Cultura y las Arts (FONCA) ħadmu sabiex jerġgħu jagħtu ħajja lir-raħal u jtejbu l-ekonomija tiegħu, b'mod partikolari permezz tat-turiżmu.<ref name=":1" /> == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Bliet]] jntwzowy2gx1b8xi6nje09f826w3tpw 279075 279074 2022-08-14T13:52:56Z Trigcly 17859 added [[Category:Messiku]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox city}} '''Tlacotalpan''' huwa raħal fil-Muniċipalità ta' Tlacotalpan fl-istat [[Messiku|Messikan]] ta' [[Veracruz]], li jiġi ddeżinjat bħal [[Sit ta' Wirt Dinji]] tal-[[UNESCO]] fl-1998 primarjament għall-arkitettura u għall-konfigurazzjoni kolonjali tiegħu. Ir-raħal ġie stabbilit fl-1550 fuq dik li oriġinarjament kienet gżira fix-xmara [[Papaloapan]]. Mill-era kolonjali sas-seklu 20, kien port importanti, wieħed mill-ftit portijiet tax-xmajjar interni fl-[[L-Amerika t'Isfel|Amerka Latina]]. Madankollu, bil-kostruzzjoni tal-linja ferrovjarja, l-importanza ta' Tlacotalpan majnat ferm. Mill-aħħar tas-seklu 20, bdew isiru sforzi biex jiġu kkonservati l-arkitettura u l-konfigurazzjoni Spanjoli/tal-Karibew tar-raħal, sa ma laħqu l-qofol tagħhom bid-deżinjazzjoni mill-UNESCO. Illum il-ġurnata, ir-riżorsi ekonomiċi prinċipali tar-raħal huma s-sajd u t-turiżmu, speċjalment għall-ħabta tal-festa annwali f'ġieħ il-[[Santa Marija|Madonna]] tal-Preżentazzjoni ta' [[Ġesù|Kristu]]. == Deskrizzjoni == Ir-raħal huwa mlaqqam "il-ġawhra tax-xmara Papaloapan".<ref>González, Víctor Manuel Jiménez; Vázquez, Itos, eds. (2010). ''Veracruz: Guía para descubrir los encantos del estado''. [[Belt tal-Messiku]]: Editorial Océano de México. pp. 67–69. ISBN <bdi>978-607-400-323-9</bdi>.</ref> Tlacotalpan huwa uniku fost il-biċċa l-kbira tal-insedjamenti urbani fl-Amerka Latina peress li huwa port ta' xmara interna, 'il ġewwa mill-ocean. Jitqies bħala Sit ta' Wirt Dinji tal-UNESCO minħabba l-konfigurazzjoni, l-arkitettura, l-istorja u t-tradizzjonijiet tiegħu.<ref name=":0">{{Ċita web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/862/|titlu=Historic Monuments Zone of Tlacotalpan|kunjom=Centre|isem=UNESCO World Heritage|sit=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2022-08-14}}</ref> Il-konfigurazzjoni urbana u l-arkitettura tiegħu jmorru lura għas-[[seklu 17]], u r-raħal irnexxielu jikkonservahom sew. Il-konfigurazzjoni tar-raħal qisha checkboard, u tkopri 153 blokka fuq 75 ettaru, maqsuma fuq żewġ sezzjonijiet: sezzjoni "[[Spanja|Spanjola]]" fil-Punent u sezzjoni "nattiva" iżgħar fil-Lvant, isseparati b'żona pubblika b'binjiet kummerċjali u uffiċjali flimkien ma' xi spazji pubbliċi. Is-sezzjoni Spanjola tar-raħal hija kkaratterizzata b'toroq wesgħin b'mod parallel max-xmara Papaloapan u kkollegati ma' xulxin b'karreġġati dojoq. F'din iż-żona hemm parks u spazji pubbliċi b'siġar maturi, bħall-Parque Hidalgo, magħruf għall-mużiċisti jdoqqu fih, u l-Plazuela de Doña Maria, ftit fil-Lvant miċ-ċentru, fl-eqdem parti tar-raħal, imdawra bi ħwienet fejn jinħadmu l-għamara, l-istrumenti mużikali u prodotti fini oħra tal-[[injam]]. L-arkitettura hija kkaratterizzata minn djar ta' sular jew tnejn bil-kolonni u bi btieħi interni bi stil tal-Andalucia, b'arkati bi stil tal-Karibew, b'soqfa b'tegoli ħomor u b'faċċati kkuluriti, li wħud minnhom imorru lura għas-seklu 18. Dawn huma partikolarment abbundanti fil-kwartieri ta' San Miguelito u ta' La Candelaria. Ħafna mid-djar għad għandhom il-konfigurazzjoni tradizzjonali minn ġewwa u saħansitra l-għamara tradizzjonali.<ref>"Mexico Desconocido Guía Especial Descubre Veracruz". ''México Desconocido''. Belt tal-Messiku: Mexico Desconocido: 70–73. April 2014. ISSN 1870-9397.</ref> Għalkemm l-aqwa żmien tar-raħal kien fis-seklu 19, Tlacotalpan għadu kklassifikat bħala port ta' xmara mill-gvern Messikan, u jaqdi l-iktar lid-dgħajjes tas-sajd u xi dgħajjes żgħar tar-rondi navali. Għandu moll tal-konkos twil 160 metru, u biċċa xatt tul ix-xmara fejn wieħed jista' jagħmel passejn u jmur jiekol f'wieħed mill-bosta ristoranti.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=http://digaohm.semar.gob.mx/derrotero/cuestionarios/cnarioTlacotalpan.pdf|titlu="Tlacotalpan, Veracruz" (PDF). Messiku: SEMAR.}}</ref> Ftit lura mix-xatt tax-xmara hemm il-[[pjazza]] prinċipali tar-raħal imsejħa Plaza Zaragoza. Il-pjazza hija pavimentata bl-irħam abjad u mimlija siġar tal-palm. Fin-nofs tal-pjazza hemm kjosk tas-seklu 19 iddisinjat mill-iskultur lokali [[Francisco Sanchez Terán]]. == Attrazzjonijiet == [[Stampa:LaraMuseumTlacotalpan02.JPG|daqsminuri|Il-Mużew tad-Dar ta' Agustín Lara]] L-attrazzjoni prinċipali f'din il-pjazza hi s-Santwarju tal-Madonna tal-Preżentazzjoni ta' Kristu (Nuestra Señora de la Candelaria) fuq in-naħa tat-Tramuntana. Din il-knisja nbniet fl-aħħar tas-seklu 18 (il-kostruzzjoni bdiet fl-1770) taħt [[Juan de Medina]] bil-ġebel mill-Golf tal-Messiku biex tħaddan fiha x-xbieha tal-Madonna, li ġabu magħhom il-baħħara fis-seklu 17. Iċ-ċelebrazzjoni annwali ewlenija tar-raħal timla din il-knisja bix-xemgħat u bil-fjuri.<ref name=":1">{{Ċita web|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140424035854/http://www.e-local.gob.mx/work/templates/enciclo/EMM30veracruz/municipios/30178a.html|titlu=Veracruz - Tlacotalpan|data=2014-04-24|sit=web.archive.org|data-aċċess=2022-08-14}}</ref> Il-knisja l-oħra fil-pjazza hija l-Knisja Parrokkjali ta' San Cristóbal, li tmur lura għall-1849. Il-knisja hi Neoklassika b'xi influwenzi [[Għarab]], u għandha arloġġ fit-torri tagħha li jingħad li ġie mill-[[Renju Unit|Ingilterra]] xi żewġ sekli ilu. L-artali prinċipali tagħha ġew skolpiti mill-injam u fihom ix-xbieha notevoli tal-Madonna ta' Guadalupe. Hemm artal importanti ddedikat lil Ġesù fil-[[kappella]] laterali maġenb iż-żona tal-artal prinċipali. Madankollu, la s-santwarju u lanqas il-knisja parrokkjali mhuma l-eqdem knisja fir-raħal. L-eqdem waħda hi l-Knisja ta' San Miguelito, li tinsab fil-Plaza de las Madres. Din inbniet fl-1785 fl-eqqel żmien tal-[[Barokk]] fil-Messiku. L-aħħar struttura prinċipali fi Plaza Zaragoza huwa l-palazz muniċipali. Dan inbena fl-1849 u fih bosta pitturi biż-żejt magħmula minn [[Salvador Ferrando]] kif ukoll arkivju ta' dokumenti li jmorru lura għall-perjodu kolonjali. Fil-Lvant tas-Santwarju hemm pjazza żgħira msejħa Plazuela [[Agustín Lara]], li ssemmiet għall-kantawtur li għandu [[statwa]] ddedikata lilu f'nofs il-pjazza. Il-Casa Artesanal Rafaela Murillo de Barbero tinsab fin-naħa tan-Nofsinhar ta' din il-pjazza, u din fl-imgħoddi kienet tintuża bħala l-ħabs muniċipali. Illum il-ġurnata fiha lbiesi tan-nisa b'rakkmu fin, ilbiesi tradizzjonali tal-irġiel, għamara tal-injam u prodotti oħra. Il-[[Mużew]] ta' Salvador Ferrando jinsab fuq in-naħa tal-Lvant, u huwa ddedikat lill-pittur u l-pijunier tal-preservazzjoni tal-wirt [[Kultura|kulturali]] ta' Veracruz, f'dar li kienet tiegħu. Il-mużew fih xi xogħlijiet tal-artist u ta' artisti oħra, b'oġġetti antiki ta' żmienu. Il-Mużew tad-Dar ta' Agustín Lara jinsab fit-Triq Gonzalo Aguirre Beltran fil-Lvant tal-pjazza prinċipali u huwa wieħed mill-iktar ċentri kulturali attivi. Ġie ddedikat lill-kantawtur u l-[[poeta]] li għex ħafna minn ħajtu fir-raħal. Fih ritratti u oġġetti marbuta ma' Lara u mal-karriera tiegħu, kif ukoll ma' artisti importanti oħra taż-żona bħal Salvador Ferrando, [[Alberto Fuster]] u [[Eric Arana]] (iktar kontemporanju). Attrazzjoni oħra marbuta mal-ħajja ta' Lara hija l-Blanca Nieves Cantina, magħrufa wkoll bħala l-Mużew-Bar ta' Tobías Carbajal Rivera. Kien post għall-qalb il-kantawtur, fejn kien jixrob ix-xarba alkoħolika lokali msejħa ''toritos'' mal-ħbieb. Ilu jopera għal iktar minn sittin sena, iżda oriġinarjament kien imsejjaħ El Encango de Tobías. L-isem attwali tiegħu, "Snow White" bl-[[Lingwa Spanjola|Ispanjol]], ġej minn Lara stess, b'risq is-sid ta' dak iż-żmien Tobías Carbajal u s-sebat itfal tiegħu. Is-sezzjoni tal-mużew tal-bar fiha l-uniku statwa ta' Lara liebes guayabera u kappell magħmul bil-friegħi tal-palm.<ref name=":1" /> Iċ-ċentru kulturali tar-raħal ingħata kunjom Lara wkoll (Casa de Cultura Agustín Lara). Jinsab fit-Triq Venustiano Carranza u jservi bħala post fejn jiltaqgħu l-artisti, il-mużiċisti u ż-żeffiena, u huwa post fejn jiġu offruti klassijiet taż-[[żifna]] tradizzjonali ta' Veracruz magħrufa bħala ''zapateado'' u ta' diversi strumenti mużikali. Fih wirja permanenti ta' oġġetti relatati ma' Lara, flimkien ma' [[Pittura|pitturi]] ta' Salvador Ferrando u ta' Alberto Fuster. It-Teatru Nezahuacoyotl jinsab ukoll tul it-Triq Venustiano Carranza u nbena fl-1891 bi stil [[Franza|Franċiż]] matul il-perjodu ta' Porfirio Díaz. Dar oħra li ġiet ikkonvertita f'attrazzjoni hi l-"Mini-Żu". L-istruttura u l-kollezzjoni kienu ta' [[Pío Barrán]]. Fiha hemm kollezzjoni ta' oġġetti u ta' [[Annimal|annimali]], speċjalment mill-ġbid tal-films li Barrán kien jikkollezzjona matul ħajtu kollha, inkluż kollezzjoni notevoli marbuta ma' Agustín Lara. L-iżjed aspett mhux tas-soltu tas-sit hu l-kollezzjoni ta' annimali eżotiċi, u wħud minnhom jgħixu liberi f'din il-proprjetà. Il-kollezzjoni tinkludi [[Kukkudrill|kukkudrilli]], fkieren tal-ilma, pellikani u għasafar tal-priża. Il-Jardín del Arte Tlacotalpeño (il-Ġnien tal-Arti ta' Tlacotalpan) jesponi u jbigħ opri tal-arti ta' artisti tar-reġjun. Il-ġnien jinsab fin-Nofsinhar tal-pjazza prinċipali.<ref name=":1" /> == Sit ta' Wirt Dinji == [[Stampa:WorldHeritageSiteTlacotalpan.JPG|daqsminuri|Il-plakka tal-UNESCO fil-pjazza prinċipali]] Iż-Żona tal-Monumenti Storiċi ta' Tlacotalpan ġiet iddeżinjata bħala Sit ta' Wirt Dinji tal-UNESCO fl-1998.<ref name=":0" /> Il-valur universali straordinarju tas-sit ġie rrikonoxxut abbażi ta' żewġ kriterji tal-għażla tal-UNESCO: il-'''kriterju (ii)''' "Wirja ta' skambju importanti ta' valuri umani, tul perjodu ta' żmien jew fi ħdan żona kulturali fid-dinja, dwar l-iżviluppi fl-arkitettura jew it-teknoloġija, l-arti monumentali, l-ippjanar tal-bliet jew id-disinn tal-pajsaġġ"; u l-'''kriterju (iv)''' "Eżempju straordinarju ta' tip ta' bini, ta' grupp ta' siti jew ta' pajsaġġ arkitettoniku jew teknoloġiku li joħroġ fid-dieher stadju/i sinifikanti fl-istorja tal-bniedem".<ref name=":0" /> == Festa == Fil-kalendarju intensiv tal-festi tal-Messiku, iċ-ċelebrazzjoni tal-Virgen de la Candelaria f'Tlacotalpan, Veracruz, hija famuża ħafna. Mill-31 ta' Jannar sat-2 ta' Frar ta' kull sena, eluf ta' nies jiffullaw fit-toroq ta' Tlacotalpan. Matul il-festa, il-biċċa l-kbira taċ-ċittadini ta' Tlacotalpan jiftħu d-djar tagħhom biex jilqgħu l-eluf ta' viżitaturi. Matul il-jiem tal-festa, issir il-Laqgħa Nazzjonali tal-''jaraneros'' u tal-''versadores'' fi Plaza Doña Martha ġeneralment filgħaxija. == Ġeografija u ambjent == [[Stampa:Flooding2010Tlacotalpan 02.JPG|daqsminuri|Dar fi Tlacotalpan li turi l-livell tal-għargħar tal-2010]] Tlacotalpan jinsab fiċ-ċentru tal-istat Messikan tal-Lvant ta' Veracruz, madwar 90 kilometru mill-port ta' Veracruz u 203 kilometri fix-Xlokk tal-belt kapitali statali, [[Xalapa]]. Jagħmel parti mir-reġjun ta' Sotavento tal-istat. Il-[[ġeografija]] taż-żona hija pjuttost ċatta, bi ftit għoljiet lejn il-Punent. Il-biċċa l-kbira tat-territorju (60 %) jintuża biex jirgħu l-bhejjem, bi 15 % għat-tkabbir tal-għelejjel u b'20 % mgħerreq fl-ilma. It-territorju huwa ddefinit mix-xmara Papaloapan, flimkien max-xmajjar San Juan u Tuxpan li huma tributarji tagħha. Ix-xmara Papaloapan hija navigabbli, iżda ma tantx hemm servizzi jew sinjalar għat-traffiku tad-dgħajjes. Ir-raħal għandu klima semitropikali, b'temperatura annwali medja ta' 25.1&nbsp;°C. Ikun hemm żewġ staġuni distinti. Minn Ottubru sa April, it-temp ikun iddominat mill-kurrenti tal-arja kiesħa mit-Tramuntana, magħrufa bħala "nortes". Dawn il-kurrenti jistgħu jikkawżaw irwiefen qawwija u trombi tal-arja. Matul il-kumplament tas-sena, it-temp ikun iddominat mill-Kurrent [[Oċean Atlantiku|Atlantiku]] (Corriente Atlántica), li jġib miegħu rjieħ sħan u umdużi mix-Xlokk tal-Messiku, li jikkawżaw il-biċċa l-kbira tax-xita annwali. Settembru jkun l-iktar xahar bil-maltempati u ż-żona tkun affettwata wkoll regolarment mill-uragani. Dawn jistgħu jikkawżaw għargħar kbir bħal fil-każ tal-Uragan Roxanne fl-1995, l-Uragani Dean u Felix fl-1997, l-Uragan Karl fl-2010 u l-Uragan Ernesto fl-2012. Il-veġetazzjoni hija ħorfija, u l-ispeċijiet prinċipali tas-siġar huma l-ballut, il-fraxxnu, iż-żafżafa u l-luq. Hemm ukoll żoni bil-mangrovji. Fiż-żona ta' Tlacotalpan hemm xi depożiti taż-żejt. == Storja == [[Stampa:SalvadorFerrandoMuseum22.JPG|daqsminuri|260x260px|Mappa kolonjali bikrija li turi lil Tlacotalpan bħala gżira fil-Mużew ta' Salvador Ferrando]] L-isem "Tlacotalpan" huwa modifika Spanjola tat-terminu bin-Nahuatl "Tlaxcotaliapan" li jfisser "art bejn l-ilmijiet". Dan jirreferi għall-gżira tal-insedjament oriġinali fix-xmara Papaloapan. Meta x-xatt tat-Tramuntana tax-xmara ġie mmodifikat, il-gżira ġiet magħquda mal-art kontinentali. F'nofs is-seklu 19, l-isem tar-raħal kien San Cristobal Tlacotalpan, iżda mbagħad tqassar. Ma tantx għandna tagħrif dwar l-[[Storja|istorja]] pre-Ispanika taż-żona, iżda oriġinarjament kienet abitata mit-Totonac. Iktar 'il quddiem ħadulhom posthom it-Toltec fis-seklu 12. Fl-1461, [[Moctezuma Ilhuicamina]] beda l-ewwel sforzi [[Azteki]] ta' espansjoni hawnhekk, li iktar 'il quddiem ġew ikkontrollati mid-dominju ta' Cotaxtlan. Fl-1475, Axayacatl ħakem ir-raħal flimkien ma' Coixtlahuaca, Tochtepec u Cosamaloapan, u ta l-ismijiet attwali lil dawn il-postijiet kollha. Fl-1518, [[Pedro de Alvarado]] għamel spedizzjoni u baħħar 'il fuq mix-xmara Papaloapan, u fl-1521 [[Hernán Cortés]] bagħat lil [[Gonzalo de Sandoval]] hawnhekk biex ifittex għad-deheb. Wara l-Konkwista fl-1521, [[Alfonso Romero]] ngħata din iż-żona bħala ''encomienda''. Fil-muniċipalità attwali, f'post li dak iż-żmien kien jissejjaħ Coanapa-Ayotzinapa, Cortes stabbilixxa l-ewwel impjant tal-kannamiela fil-Messiku fl-1532. Fl-1550 it-territorju ngħata mir-re Spanjol lil [[Gaspar Rivakeneyra]] u użah għar-ragħa tal-bhejjem tiegħu. Huwa ma setax jipprevjeni lis-[[Sajjied|sajjieda]] milli jistabbilixxu r-raħal iżda rrikjeda li tinbena [[kappella]] ddedikata lill-Madonna tal-Preżentazzjoni ta' Kristu. Il-kolonizzazzjoni taż-żona saret bil-mod, bi 12-il Spanjol biss fl-1544 u mhux iktar minn 320 sal-1777. Iċ-ċifri ta' popolazzjonijiet oħra matul il-perjodu kolonjali huma neqsin iżda fl-1808 kien hemm 1,156 abitant indiġenu u 1,616-il "pardos" jew nies ta' nisel indiġenu u [[Afrika|Afrikan]]. Fil-bidu tas-[[seklu 17]], kien hemm tentattiv ta' subordinazzjoni taż-żona għal Cosamaloapan, iżda l-indiġeni rnexxielhom jirreżistu. Fis-seklu 17, ir-raħal sar ċentru kummerċjali għall-haciendas tal-madwar, u dan wassal għat-tkabbir fil-popolazzjoni Spanjola tiegħu. Il-ġid u l-istatus tar-raħal bħala port attira lill-pirati Ingliżi fis-sekli 17 u 18, u fl-1667 tawh in-nar. Fl-1714, ix-xmara Papaloapan faret u r-raħal kellu jiċċaqlaq fil-post attwali tiegħu, li dak iż-żmien kien jissejjaħ Chuniapa. Ir-raħal ġarrab tliet nirien kbar oħra fl-1698, fl-1788 u fl-1790. L-aħħar tnejn wasslu biex l-awtoritajiet jirrikjedu l-bini mill-ġdid b'ħitan tal-ġebel, b'soqfa bit-tegoli, u bl-istabbiliment ta' spazji miftuħa u bis-siġar. Dawk li ma setgħux jibnu b'dan il-mod kellhom jiċċaqilqu fil-parti tal-Lvant tar-raħal li kellha rekwiżiti inqas rigorużi. Il-biċċa l-kbira tal-eqdem binjiet huma ta' dan iż-żmien u ddeterminaw l-istil komuni tad-djar kbar bil-btieħi, bis-soqfa bit-tegoli u bil-passaġġi bl-arkati. It-territorju tal-muniċipalità ġie ffissat sal-aħħar tas-seklu 18. Tlacotalpan laħaq il-qofol tiegħu bħala raħal portwali fis-seklu 19. Fil-bidu ta' dak is-seklu, immigranti Franċiżi, Ġermaniżi u Taljani ġew jgħixu fiż-żona biex jiżirgħu, jaħsdu u jinsġu l-qoton, sabiex imbagħad jinbigħ fis-swieq Ingliżi. Mill-1821, Tlacotalpan esperjenza tkabbir ekonomiku bħala port għall-prodotti minn [[Oaxaca]] u minn [[Puebla]] lejn Veracruz u 'l barra mill-pajjiż lejn [[New Orleans]], [[Ħavana|Havana]] u [[Bordeaux]]. Sal-1855 ospita tmintax-il vapur tal-istim u vapur kbir tat-tbaħħir li kienu jittrasportaw l-injam, it-tabakk, il-qoton, il-qmuħ, iz-zokkor, il-brandy, il-ġlud, il-laħam immellaħ, il-kukkudrilli, ir-rix tar-russetti, l-għamara u s-sapun. Fl-1825 infetaħ wieħed mill-ewwel kulleġġi nawtiċi tal-Messiku, stabbilit minn [[Guadalupe Victoria]]. Fl-1847, Tlacotalpan ġie ddikjarat uffiċjalment bħala raħal bħala rikonoxximent tal-parteċipazzjoni tiegħu fid-difiża kontra l-forzi tal-Istati Uniti fil-Gwerra bejn il-Messikani u l-Amerikani. Fl-1864 ir-raħal ittieħed mill-forzi Franċiżi taħt Marechal jum wara li ttieħed Alvarado. Iktar tard f'dik l-istess sena, il-forzi Repubblikani taħt [[Alejandro Garcia]] reġgħu ħadu ż-żona f'idejhom. Fl-1865 ir-raħal ġie ddikjarat belt u belt kapitali proviżorja għar-reżistenza kontra l-Franċiżi. Fl-1879, [[Miguel Z. Cházaro]] stabbilixxa t-tielet skola preparatorja ta' Veracruz. Hemmhekk Porfirio Díaz organizza rewwixta kontra l-gvern ta' [[Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada]], li wasslet għall-bidla fl-isem ta' Tlacotalpan de Porfirio Díaz fl-1896. Dan l-isem inbidel għal kif inhu llum il-ġurnata wara r-Rivoluzzjoni Messikana. Fil-bidu tas-seklu 20, ir-raħal kellu tmien skejjel, tliet lukandi, disa' fabbriki u 100 dar ta' sular. Madankollu, fl-ewwel parti tas-seklu 20, l-importanza ta' Tlacotalpan bħala port, li kienet sostnietu mill-perjodu kolonjali, majnat minħabba l-kostruzzjoni tal-linja ferrovjarja tal-Ferrocarril del Istmo. Il-popolazzjoni tiegħu kibret kemxejn biss mill-1950 sal-1980 u baqgħet stabbli minn dak iż-żmien, bi ftit iktar minn 8,800 ruħ. Fl-1968 bdew isiru sforzi ta' konservazzjoni meta Tlacotalpan ġie ddikjarat bħala "raħal tipiku" tal-Messiku mill-istat ta' Veracruz. Fl-1986 ġie ddikjarat bħala Żona tal-Monumenti Storiċi mill-gvern federali li kellha tiġi ġestita mill-Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia (INAH) u mill-Instituto Nacional de Bellas Artes (INBA). Fl-1985 u fl-1997 ġiet stabbilita żona ta' tranżizzjoni li tinkludi ż-żoni fuq in-naħa l-oħra tax-xmara, li sservi bħala żona ta' lqugħ għaż-żona prinċipali ta' konservazzjoni. Fl-1998 Tlacotalpan ġiet iddeżinjata bħala Sit ta' Wirt Dinji tal-UNESCO għall-istorja tiegħu bħala port ta' xmara, għall-arkitettura tiegħu u għat-tradizzjonijiet tiegħu fil-[[poeżija]], fil-[[mużika]] u fiż-[[żfin]].<ref name=":0" /> Minn dak iż-żmien 'l hawn, l-INAH u l-Fondo Nacional para la Cultura y las Arts (FONCA) ħadmu sabiex jerġgħu jagħtu ħajja lir-raħal u jtejbu l-ekonomija tiegħu, b'mod partikolari permezz tat-turiżmu.<ref name=":1" /> == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Bliet]] [[Kategorija:Messiku]] 5ii6keas5mxrgxtw0cis612xmm3500r 279076 279075 2022-08-14T13:53:03Z Trigcly 17859 added [[Category:Siti ta' Wirt Dinji]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox city}} '''Tlacotalpan''' huwa raħal fil-Muniċipalità ta' Tlacotalpan fl-istat [[Messiku|Messikan]] ta' [[Veracruz]], li jiġi ddeżinjat bħal [[Sit ta' Wirt Dinji]] tal-[[UNESCO]] fl-1998 primarjament għall-arkitettura u għall-konfigurazzjoni kolonjali tiegħu. Ir-raħal ġie stabbilit fl-1550 fuq dik li oriġinarjament kienet gżira fix-xmara [[Papaloapan]]. Mill-era kolonjali sas-seklu 20, kien port importanti, wieħed mill-ftit portijiet tax-xmajjar interni fl-[[L-Amerika t'Isfel|Amerka Latina]]. Madankollu, bil-kostruzzjoni tal-linja ferrovjarja, l-importanza ta' Tlacotalpan majnat ferm. Mill-aħħar tas-seklu 20, bdew isiru sforzi biex jiġu kkonservati l-arkitettura u l-konfigurazzjoni Spanjoli/tal-Karibew tar-raħal, sa ma laħqu l-qofol tagħhom bid-deżinjazzjoni mill-UNESCO. Illum il-ġurnata, ir-riżorsi ekonomiċi prinċipali tar-raħal huma s-sajd u t-turiżmu, speċjalment għall-ħabta tal-festa annwali f'ġieħ il-[[Santa Marija|Madonna]] tal-Preżentazzjoni ta' [[Ġesù|Kristu]]. == Deskrizzjoni == Ir-raħal huwa mlaqqam "il-ġawhra tax-xmara Papaloapan".<ref>González, Víctor Manuel Jiménez; Vázquez, Itos, eds. (2010). ''Veracruz: Guía para descubrir los encantos del estado''. [[Belt tal-Messiku]]: Editorial Océano de México. pp. 67–69. ISBN <bdi>978-607-400-323-9</bdi>.</ref> Tlacotalpan huwa uniku fost il-biċċa l-kbira tal-insedjamenti urbani fl-Amerka Latina peress li huwa port ta' xmara interna, 'il ġewwa mill-ocean. Jitqies bħala Sit ta' Wirt Dinji tal-UNESCO minħabba l-konfigurazzjoni, l-arkitettura, l-istorja u t-tradizzjonijiet tiegħu.<ref name=":0">{{Ċita web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/862/|titlu=Historic Monuments Zone of Tlacotalpan|kunjom=Centre|isem=UNESCO World Heritage|sit=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2022-08-14}}</ref> Il-konfigurazzjoni urbana u l-arkitettura tiegħu jmorru lura għas-[[seklu 17]], u r-raħal irnexxielu jikkonservahom sew. Il-konfigurazzjoni tar-raħal qisha checkboard, u tkopri 153 blokka fuq 75 ettaru, maqsuma fuq żewġ sezzjonijiet: sezzjoni "[[Spanja|Spanjola]]" fil-Punent u sezzjoni "nattiva" iżgħar fil-Lvant, isseparati b'żona pubblika b'binjiet kummerċjali u uffiċjali flimkien ma' xi spazji pubbliċi. Is-sezzjoni Spanjola tar-raħal hija kkaratterizzata b'toroq wesgħin b'mod parallel max-xmara Papaloapan u kkollegati ma' xulxin b'karreġġati dojoq. F'din iż-żona hemm parks u spazji pubbliċi b'siġar maturi, bħall-Parque Hidalgo, magħruf għall-mużiċisti jdoqqu fih, u l-Plazuela de Doña Maria, ftit fil-Lvant miċ-ċentru, fl-eqdem parti tar-raħal, imdawra bi ħwienet fejn jinħadmu l-għamara, l-istrumenti mużikali u prodotti fini oħra tal-[[injam]]. L-arkitettura hija kkaratterizzata minn djar ta' sular jew tnejn bil-kolonni u bi btieħi interni bi stil tal-Andalucia, b'arkati bi stil tal-Karibew, b'soqfa b'tegoli ħomor u b'faċċati kkuluriti, li wħud minnhom imorru lura għas-seklu 18. Dawn huma partikolarment abbundanti fil-kwartieri ta' San Miguelito u ta' La Candelaria. Ħafna mid-djar għad għandhom il-konfigurazzjoni tradizzjonali minn ġewwa u saħansitra l-għamara tradizzjonali.<ref>"Mexico Desconocido Guía Especial Descubre Veracruz". ''México Desconocido''. Belt tal-Messiku: Mexico Desconocido: 70–73. April 2014. ISSN 1870-9397.</ref> Għalkemm l-aqwa żmien tar-raħal kien fis-seklu 19, Tlacotalpan għadu kklassifikat bħala port ta' xmara mill-gvern Messikan, u jaqdi l-iktar lid-dgħajjes tas-sajd u xi dgħajjes żgħar tar-rondi navali. Għandu moll tal-konkos twil 160 metru, u biċċa xatt tul ix-xmara fejn wieħed jista' jagħmel passejn u jmur jiekol f'wieħed mill-bosta ristoranti.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=http://digaohm.semar.gob.mx/derrotero/cuestionarios/cnarioTlacotalpan.pdf|titlu="Tlacotalpan, Veracruz" (PDF). Messiku: SEMAR.}}</ref> Ftit lura mix-xatt tax-xmara hemm il-[[pjazza]] prinċipali tar-raħal imsejħa Plaza Zaragoza. Il-pjazza hija pavimentata bl-irħam abjad u mimlija siġar tal-palm. Fin-nofs tal-pjazza hemm kjosk tas-seklu 19 iddisinjat mill-iskultur lokali [[Francisco Sanchez Terán]]. == Attrazzjonijiet == [[Stampa:LaraMuseumTlacotalpan02.JPG|daqsminuri|Il-Mużew tad-Dar ta' Agustín Lara]] L-attrazzjoni prinċipali f'din il-pjazza hi s-Santwarju tal-Madonna tal-Preżentazzjoni ta' Kristu (Nuestra Señora de la Candelaria) fuq in-naħa tat-Tramuntana. Din il-knisja nbniet fl-aħħar tas-seklu 18 (il-kostruzzjoni bdiet fl-1770) taħt [[Juan de Medina]] bil-ġebel mill-Golf tal-Messiku biex tħaddan fiha x-xbieha tal-Madonna, li ġabu magħhom il-baħħara fis-seklu 17. Iċ-ċelebrazzjoni annwali ewlenija tar-raħal timla din il-knisja bix-xemgħat u bil-fjuri.<ref name=":1">{{Ċita web|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140424035854/http://www.e-local.gob.mx/work/templates/enciclo/EMM30veracruz/municipios/30178a.html|titlu=Veracruz - Tlacotalpan|data=2014-04-24|sit=web.archive.org|data-aċċess=2022-08-14}}</ref> Il-knisja l-oħra fil-pjazza hija l-Knisja Parrokkjali ta' San Cristóbal, li tmur lura għall-1849. Il-knisja hi Neoklassika b'xi influwenzi [[Għarab]], u għandha arloġġ fit-torri tagħha li jingħad li ġie mill-[[Renju Unit|Ingilterra]] xi żewġ sekli ilu. L-artali prinċipali tagħha ġew skolpiti mill-injam u fihom ix-xbieha notevoli tal-Madonna ta' Guadalupe. Hemm artal importanti ddedikat lil Ġesù fil-[[kappella]] laterali maġenb iż-żona tal-artal prinċipali. Madankollu, la s-santwarju u lanqas il-knisja parrokkjali mhuma l-eqdem knisja fir-raħal. L-eqdem waħda hi l-Knisja ta' San Miguelito, li tinsab fil-Plaza de las Madres. Din inbniet fl-1785 fl-eqqel żmien tal-[[Barokk]] fil-Messiku. L-aħħar struttura prinċipali fi Plaza Zaragoza huwa l-palazz muniċipali. Dan inbena fl-1849 u fih bosta pitturi biż-żejt magħmula minn [[Salvador Ferrando]] kif ukoll arkivju ta' dokumenti li jmorru lura għall-perjodu kolonjali. Fil-Lvant tas-Santwarju hemm pjazza żgħira msejħa Plazuela [[Agustín Lara]], li ssemmiet għall-kantawtur li għandu [[statwa]] ddedikata lilu f'nofs il-pjazza. Il-Casa Artesanal Rafaela Murillo de Barbero tinsab fin-naħa tan-Nofsinhar ta' din il-pjazza, u din fl-imgħoddi kienet tintuża bħala l-ħabs muniċipali. Illum il-ġurnata fiha lbiesi tan-nisa b'rakkmu fin, ilbiesi tradizzjonali tal-irġiel, għamara tal-injam u prodotti oħra. Il-[[Mużew]] ta' Salvador Ferrando jinsab fuq in-naħa tal-Lvant, u huwa ddedikat lill-pittur u l-pijunier tal-preservazzjoni tal-wirt [[Kultura|kulturali]] ta' Veracruz, f'dar li kienet tiegħu. Il-mużew fih xi xogħlijiet tal-artist u ta' artisti oħra, b'oġġetti antiki ta' żmienu. Il-Mużew tad-Dar ta' Agustín Lara jinsab fit-Triq Gonzalo Aguirre Beltran fil-Lvant tal-pjazza prinċipali u huwa wieħed mill-iktar ċentri kulturali attivi. Ġie ddedikat lill-kantawtur u l-[[poeta]] li għex ħafna minn ħajtu fir-raħal. Fih ritratti u oġġetti marbuta ma' Lara u mal-karriera tiegħu, kif ukoll ma' artisti importanti oħra taż-żona bħal Salvador Ferrando, [[Alberto Fuster]] u [[Eric Arana]] (iktar kontemporanju). Attrazzjoni oħra marbuta mal-ħajja ta' Lara hija l-Blanca Nieves Cantina, magħrufa wkoll bħala l-Mużew-Bar ta' Tobías Carbajal Rivera. Kien post għall-qalb il-kantawtur, fejn kien jixrob ix-xarba alkoħolika lokali msejħa ''toritos'' mal-ħbieb. Ilu jopera għal iktar minn sittin sena, iżda oriġinarjament kien imsejjaħ El Encango de Tobías. L-isem attwali tiegħu, "Snow White" bl-[[Lingwa Spanjola|Ispanjol]], ġej minn Lara stess, b'risq is-sid ta' dak iż-żmien Tobías Carbajal u s-sebat itfal tiegħu. Is-sezzjoni tal-mużew tal-bar fiha l-uniku statwa ta' Lara liebes guayabera u kappell magħmul bil-friegħi tal-palm.<ref name=":1" /> Iċ-ċentru kulturali tar-raħal ingħata kunjom Lara wkoll (Casa de Cultura Agustín Lara). Jinsab fit-Triq Venustiano Carranza u jservi bħala post fejn jiltaqgħu l-artisti, il-mużiċisti u ż-żeffiena, u huwa post fejn jiġu offruti klassijiet taż-[[żifna]] tradizzjonali ta' Veracruz magħrufa bħala ''zapateado'' u ta' diversi strumenti mużikali. Fih wirja permanenti ta' oġġetti relatati ma' Lara, flimkien ma' [[Pittura|pitturi]] ta' Salvador Ferrando u ta' Alberto Fuster. It-Teatru Nezahuacoyotl jinsab ukoll tul it-Triq Venustiano Carranza u nbena fl-1891 bi stil [[Franza|Franċiż]] matul il-perjodu ta' Porfirio Díaz. Dar oħra li ġiet ikkonvertita f'attrazzjoni hi l-"Mini-Żu". L-istruttura u l-kollezzjoni kienu ta' [[Pío Barrán]]. Fiha hemm kollezzjoni ta' oġġetti u ta' [[Annimal|annimali]], speċjalment mill-ġbid tal-films li Barrán kien jikkollezzjona matul ħajtu kollha, inkluż kollezzjoni notevoli marbuta ma' Agustín Lara. L-iżjed aspett mhux tas-soltu tas-sit hu l-kollezzjoni ta' annimali eżotiċi, u wħud minnhom jgħixu liberi f'din il-proprjetà. Il-kollezzjoni tinkludi [[Kukkudrill|kukkudrilli]], fkieren tal-ilma, pellikani u għasafar tal-priża. Il-Jardín del Arte Tlacotalpeño (il-Ġnien tal-Arti ta' Tlacotalpan) jesponi u jbigħ opri tal-arti ta' artisti tar-reġjun. Il-ġnien jinsab fin-Nofsinhar tal-pjazza prinċipali.<ref name=":1" /> == Sit ta' Wirt Dinji == [[Stampa:WorldHeritageSiteTlacotalpan.JPG|daqsminuri|Il-plakka tal-UNESCO fil-pjazza prinċipali]] Iż-Żona tal-Monumenti Storiċi ta' Tlacotalpan ġiet iddeżinjata bħala Sit ta' Wirt Dinji tal-UNESCO fl-1998.<ref name=":0" /> Il-valur universali straordinarju tas-sit ġie rrikonoxxut abbażi ta' żewġ kriterji tal-għażla tal-UNESCO: il-'''kriterju (ii)''' "Wirja ta' skambju importanti ta' valuri umani, tul perjodu ta' żmien jew fi ħdan żona kulturali fid-dinja, dwar l-iżviluppi fl-arkitettura jew it-teknoloġija, l-arti monumentali, l-ippjanar tal-bliet jew id-disinn tal-pajsaġġ"; u l-'''kriterju (iv)''' "Eżempju straordinarju ta' tip ta' bini, ta' grupp ta' siti jew ta' pajsaġġ arkitettoniku jew teknoloġiku li joħroġ fid-dieher stadju/i sinifikanti fl-istorja tal-bniedem".<ref name=":0" /> == Festa == Fil-kalendarju intensiv tal-festi tal-Messiku, iċ-ċelebrazzjoni tal-Virgen de la Candelaria f'Tlacotalpan, Veracruz, hija famuża ħafna. Mill-31 ta' Jannar sat-2 ta' Frar ta' kull sena, eluf ta' nies jiffullaw fit-toroq ta' Tlacotalpan. Matul il-festa, il-biċċa l-kbira taċ-ċittadini ta' Tlacotalpan jiftħu d-djar tagħhom biex jilqgħu l-eluf ta' viżitaturi. Matul il-jiem tal-festa, issir il-Laqgħa Nazzjonali tal-''jaraneros'' u tal-''versadores'' fi Plaza Doña Martha ġeneralment filgħaxija. == Ġeografija u ambjent == [[Stampa:Flooding2010Tlacotalpan 02.JPG|daqsminuri|Dar fi Tlacotalpan li turi l-livell tal-għargħar tal-2010]] Tlacotalpan jinsab fiċ-ċentru tal-istat Messikan tal-Lvant ta' Veracruz, madwar 90 kilometru mill-port ta' Veracruz u 203 kilometri fix-Xlokk tal-belt kapitali statali, [[Xalapa]]. Jagħmel parti mir-reġjun ta' Sotavento tal-istat. Il-[[ġeografija]] taż-żona hija pjuttost ċatta, bi ftit għoljiet lejn il-Punent. Il-biċċa l-kbira tat-territorju (60 %) jintuża biex jirgħu l-bhejjem, bi 15 % għat-tkabbir tal-għelejjel u b'20 % mgħerreq fl-ilma. It-territorju huwa ddefinit mix-xmara Papaloapan, flimkien max-xmajjar San Juan u Tuxpan li huma tributarji tagħha. Ix-xmara Papaloapan hija navigabbli, iżda ma tantx hemm servizzi jew sinjalar għat-traffiku tad-dgħajjes. Ir-raħal għandu klima semitropikali, b'temperatura annwali medja ta' 25.1&nbsp;°C. Ikun hemm żewġ staġuni distinti. Minn Ottubru sa April, it-temp ikun iddominat mill-kurrenti tal-arja kiesħa mit-Tramuntana, magħrufa bħala "nortes". Dawn il-kurrenti jistgħu jikkawżaw irwiefen qawwija u trombi tal-arja. Matul il-kumplament tas-sena, it-temp ikun iddominat mill-Kurrent [[Oċean Atlantiku|Atlantiku]] (Corriente Atlántica), li jġib miegħu rjieħ sħan u umdużi mix-Xlokk tal-Messiku, li jikkawżaw il-biċċa l-kbira tax-xita annwali. Settembru jkun l-iktar xahar bil-maltempati u ż-żona tkun affettwata wkoll regolarment mill-uragani. Dawn jistgħu jikkawżaw għargħar kbir bħal fil-każ tal-Uragan Roxanne fl-1995, l-Uragani Dean u Felix fl-1997, l-Uragan Karl fl-2010 u l-Uragan Ernesto fl-2012. Il-veġetazzjoni hija ħorfija, u l-ispeċijiet prinċipali tas-siġar huma l-ballut, il-fraxxnu, iż-żafżafa u l-luq. Hemm ukoll żoni bil-mangrovji. Fiż-żona ta' Tlacotalpan hemm xi depożiti taż-żejt. == Storja == [[Stampa:SalvadorFerrandoMuseum22.JPG|daqsminuri|260x260px|Mappa kolonjali bikrija li turi lil Tlacotalpan bħala gżira fil-Mużew ta' Salvador Ferrando]] L-isem "Tlacotalpan" huwa modifika Spanjola tat-terminu bin-Nahuatl "Tlaxcotaliapan" li jfisser "art bejn l-ilmijiet". Dan jirreferi għall-gżira tal-insedjament oriġinali fix-xmara Papaloapan. Meta x-xatt tat-Tramuntana tax-xmara ġie mmodifikat, il-gżira ġiet magħquda mal-art kontinentali. F'nofs is-seklu 19, l-isem tar-raħal kien San Cristobal Tlacotalpan, iżda mbagħad tqassar. Ma tantx għandna tagħrif dwar l-[[Storja|istorja]] pre-Ispanika taż-żona, iżda oriġinarjament kienet abitata mit-Totonac. Iktar 'il quddiem ħadulhom posthom it-Toltec fis-seklu 12. Fl-1461, [[Moctezuma Ilhuicamina]] beda l-ewwel sforzi [[Azteki]] ta' espansjoni hawnhekk, li iktar 'il quddiem ġew ikkontrollati mid-dominju ta' Cotaxtlan. Fl-1475, Axayacatl ħakem ir-raħal flimkien ma' Coixtlahuaca, Tochtepec u Cosamaloapan, u ta l-ismijiet attwali lil dawn il-postijiet kollha. Fl-1518, [[Pedro de Alvarado]] għamel spedizzjoni u baħħar 'il fuq mix-xmara Papaloapan, u fl-1521 [[Hernán Cortés]] bagħat lil [[Gonzalo de Sandoval]] hawnhekk biex ifittex għad-deheb. Wara l-Konkwista fl-1521, [[Alfonso Romero]] ngħata din iż-żona bħala ''encomienda''. Fil-muniċipalità attwali, f'post li dak iż-żmien kien jissejjaħ Coanapa-Ayotzinapa, Cortes stabbilixxa l-ewwel impjant tal-kannamiela fil-Messiku fl-1532. Fl-1550 it-territorju ngħata mir-re Spanjol lil [[Gaspar Rivakeneyra]] u użah għar-ragħa tal-bhejjem tiegħu. Huwa ma setax jipprevjeni lis-[[Sajjied|sajjieda]] milli jistabbilixxu r-raħal iżda rrikjeda li tinbena [[kappella]] ddedikata lill-Madonna tal-Preżentazzjoni ta' Kristu. Il-kolonizzazzjoni taż-żona saret bil-mod, bi 12-il Spanjol biss fl-1544 u mhux iktar minn 320 sal-1777. Iċ-ċifri ta' popolazzjonijiet oħra matul il-perjodu kolonjali huma neqsin iżda fl-1808 kien hemm 1,156 abitant indiġenu u 1,616-il "pardos" jew nies ta' nisel indiġenu u [[Afrika|Afrikan]]. Fil-bidu tas-[[seklu 17]], kien hemm tentattiv ta' subordinazzjoni taż-żona għal Cosamaloapan, iżda l-indiġeni rnexxielhom jirreżistu. Fis-seklu 17, ir-raħal sar ċentru kummerċjali għall-haciendas tal-madwar, u dan wassal għat-tkabbir fil-popolazzjoni Spanjola tiegħu. Il-ġid u l-istatus tar-raħal bħala port attira lill-pirati Ingliżi fis-sekli 17 u 18, u fl-1667 tawh in-nar. Fl-1714, ix-xmara Papaloapan faret u r-raħal kellu jiċċaqlaq fil-post attwali tiegħu, li dak iż-żmien kien jissejjaħ Chuniapa. Ir-raħal ġarrab tliet nirien kbar oħra fl-1698, fl-1788 u fl-1790. L-aħħar tnejn wasslu biex l-awtoritajiet jirrikjedu l-bini mill-ġdid b'ħitan tal-ġebel, b'soqfa bit-tegoli, u bl-istabbiliment ta' spazji miftuħa u bis-siġar. Dawk li ma setgħux jibnu b'dan il-mod kellhom jiċċaqilqu fil-parti tal-Lvant tar-raħal li kellha rekwiżiti inqas rigorużi. Il-biċċa l-kbira tal-eqdem binjiet huma ta' dan iż-żmien u ddeterminaw l-istil komuni tad-djar kbar bil-btieħi, bis-soqfa bit-tegoli u bil-passaġġi bl-arkati. It-territorju tal-muniċipalità ġie ffissat sal-aħħar tas-seklu 18. Tlacotalpan laħaq il-qofol tiegħu bħala raħal portwali fis-seklu 19. Fil-bidu ta' dak is-seklu, immigranti Franċiżi, Ġermaniżi u Taljani ġew jgħixu fiż-żona biex jiżirgħu, jaħsdu u jinsġu l-qoton, sabiex imbagħad jinbigħ fis-swieq Ingliżi. Mill-1821, Tlacotalpan esperjenza tkabbir ekonomiku bħala port għall-prodotti minn [[Oaxaca]] u minn [[Puebla]] lejn Veracruz u 'l barra mill-pajjiż lejn [[New Orleans]], [[Ħavana|Havana]] u [[Bordeaux]]. Sal-1855 ospita tmintax-il vapur tal-istim u vapur kbir tat-tbaħħir li kienu jittrasportaw l-injam, it-tabakk, il-qoton, il-qmuħ, iz-zokkor, il-brandy, il-ġlud, il-laħam immellaħ, il-kukkudrilli, ir-rix tar-russetti, l-għamara u s-sapun. Fl-1825 infetaħ wieħed mill-ewwel kulleġġi nawtiċi tal-Messiku, stabbilit minn [[Guadalupe Victoria]]. Fl-1847, Tlacotalpan ġie ddikjarat uffiċjalment bħala raħal bħala rikonoxximent tal-parteċipazzjoni tiegħu fid-difiża kontra l-forzi tal-Istati Uniti fil-Gwerra bejn il-Messikani u l-Amerikani. Fl-1864 ir-raħal ittieħed mill-forzi Franċiżi taħt Marechal jum wara li ttieħed Alvarado. Iktar tard f'dik l-istess sena, il-forzi Repubblikani taħt [[Alejandro Garcia]] reġgħu ħadu ż-żona f'idejhom. Fl-1865 ir-raħal ġie ddikjarat belt u belt kapitali proviżorja għar-reżistenza kontra l-Franċiżi. Fl-1879, [[Miguel Z. Cházaro]] stabbilixxa t-tielet skola preparatorja ta' Veracruz. Hemmhekk Porfirio Díaz organizza rewwixta kontra l-gvern ta' [[Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada]], li wasslet għall-bidla fl-isem ta' Tlacotalpan de Porfirio Díaz fl-1896. Dan l-isem inbidel għal kif inhu llum il-ġurnata wara r-Rivoluzzjoni Messikana. Fil-bidu tas-seklu 20, ir-raħal kellu tmien skejjel, tliet lukandi, disa' fabbriki u 100 dar ta' sular. Madankollu, fl-ewwel parti tas-seklu 20, l-importanza ta' Tlacotalpan bħala port, li kienet sostnietu mill-perjodu kolonjali, majnat minħabba l-kostruzzjoni tal-linja ferrovjarja tal-Ferrocarril del Istmo. Il-popolazzjoni tiegħu kibret kemxejn biss mill-1950 sal-1980 u baqgħet stabbli minn dak iż-żmien, bi ftit iktar minn 8,800 ruħ. Fl-1968 bdew isiru sforzi ta' konservazzjoni meta Tlacotalpan ġie ddikjarat bħala "raħal tipiku" tal-Messiku mill-istat ta' Veracruz. Fl-1986 ġie ddikjarat bħala Żona tal-Monumenti Storiċi mill-gvern federali li kellha tiġi ġestita mill-Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia (INAH) u mill-Instituto Nacional de Bellas Artes (INBA). Fl-1985 u fl-1997 ġiet stabbilita żona ta' tranżizzjoni li tinkludi ż-żoni fuq in-naħa l-oħra tax-xmara, li sservi bħala żona ta' lqugħ għaż-żona prinċipali ta' konservazzjoni. Fl-1998 Tlacotalpan ġiet iddeżinjata bħala Sit ta' Wirt Dinji tal-UNESCO għall-istorja tiegħu bħala port ta' xmara, għall-arkitettura tiegħu u għat-tradizzjonijiet tiegħu fil-[[poeżija]], fil-[[mużika]] u fiż-[[żfin]].<ref name=":0" /> Minn dak iż-żmien 'l hawn, l-INAH u l-Fondo Nacional para la Cultura y las Arts (FONCA) ħadmu sabiex jerġgħu jagħtu ħajja lir-raħal u jtejbu l-ekonomija tiegħu, b'mod partikolari permezz tat-turiżmu.<ref name=":1" /> == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Bliet]] [[Kategorija:Messiku]] [[Kategorija:Siti ta' Wirt Dinji]] 0055hcj3xy7ejl5wljbm4cqdmr816dy 0 28811 279078 2022-08-14T14:29:07Z Trigcly 17859 Kontenut inizjali, stampi, kwotazzjonijiet u ħoloq wikitext text/x-wiki [[Stampa:Tikal Temple1 2006 08 11.JPG|daqsminuri|It-Tempju I ta' Tikal huwa għoli 47 metru (154 pied).]] '''Tikal''' (/tiˈkɑːl/) (''Tik’al'' bl-ortografija moderna tal-[[Maja]]) huwa l-fdal ta' belt antika, li x'aktarx kienet tissejjaħ '''Yax Mutal''', u li tinsab f'foresta tropikali fil-[[Gwatemala]]. Huwa wieħed mill-ikbar siti [[Arkeoloġija|arkeoloġiċi]] u ċentri urbani taċ-ċivilizzazzjoni tal-Maja pre-Kolumbjana. Jinsab fir-reġjun arkeoloġiku tal-Baċir ta' Petén fit-territorju attwali tat-Tramuntana tal-Gwatemala. Is-sit jinsab fid-dipartiment ta' El Petén u huwa parti mill-Park Nazzjonali ta' Tikal. Fl-1979 sar [[Sit ta' Wirt Dinji]] tal-[[UNESCO]].<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/64/|titlu=Tikal National Park|kunjom=Centre|isem=UNESCO World Heritage|sit=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2022-08-14}}</ref> Tikal kien il-[[belt kapitali]] ta' stat ħakkiem li sar wieħed mill-iżjed renji setgħana tal-Maja tal-qedem. Għalkemm l-arkitettura [[Monument|monumentali]] tas-sit tmur lura saħansitra tas-seklu 4 [[Ante Christum natum|Q.K]]., Tikal laħaq il-quċċata tiegħu matul il-Perjodu Klassiku, għall-ħabta tal-200 sad-900. Matul dak iż-żmien, il-belt iddominat il-biċċa l-kbira tar-reġjun tal-Maja [[Politika|politikament]], ekonomikament u militarment, filwaqt li interaġixxiet ma' żoni fil-Mesoamerka kollha, bħall-metropoli l-kbira ta' [[Teotihuacan]] fil-Wied tal-Messiku daqstant 'il bogħod. Hemm evidenza li Tikal inħakem minn Teotihuacan fis-seklu 4 W.K. Wara t-tmiem tal-Perjodu Klassiku Aħħari, ma nbena l-ebda monument maġġuri f'Tikal u hemm evidenza li l-palazzi tal-elit ingħataw in-nar. Dan l-avvenimenti mexew id f'id ma' tnaqqis gradwali fil-popolazzjoni, u laħqu l-qofol tagħhom fl-abbandun tas-sit sal-aħħar tas-seklu 10. Tikal hija l-iżjed belt mifhuma minn kwalunkwe waħda mill-bliet tal-Maja l-kbar fl-artijiet baxxi, b'lista twila ta' mexxejja dinastiċi, bl-iskoperta tal-oqbra ta' bosta mill-mexxejja fuq din il-lista u bl-investigazzjoni tal-monumenti, tat-tempji u tal-palazzi tagħhom. == Etimoloġija == [[Stampa:Tikalemblem.jpg|daqsminuri|Glifiċi emblematiċi ta' isem Tikal]] L-isem ''Tikal'' jaf oriġina minn ''ti ak'al'' fil-lingwa tal-Maja tal-[[Yucatan]]; jingħad li huwa isem relattivament modern li jfisser "f'ġibjun". Milli jidher l-isem ingħata lil wieħed mill-ġibjuni antiki tas-sit mill-kaċċaturi u mill-vjaġġaturi fir-reġjun. Interpretazzjoni oħra tal-isem hi li jfisser "il-post tal-vuċijiet" fil-lingwa tal-Maja ta' Itza. Madankollu, Tikal mhuwiex l-isem antik tas-sit iżda pjuttost l-isem li ġie adottat ftit wara l-iskoperta tas-sit fis-snin 40 tas-seklu 19. Il-kitbiet ġeroglifiċi fil-fdalijiet jirreferu għall-belt antika bħala ''Yax Mutal'' jew ''Yax Mutul'', li tfisser "l-ewwel Mutal". Tikal jaf bdiet tissejjaħ hekk minħabba li Dos Pilas beda juża l-istess glifiċi emblematiċi; il-mexxejja tal-belt x'aktarx li riedu jiddistingwu bejn il-bliet b'dan il-mod. Ir-renju kollu kien jissejjaħ sempliċement ''Mutul'', li huwa l-interpretazzjoni tal-glifiċi emblematiċi tal-"qatta' xagħar" fir-ritratt fuq il-lemin. It-tifsira preċiża għadha mhux ċerta. == Ġeografija == [[Stampa:Mayamap.png|daqsminuri|280x280px|Mappa taż-żona tal-Maja fir-reġjun Mesoamerikan. Kemm Tikal kif ukoll Calakmul jinsabu qrib iċ-ċentru taż-żona.]] The closest large modern settlements are Flores and Santa Elena, approximately 64 kilometers (40 mi) by road to the southwest. Tikal is approximately 303 kilometers (188 mi) north of Guatemala City. It is 19 kilometers (12 mi) south of the contemporary Maya city of Uaxactun and 30 kilometers (19 mi) northwest of Yaxha. The city was located 100 kilometers (62 mi) southeast of its great Classic Period rival, Calakmul, and 85 kilometers (53 mi) northwest of Calakmul's ally Caracol, now in Belize. The city has been completely mapped and covered an area greater than 16 square kilometers (6.2 sq mi) that included about 3,000 structures. The topography of the site consists of a series of parallel limestone ridges rising above swampy lowlands. The major architecture of the site is clustered upon areas of higher ground and linked by raised causeways spanning the swamps. The area around Tikal has been declared as the Tikal National Park and the preserved area covers 570 square kilometers (220 sq mi). It was created on 26 May 1955 under the auspices of the Instituto de Antropología e Historia and was the first protected area in Guatemala. The ruins lie among the tropical rainforests of northern Guatemala that formed the cradle of lowland Maya civilization. The city itself was located among abundant fertile upland soils, and may have dominated a natural east–west trade route across the Yucatan Peninsula. Conspicuous trees at the Tikal park include gigantic kapok (''Ceiba pentandra'') the sacred tree of the Maya; tropical cedar (''Cedrela odorata''), and Honduras mahogany (''Swietenia macrophylla''). Regarding the fauna, agoutis, white-nosed coatis, gray foxes, Geoffroy's spider monkeys, howler monkeys, harpy eagles, falcons, ocellated turkeys, guans, toucans, green parrots and leafcutter ants can be seen there regularly. Jaguars, ocelots, and cougars are also said to roam in the park. Tikal had no water other than what was collected from rainwater and stored in ten reservoirs. Archeologists working in Tikal during the 20th century refurbished one of these ancient reservoirs to store water for their own use. The average annual rainfall at Tikal is 1,945 millimeters (76.6 in). However, the arrival of rain was often unpredictable, and long periods of drought could occur before the crops ripened, which severely threatened the inhabitants of the city. == Popolazzjoni == Population estimates for Tikal vary from 10,000 to as high as 90,000 inhabitants. The population of Tikal began a continuous curve of growth starting in the Preclassic Period (approximately 2000 BC – AD 200), with a peak in the Late Classic with the population growing rapidly from AD 700 through to 830, followed by a sharp decline. For the 120 square kilometers (46 sq mi) area falling within the earthwork defenses of the hinterland, the peak population is estimated at 517 per square kilometer (1340 per square mile). In an area within a 12 kilometers (7.5 mi) radius of the site core, peak population is estimated at 120,000; population density is estimated at 265 per square kilometer (689 per square mile). In a region within a 25 kilometers (16 mi) radius of the site core and including some satellite sites, peak population is estimated at 425,000 with a density of 216 per square kilometer (515 per square mile). These population figures are even more impressive because of the extensive swamplands that were unsuitable for habitation or agriculture. However, some archeologists, such as David Webster, believe these figures to be far too high. == Sit ta' Wirt Dinji == == Storja == === Preklassika === There are traces of early agriculture at the site dating as far back as 1000 BC, in the Middle Preclassic. A cache of Mamon ceramics dating from about 700-400 BC were found in a sealed chultun, a subterranean bottle-shaped chamber. Major construction at Tikal was already taking place in the Late Preclassic period, first appearing around 400–300 BC, including the building of major pyramids and platforms, although the city was still dwarfed by sites further north such as El Mirador and Nakbe. At this time, Tikal participated in the widespread Chikanel culture that dominated the Central and Northern Maya areas at this time – a region that included the entire Yucatan Peninsula including northern and eastern Guatemala and all of Belize. Two temples dating to Late Chikanel times had masonry-walled superstructures that may have been corbel-vaulted, although this has not been proven. One of these had elaborate paintings on the outer walls showing human figures against a scrollwork background, painted in yellow, black, pink and red. In the 1st century AD rich burials first appeared and Tikal underwent a political and cultural florescence as its giant northern neighbors declined. At the end of the Late Preclassic, the Izapan style art and architecture from the Pacific Coast began to influence Tikal, as demonstrated by a broken sculpture from the acropolis and early murals at the city. === Klassika bikrija === Dynastic rulership among the lowland Maya is most deeply rooted at Tikal. According to later hieroglyphic records, the dynasty was founded by Yax Ehb Xook, perhaps in the 1st century AD. At the beginning of the Early Classic, power in the Maya region was concentrated at Tikal and Calakmul, in the core of the Maya heartland. Tikal may have benefited from the collapse of the large Preclassic states such as El Mirador. In the Early Classic Tikal rapidly developed into the most dynamic city in the Maya region, stimulating the development of other nearby Maya cities. The site, however, was often at war and inscriptions tell of alliances and conflict with other Maya states, including Uaxactun, Caracol, Naranjo and Calakmul. The site was defeated at the end of the Early Classic by Caracol, which rose to take Tikal's place as the paramount center in the southern Maya lowlands. The earlier part of the Early Classic saw hostilities between Tikal and its neighbor Uaxactun, with Uaxactun recording the capture of prisoners from Tikal. There appears to have been a breakdown in the male succession by AD 317, when Lady Unen Bahlam conducted a katun-ending ceremony, apparently as queen of the city. ==== Tikal u Teotihuacan ==== The great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico appears to have decisively intervened in Tikal politics. As early as 200 AD Teotihuacan had embassies in Tikal. The fourteenth king of Tikal was Chak Tok Ich'aak (Great Jaguar Paw). Chak Tok Ich'aak built a palace that was preserved and developed by later rulers until it became the core of the Central Acropolis. Little is known about Chak Tok Ich'aak except that he was killed on 14 January 378 AD.^{[''contradictory'']} On the same day, Siyah K’ak' (Fire Is Born) arrived from the west, having passed through El Peru, a site to the west of Tikal, on 8 January. On Stela 31 he is named as "Lord of the West". Siyah K’ak' was probably a foreign general serving a figure represented by a non-Maya hieroglyph of a spearthrower combined with an owl, a glyph that is well known from the great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the distant Valley of Mexico. Spearthrower Owl may even have been the ruler of Teotihuacan. These recorded events strongly suggest that Siyah K’ak' led a Teotihuacan invasion that defeated the native Tikal king, who was captured and immediately executed. Siyah K'ak' appears to have been aided by a powerful political faction at Tikal itself; roughly at the time of the conquest, a group of Teotihuacan natives were apparently residing near the Lost World complex. He also exerted control over other cities in the area, including Uaxactun, where he became king, but did not take the throne of Tikal for himself. Within a year, the son of Spearthrower Owl by the name of Yax Nuun Ayiin I (First Crocodile) had been installed as the fifteenth king of Tikal while he was still a boy, being enthroned on 13 September 379. He reigned for 47 years as king of Tikal, and remained a vassal of Siyah K'ak' for as long as the latter lived. It seems likely that Yax Nuun Ayiin I took a wife from the preexisting, defeated, Tikal dynasty and thus legitimized the right to rule of his son, Siyaj Chan K'awiil II. Río Azul, a small site 100 kilometers (62 mi) northeast of Tikal, was conquered by the latter during the reign of Yax Nuun Ayiin I. The site became an outpost of Tikal, shielding it from hostile cities further north, and also became a trade link to the Caribbean. Although the new rulers of Tikal were foreign, their descendants were rapidly Mayanized. Tikal became the key ally and trading partner of Teotihuacan in the Maya lowlands. After being conquered by Teotihuacan, Tikal rapidly dominated the northern and eastern Peten. Uaxactun, together with smaller towns in the region, were absorbed into Tikal's kingdom. Other sites, such as Bejucal and Motul de San José near Lake Petén Itzá became vassals of their more powerful neighbor to the north. By the middle of the 5th century Tikal had a core territory of at least 25 kilometers (16 mi) in every direction. Around the 5th century an impressive system of fortifications consisting of ditches and earthworks was built along the northern periphery of Tikal's hinterland, joining up with the natural defenses provided by large areas of swampland lying to the east and west of the city. Additional fortifications were probably also built to the south. These defenses protected Tikal's core population and agricultural resources, encircling an area of approximately 120 square kilometers (46 sq mi). Recent research suggests that the earthworks served as a water collection system rather than a defensive purpose. ==== Tikal u Copán ==== In the 5th century the power of the city reached as far south as Copán, whose founder K'inich Yax K'uk' Mo' was clearly connected with Tikal. Copán itself was not in an ethnically Maya region and the founding of the Copán dynasty probably involved the direct intervention of Tikal. K'inich Yax K'uk' Mo' arrived in Copán in December 426 and bone analysis of his remains shows that he passed his childhood and youth at Tikal. An individual known as Ajaw K'uk' Mo' (lord K'uk' Mo') is referred to in an early text at Tikal and may well be the same person. His tomb had Teotihuacan characteristics and he was depicted in later portraits dressed in the warrior garb of Teotihuacan. Hieroglyphic texts refer to him as "Lord of the West", much like Siyah K’ak'. At the same time, in late 426, Copán founded the nearby site of Quiriguá, possibly sponsored by Tikal itself. The founding of these two centers may have been part of an effort to impose Tikal's authority upon the southeastern portion of the Maya region. The interaction between these sites and Tikal was intense over the next three centuries. A long-running rivalry between Tikal and Calakmul began in the 6th century, with each of the two cities forming its own network of mutually hostile alliances arrayed against each other in what has been likened to a long-running war between two Maya superpowers. The kings of these two capitals adopted the title ''kaloomte''', a term that has not been precisely translated but that implies something akin to "high king". The early 6th century saw another queen ruling the city, known only as the "Lady of Tikal", who was very likely a daughter of Chak Tok Ich'aak II. She seems never to have ruled in her own right, rather being partnered with male co-rulers. The first of these was Kaloomte' B'alam, who seems to have had a long career as a general at Tikal before becoming co-ruler and 19th in the dynastic sequence. The Lady of Tikal herself seems not have been counted in the dynastic numbering. It appears she was later paired with lord "Bird Claw", who is presumed to be the otherwise unknown 20th ruler. === Klassika Aħħarija === ==== L-aqwa żmien ta' Tikal ==== In the mid 6th century, Caracol seems to have allied with Calakmul and defeated Tikal, closing the Early Classic. The "Tikal hiatus" refers to a period between the late 6th to late 7th century where there was a lapse in the writing of inscriptions and large-scale construction at Tikal. In the latter half of the 6th century AD, a serious crisis befell the city, with no new stelae being erected and with widespread deliberate mutilation of public sculpture. This hiatus in activity at Tikal was long unexplained until later epigraphic decipherments identified that the period was prompted by Tikal's comprehensive defeat at the hands of Calakmul and the Caracol polity in AD 562, a defeat that seems to have resulted in the capture and sacrifice of the king of Tikal. The badly eroded Altar 21 at Caracol described how Tikal suffered this disastrous defeat in a major war in April 562. It seems that Caracol was an ally of Calakmul in the wider conflict between that city and Tikal, with the defeat of Tikal having a lasting impact upon the city. Tikal was not sacked but its power and influence were broken. After its great victory, Caracol grew rapidly and some of Tikal's population may have been forcibly relocated there. During the hiatus period, at least one ruler of Tikal took refuge with Janaab' Pakal of Palenque, another of Calakmul's victims. Calakmul itself thrived during Tikal's long hiatus period. The beginning of the Tikal hiatus has served as a marker by which archeologists commonly subdivide the Classic period of Mesoamerican chronology into the Early and Late Classic. ==== Tikal u Dos Pilas ==== In 629 Tikal founded Dos Pilas, some 110 kilometers (68 mi) to the southwest, as a military outpost in order to control trade along the course of the Pasión River. B'alaj Chan K'awiil was installed on the throne of the new outpost at the age of four, in 635. When he was older, for many years he served as a loyal vassal fighting for his brother, the king of Tikal. Roughly twenty years later, Dos Pilas was attacked by Calakmul and was soundly defeated. B'alaj Chan K'awiil was captured by the king of Calakmul but, instead of being sacrificed, he was re-instated on his throne as a vassal of his former enemy. He attacked Tikal in 657, forcing Nuun Ujol Chaak, then king of Tikal, to temporarily abandon the city. The first two rulers of Dos Pilas continued to use the Mutal emblem glyph of Tikal, and they probably felt that they had a legitimate claim to the throne of Tikal itself. For some reason, B'alaj Chan K'awiil was not installed as the new ruler of Tikal; instead he stayed at Dos Pilas. Tikal counterattacked against Dos Pilas in 672, driving B'alaj Chan K'awiil into an exile that lasted five years. Calakmul tried to encircle Tikal within an area dominated by its allies, such as El Peru, Dos Pilas, and Caracol. In 682, Jasaw Chan K'awiil I erected the first dated monument at Tikal in 120 years and claimed the title of ''kaloomte''', so ending the hiatus. He initiated a program of new construction and turned the tables on Calakmul when, in 695, he captured the enemy noble and threw the enemy state into a long decline from which it never fully recovered. After this, Calakmul never again erected a monument celebrating a military victory. ==== Tikal wara Teotihuacan ==== By the 7th century, there was no active Teotihuacan presence at any Maya site and the center of Teotihuacan had been razed by 700. Even after this, formal war attire illustrated on monuments was Teotihuacan style. Jasaw Chan K'awiil I and his heir Yik'in Chan K'awiil continued hostilities against Calakmul and its allies and imposed firm regional control over the area around Tikal, extending as far as the territory around Lake Petén Itzá. These two rulers were responsible for much of the impressive architecture visible today. In 738, Quiriguá, a vassal of Copán, Tikal's key ally in the south, switched allegiance to Calakmul, defeated Copán and gained its own independence. It appears that this was a conscious effort on the part of Calakmul to bring about the collapse of Tikal's southern allies. This upset the balance of power in the southern Maya area and lead to a steady decline in the fortunes of Copán. In the 8th century, the rulers of Tikal collected monuments from across the city and erected them in front of the North Acropolis. By the late 8th century and early 9th century, activity at Tikal slowed. Impressive architecture was still built but few hieroglyphic inscriptions refer to later rulers. === Klassika Terminali === By the 9th century, the crisis of the Classic Maya collapse was sweeping across the region, with populations plummeting and city after city falling into silence. Increasingly endemic warfare in the Maya region caused Tikal's supporting population to heavily concentrate close to the city itself, accelerating the use of intensive agriculture and the corresponding environmental decline. Construction continued at the beginning of the century, with the erection of Temple 3, the last of the city's major pyramids, and the erection of monuments to mark the 19th K'atun in 810. The beginning of the 10th Bak'tun in 830 passed uncelebrated, and marks the beginning of a 60-year hiatus, probably resulting from the collapse of central control in the city. During this hiatus, satellite sites traditionally under Tikal's control began to erect their own monuments featuring local rulers and using the Mutal emblem glyph, with Tikal apparently lacking the authority or the power to crush these bids for independence. In 849, Jewel K'awiil is mentioned on a stela at Seibal as visiting that city as the Divine Lord of Tikal but he is not recorded elsewhere and Tikal's once-great power was little more than a memory. The sites of Ixlu and Jimbal had by now inherited the once exclusive Mutal emblem glyph. As Tikal and its hinterland reached peak population, the area suffered deforestation, erosion and nutrient loss followed by a rapid decline in population levels. Recent analysis also indicates that the city's freshwater sources became highly contaminated with mercury, phosphate and cyanobacteria leading to the accumulation of toxins. Tikal and its immediate surroundings seem to have lost most of their population between 830 and 950 and central authority seems to have collapsed rapidly. There is not much evidence from Tikal that the city was directly affected by the endemic warfare that afflicted parts of the Maya region during the Terminal Classic, although an influx of refugees from the Petexbatún region may have exacerbated problems resulting from the already stretched environmental resources. The site core seen from the south, with Temple I at center, the North Acropolis to the left and Central Acropolis to the right In the latter half of the 9th century there was an attempt to revive royal power at the much-diminished city of Tikal, as evidenced by a stela erected in the Great Plaza by Jasaw Chan K'awiil II in 869. This was the last monument erected at Tikal before the city finally fell into silence. The former satellites of Tikal, such as Jimbal and Uaxactun, did not last much longer, erecting their final monuments in 889. By the end of the 9th century the vast majority of Tikal's population had deserted the city, its royal palaces were occupied by squatters and simple thatched dwellings were being erected in the city's ceremonial plazas. The squatters blocked some doorways in the rooms they reoccupied in the monumental structures of the site and left rubbish that included a mixture of domestic refuse and non-utilitarian items such as musical instruments. These inhabitants reused the earlier monuments for their own ritual activities, far removed from those of the royal dynasty that had erected them. Some monuments were vandalized and some were moved to new locations. Before its final abandonment all respect for the old rulers had disappeared, with the tombs of the North Acropolis being explored for jade and the easier-to-find tombs were looted. After 950, Tikal was all but deserted, although a remnant population may have survived in perishable huts interspersed among the ruins. Even these final inhabitants abandoned the city in the 10th or 11th centuries and the rainforest claimed the ruins for the next thousand years. Some of Tikal's population may have migrated to the Peten Lakes region, which remained heavily populated in spite of a plunge in population levels in the first half of the 9th century. The most likely cause of collapse at Tikal is overpopulation and agrarian failure. The fall of Tikal was a blow to the heart of Classic Maya civilization, the city having been at the forefront of courtly life, art and architecture for over a thousand years, with an ancient ruling dynasty. However, new research regarding paleoenvironmental proxies from the Tikal reservoir system suggests that a meteorological drought may have led to the abandonment of Tikal, fouling some reservoirs near the temple and palace with algae blooms, while other reservoirs remained drinkable. Buildings were painted with mercury-bearing cinnabar, which were washed off by rain and polluted some reservoirs. Works of Kohler and colleagues showed that this city reached an unsustainable level of inequalities at the end.^{[''clarification needed'']} === Moderna === Archeologist Edwin M. Shook, field director of the Tikal Project; Shook was also instrumental in having Tikal established as Guatemala's first National Park. In 1525, the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés passed within a few kilometers of the ruins of Tikal but did not mention them in his letters. After Spanish friar Andrés de Avendaño became lost in the Petén forests in early 1696 he described a ruin that may well have been Tikal. As is often the case with huge ancient ruins, knowledge of the site was never completely lost in the region. It seems that local people never forgot about Tikal and they guided Guatemalan expeditions to the ruins in the 1850s. Some second- or third-hand accounts of Tikal appeared in print starting in the 17th century, continuing through the writings of John Lloyd Stephens in the early 19th century (Stephens and his illustrator Frederick Catherwood heard rumors of a lost city, with white building tops towering above the jungle, during their 1839–40 travels in the region). Because of the site's remoteness from modern towns, however, no explorers visited Tikal until Modesto Méndez and Ambrosio Tut, respectively the commissioner and the governor of Petén, visited it in 1848. Artist Eusebio Lara accompanied them and their account was published in Germany in 1853. Several other expeditions came to further investigate, map, and photograph Tikal in the 19th century (including Alfred P. Maudslay in 1881-82) and the early 20th century. Pioneering archeologists started to clear, map and record the ruins in the 1880s. In 1951, a small airstrip was built at the ruins, which previously could only be reached by several days' travel through the jungle on foot or mule. In 1956 the Tikal project began to map the city on a scale not previously seen in the Maya area. From 1956 through 1970, major archeological excavations were carried out by the University of Pennsylvania Tikal Project. They mapped much of the site and excavated and restored many of the structures. Excavations directed by Edwin M. Shook and later by William Coe of the university investigated the North Acropolis and the Central Plaza from 1957 to 1969. The Tikal Project recorded over 200 monuments at the site. In 1979, the Guatemalan government began a further archeological project at Tikal, which continued through to 1984. Filmmaker George Lucas used Tikal as a filming location for the fictional moon Yavin 4 in the first ''Star Wars'' film, ''Episode IV: A New Hope'', which premiered in 1977. Temple I at Tikal was featured on the reverse of the 50 centavo banknote. Eon Productions used the site for the James Bond film ''Moonraker''. Tikal is now a major tourist attraction surrounded by its own national park. A site museum has been built at Tikal; it was completed in 1964. == Deskrizzjoni tas-sit == Tikal has been partially restored by the University of Pennsylvania and the government of Guatemala. It was one of the largest of the Classic period Maya cities and was one of the largest cities in the Americas. The architecture of the ancient city is built from limestone and includes the remains of temples that tower over 70 meters (230 ft) high, large royal palaces, in addition to a number of smaller pyramids, palaces, residences, administrative buildings, platforms and inscribed stone monuments. There is even a building which seemed to have been a jail, originally with wooden bars across the windows and doors. There are also seven courts for playing the Mesoamerican ballgame, including a set of 3 in the Seven Temples Plaza, a unique feature in Mesoamerica. The limestone used for construction was local and quarried on-site. The depressions formed by the extraction of stone for building were plastered to waterproof them and were used as reservoirs, together with some waterproofed natural depressions. The main plazas were surfaced with stucco and laid at a gradient that channelled rainfall into a system of canals that fed the reservoirs. The residential area of Tikal covers an estimated 60 square kilometers (23 sq mi), much of which has not yet been cleared, mapped, or excavated. The 16 square kilometers (6.2 sq mi) area around the site core has been intensively mapped; it may have enclosed an area of some 125 square kilometers (48 sq mi) (see below). A huge set of earthworks discovered by Dennis E. Puleston and Donald Callender in the 1960s rings Tikal with a 6-meter (20 ft) wide trench behind a rampart. Recently, a project exploring the defensive earthworks has shown that the scale of the earthworks is highly variable and that in many places it is inconsequential as a defensive feature. In addition, some parts of the earthwork were integrated into a canal system. The earthwork of Tikal varies significantly in coverage from what was originally proposed and it is much more complex and multifaceted than originally thought. === Toroq === By the Late Classic, a network of ''sacbeob'' (causeways) linked various parts of the city, running for several kilometers through its urban core. These linked the Great Plaza with Temple 4 (located about 750 meters (2,460 feet) to the west) and the Temple of the Inscriptions (about 1 kilometer (0.62 mi) to the southeast). These broad causeways were built of packed and plastered limestone and have been named after early explorers and archeologists; the Maler, Maudslay, Tozzer and Méndez causeways. They assisted the passage of everyday traffic during the rain season and also served as dams. The '''Maler Causeway''' runs north from behind Temple I to Group H. A large bas-relief is carved onto limestone bedrock upon the course of the causeway just south of Group H. It depicts two bound captives and dates to the Late Classic. The '''Maudsley Causeway''' runs 0.8 kilometers (0.50 mi) northeast from Temple IV to Group H. The '''Mendez Causeway''' runs southeast from the East Plaza to Temple VI, a distance of about 1.3 kilometers (0.81 mi). The '''Tozzer Causeway''' runs west from the Great Plaza to Temple IV. === Gruppi arkitettoniċi === The '''Great Plaza''' lies at the core of the site; it is flanked on the east and west sides by two great temple-pyramids. On the north side it is bordered by the North Acropolis and on the south by the Central Acropolis. The '''Central Acropolis''' is a palace complex just south of the Great Plaza. The '''North Acropolis''', together with the Great Plaza immediately to the south, is one of the most studied architectural groups in the Maya area; the Tikal Project excavated a massive trench across the complex, thoroughly investigating its construction history. It is a complex group with construction beginning in the Preclassic Period, around 350 BC. It developed into a funerary complex for the ruling dynasty of the Classic Period, with each additional royal burial adding new temples on top of the older structures. After AD 400 a row of tall pyramids was added to the earlier Northern Platform, which measured 100 by 80 meters (330 by 260 ft), gradually hiding it from view. Eight temple pyramids were built in the 6th century AD, each of them had an elaborate roofcomb and a stairway flanked by masks of the gods. By the 9th century AD, 43 stelae and 30 altars had been erected in the North Acropolis; 18 of these monuments were carved with hieroglyphic texts and royal portraits. The North Acropolis continued to receive burials into the Postclassic Period. The '''South Acropolis''' is found next to Temple V. It was built upon a large basal platform that covers an area of more than 20,000 square meters (220,000 sq ft). The '''Plaza of the Seven Temples''' is to the west of the South Acropolis. It is bordered on the east side by a row of nearly identical temples, by palaces on the south and west sides and by an unusual triple ballcourt on the north side. The '''Mundo Perdido''' is to the west of the Plaza of the Seven Temples. It is the largest ceremonial complex dating from the Preclassic period at Tikal. The complex was organized as a large E-Group consisting of a pyramid aligned with a platform to the east that supported three temples. The Mundo Perdido complex was rebuilt many times over the course of its history. By AD 250–300 its architectural style was influenced by the great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico, including the use of the ''talud-tablero'' form. During the Early Classic period (c. 250–600) the Mundo Perdido became one of the twin foci of the city, the other being the North Acropolis. From AD 250 to 378 it may have served as the royal necropolis. The Mundo Perdido complex was given its name by the archeologists of the University of Pennsylvania; it is centered upon the Lost World Pyramid and a small platform to the west of it. To the south of Mundo Perdido, recent 2021 excavations have revealed a one-third size replication of La Ciudadela, or The Citadel, in Teotihuacan. This area may have been used as a diplomatic headquarters and as an effort to further stamp Teotihuacan culture upon the residents of Tikal. '''Group G''' lies just south of the Mendez Causeway. The complex dates to the Late Classic and consists of palace-type structures and is one of the largest groups of its type at Tikal. It has two stories but most of the rooms are on the lower floor, a total of 29 vaulted chambers. The remains of two further chambers belong to the upper story. One of the entrances to the group was framed by a gigantic mask. '''Group H''' is centered on a large plaza to the north of the Great Plaza. It is bordered by temples dating to the Late Classic. There are nine '''Twin-Pyramid Complexes''' at Tikal, one of which was completely dismantled in ancient times and some others were partly destroyed. They vary in size but consist of two pyramids facing each other on an east–west axis. These pyramids are flat-topped and have stairways on all four sides. A row of plain stelae is placed immediately to the west of the eastern pyramid and to the north of the pyramids. Lying roughly equidistant from them, there is usually a sculpted stela and altar pair. On the south side of these complexes there is a long vaulted building containing a single room with nine doorways. The entire complex was built at once and these complexes were built at 20-year (or ''k'atun'') intervals during the Late Classic. The first twin pyramid complex was built in the early 6th century in the East Plaza. It was once thought that these complexes were unique to Tikal but rare examples have now been found at other sites, such as Yaxha and Ixlu, and they may reflect the extent of Tikal's political dominance in the Late Classic. '''Group Q''' is a twin-pyramid complex, and is one of the largest at Tikal. It was built by Yax Nuun Ayiin II in 771 in order to mark the end of the 17th K'atun. Most of it has been restored and its monuments have been re-erected. '''Group R''' is another twin-pyramid complex, dated to 790. It is close to the Maler Causeway. === Strutturi === There are thousands of ancient structures at Tikal and only a fraction of these have been excavated, after decades of archeological work. The most prominent surviving buildings include six very large pyramids, labelled Temples I – VI, each of which support a temple structure on their summits. Some of these pyramids are over 60 meters (200 feet) high. They were numbered sequentially during the early survey of the site. It is estimated that each of these major temples could have been built in as little as two years. '''Temple I''' (also known as the ''Temple of Ah Cacao'' or ''Temple of the Great Jaguar'') is a funerary pyramid dedicated to Jasaw Chan K'awil, who was entombed in the structure in AD 734, the pyramid was completed around 740–750. The temple rises 47 meters (154 ft) high. The massive roofcomb that topped the temple was originally decorated with a giant sculpture of the enthroned king, although little of this decoration survives. The tomb of the king was discovered by Aubrey Trik of the University of Pennsylvania in 1962. Among items recovered from the Late Classic tomb were a large collection of inscribed human and animal bone tubes and strips with sophisticated scenes depicting deities and people, finely carved and rubbed with vermilion, as well as jade and shell ornaments and ceramic vessels filled with offerings of food and drink. The shrine at the summit of the pyramid has three chambers, each behind the next, with the doorways spanned by wooden lintels fashioned from multiple beams. The outermost lintel is plain but the two inner lintels were carved, some of the beams were removed in the 19th century and their location is unknown, while others were taken to museums in Europe. '''Temple II''' (also known as the ''Temple of the Mask'') it was built around AD 700 and stands 38 meters (125 ft) high. Like other major temples at Tikal, the summit shrine had three consecutive chambers with the doorways spanned by wooden lintels, only the middle of which was carved. The temple was dedicated to the wife of Jasaw Chan K'awil, although no tomb was found. The queen's portrait was carved into the lintel spanning the doorway of the summit shrine. One of the beams from this lintel is now in the American Museum of Natural History in New York City. '''Temple III''' (also known as the ''Temple of the Jaguar Priest'') was the last of the great pyramids to be built at Tikal. It stood 55 meters (180 ft) tall and contained an elaborately sculpted but damaged roof lintel, possibly showing Dark Sun engaged in a ritual dance around AD 810. The temple shrine possesses two chambers. '''Temple IV''' is the tallest temple-pyramid at Tikal, measuring 70 meters (230 ft) from the plaza floor level to the top of its roof comb. Temple IV marks the reign of Yik’in Chan Kawil (Ruler B, the son of Ruler A or Jasaw Chan K'awiil I) and two carved wooden lintels over the doorway that leads into the temple on the pyramid's summit record a long count date (9.15.10.0.0) that corresponds to CE 741 (Sharer 1994:169). Temple IV is the largest pyramid built anywhere in the Maya region in the 8th century, and as it currently stands is the tallest pre-Columbian structure in the Americas although the Pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacan may originally have been taller, as may have been one of the structures at El Mirador. '''Temple V''' stands south of the Central Acropolis and is the mortuary pyramid of an as yet unidentified ruler. The temple stands 57 meters (187 ft) high, making it the second tallest structure at Tikal – only Temple IV is taller. The temple has been dated to about AD 700, in the Late Classic period, via radiocarbon analysis and the dating of ceramics associated with the structure places its construction during the reign of Nun Bak Chak in the second half of the 7th century. '''Temple VI''' is also known as the ''Temple of the Inscriptions'' and was dedicated in AD 766. It is notable for its 12-meter (39 ft) high roof-comb. Panels of hieroglyphs cover the back and sides of the roof-comb. The temple faces onto a plaza to the west and its front is unrestored. '''Temple 33''' was a funerary pyramid erected over the tomb of Siyaj Chan K'awiil I (known as Burial 48) in the North Acropolis. It started life in the Early Classic as a wide basal platform decorated with large stucco masks that flanked the stairway. Later in the Early Classic a new superstructure was added, with its own masks and decorated panels. During the Hiatus a third stage was built over the earlier constructions, the stairway was demolished and another royal burial, of an unidentified ruler, was set into the structure (Burial 23). While the new pyramid was being built another high ranking tomb (Burial 24) was inserted into the rubble core of the building. The pyramid was then completed, standing 33 meters (108 ft) tall. The final version of Temple 33 was completely dismantled by archeologists in 1965 in order to arrive at the earlier stages of construction. '''Structure 34''' is a pyramid in the North Acropolis that was built by Siyaj Chan K'awiil II over the tomb of his father, Yax Nuun Ayiin I. The pyramid was topped by a three chambered shrine, the rooms situated one behind the other. Detail of Teotihuacan-related imagery decorating the sloping ''talud'' sections of the ''talud-tablero'' sides of Structure 5D-43. '''Structure 5D-43''' is an unusual radial temple in the East Plaza, built over a pre-existing twin pyramid complex. It is built into the end of the East Plaza Ballcourt and possessed four entry doorways and three stairways, the fourth (south) side was too close to the Central Acropolis for a stairway on that side. The building has a ''talud-tablero'' platform profile, modified from the original style found at Teotihuacan. In fact, it has been suggested that the style of the building has closer affinities with El Tajin and Xochicalco than with Teotihuacan itself. The vertical ''tablero'' panels are set between sloping ''talud'' panels and are decorated with paired disc symbols. Large flower symbols are set into the sloping ''talud'' panels, related to the Venus and star symbols used at Teotihuacan. The roof of the structure was decorated with friezes although only fragments now remain, showing a monstrous face, perhaps that of a jaguar, with another head emerging from the mouth. The second head possesses a bifurcated tongue but is probably not that of a snake. The temple, and its associated ballcourt, probably date to the reign of Nuun Ujol Chaak or that of his son Jasaw Chan K'awiil I, in the later part of the 7th century. '''Structure 5C-49''' possesses a clear Teotihuacan-linked architectural style; it has balustrades, an architectural feature that is very rare in the Maya region, and a ''talud-tablero'' façade; it dates to the 4th century AD. It is located near to the Lost World pyramid. '''Structure 5C-53''' is a small Teotihuacan-style platform that dates to about AD 600. It had stairways on all four sides and did not possess a superstructure. The '''Lost World Pyramid''' (Structure 5C-54) is the largest structure in the Mundo Perdido complex. It lies in the southwest portion of Tikal's central core, south of Temple III and west of Temple V. It was decorated with stucco masks of the sun god and dates to the Late Preclassic; this pyramid is part of an enclosed complex of structures that remained intact and un-impacted by later building activity at Tikal. By the end of the Late Preclassic this pyramid was one of the largest structures in the Maya region. It attained its final form during the reign of Chak Tok Ich'aak in the 4th century AD, in the Early Classic, standing more than 30 meters (98 ft) high with stairways on all four sides and a flat top that possibly supported a superstructure built from perishable materials. Although the plaza later suffered significant alteration, the organization of a group of temples on the east side of this complex adheres to the layout that defines the so-called E-Groups, identified as solar observatories. '''Structure 5D-96''' is the central temple on the east side of the Plaza of the Seven Temples. It has been restored and its rear outer wall is decorated with skull-and-crossbones motifs. '''Group 6C-16''' is an elite residential complex that has been thoroughly excavated. It lies a few hundred m south of the Lost World Complex and the excavations have revealed elaborate stucco masks, ballplayer murals, relief sculptures and buildings with Teotihuacan characteristics. The '''Great Plaza Ballcourt''' is a small ballcourt that lies between Temple I and the Central Acropolis. The '''Bat Palace''' is also known as the Palace of Windows and lies to the west of Temple III. It has two storeys, with a double range of chambers on the lower storey and a single range in the upper storey, which has been restored. The palace has ancient graffiti and possesses low windows. '''Complex N''' lies to the west of the Bat Palace and Temple III. The complex dates to AD 711. In 2018, 60,000 uncharted structures were revealed by archeologists with help of Lidar. Thanks to the new findings, some archeologists believe that 7-11 million Maya people inhabited in the northern Guatemala during the late classical period from 650 to 800 A.D. Lidar digitally removed the tree canopy to reveal ancient remains and showed that Maya cities like Tikal were bigger than previously thought. The project was mapped near the Maya Biosphere Reserve in the Petén region of Guatemala. === Altars[edit] === '''Altar 5''' is carved with two nobles, one of whom is probably Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. They are performing a ritual using the bones of an important woman. Altar 5 was found in Complex N, which lies to the west of Temple III. '''Altar 8''' is sculpted with a bound captive. It was found within Complex P in Group H and is now in the Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología in Guatemala City. '''Altar 9''' is associated with Stela 21 and bears the sculpture of a bound captive. It is located in front of Temple VI. '''Altar 10''' is carved with a captive tied to a scaffold. It is in the northern enclosure of Group Q, a twin-pyramid complex and has suffered from erosion. '''Altar 35''' is a plain monument associated with Stela 43. The stela-altar pair is centrally located at the base of the stairway of Temple IV. === Lintels === The elaborately carved wooden Lintel 3 from Temple IV. It celebrates a military victory by Yik'in Chan K'awiil in 743. At Tikal, beams of sapodilla wood were placed as lintels spanning the inner doorways of temples. These are the most elaborately carved wooden lintels to have survived anywhere in the Maya region. '''Lintel 3''' from Temple IV was taken to Basel in Switzerland in the 19th century. It was in almost perfect condition and depicts Yik'in Chan K'awiil seated on a palanquin. === Steli === Stelae are carved stone shafts, often sculpted with figures and hieroglyphs. A selection of the most notable stelae at Tikal follows: '''Stela 1''' dates to the 5th century and depicts the king Siyaj Chan K'awiil II in a standing position. '''Stela 4''' is dated to AD 396, during the reign of Yax Nuun Ayiin after the intrusion of Teotihuacan in the Maya area. The stela displays a mix of Maya and Teotihuacan qualities, and deities from both cultures. It has a portrait of the king with the Underworld Jaguar God under one arm and the Mexican Tlaloc under the other. His helmet is a simplified version of the Teotihuacan War Serpent. Unusually for Maya sculpture, but typically for Teotihuacan, Yax Nuun Ayiin is depicted with a frontal face, rather than in profile. '''Stela 5''' was dedicated in 744 by Yik'in Chan K'awiil. '''Stela 6''' is a badly damaged monument dating to 514 and bears the name of the "Lady of Tikal" who celebrated the end of the 4th K'atun in that year. '''Stela 10''' is twinned with Stela 12 but is badly damaged. It described the accession of Kaloomte' B'alam in the early 6th century and earlier events in his career, including the capture of a prisoner depicted on the monument. '''Stela 11''' was the last monument ever erected at Tikal; it was dedicated in 869 by Jasaw Chan K'awiil II. '''Stela 12''' is linked to the queen known as the "Lady of Tikal" and king Kaloomte' B'alam. The queen is described as performing the year-ending rituals but the monument was dedicated in honor of the king. '''Stela 16''' was dedicated in 711, during the reign of Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. The sculpture, including a portrait of the king and a hieroglyphic text, are limited to the front face of the monument. It was found in Complex N, west of Temple III. '''Stela 18''' was one of two stelae erected by Yax Nuun Ayiin I to celebrate the ''k'atun''-ending of AD 396. It was re-erected at the base of Temple 34, his funerary shrine. '''Stela 19''' was dedicated in 790 by Yax Nuun Ayiin II. '''Stela 20''' was found in Complex P, in Group H, and was moved to the Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología in Guatemala City. '''Stela 21''' was dedicated in 736 by Yik'in Chan K'awiil. Only the bottom of the stela is intact, the rest having been mutilated in ancient times. The surviving sculpture is of fine quality, consisting of the feet of a figure and of accompanying hieroglyphic text. The stela is associated with Altar 9 and is located in front of Temple VI. '''Stela 22''' was dedicated in 771 by Yax Nuun Ayiin II in the northern enclosure of Group Q, a twin-pyramid complex. The face of the figure on the stela has been mutilated. '''Stela 23''' was broken in antiquity and was re-erected in a residential complex. The defaced portrait on the monument is that of the so-called "Lady of Tikal", a daughter of Chak Tok Ich'aak II who became queen at the age of six but never ruled in her own right, being paired with male co-rulers. It dates to the early 6th century. '''Stela 24''' was erected at the foot of Temple 3 in 810, accompanied by Altar 7. Both were broken into fragments in ancient times, although the name of Dark Sun survives on three fragments. '''Stela 26''' was found in the summit shrine of Temple 34, underneath a broken masonry altar. The monument had originally been erected at the base of the temple during the Early Classic period and was later broken, probably at the beginning of the Late Classic. Its remains were then interred within the temple shrine. '''Stela 29''' bears a Long Count (8.12.14.8.15) date equivalent to AD 292, the earliest surviving Long Count date from the Maya lowlands. The stela is also the earliest monument to bear the Tikal emblem glyph. It bears a sculpture of the king facing to the right, holding the head of an underworld jaguar god, one of the patron deities of the city. The stela was deliberately smashed during the 6th century or some time later, the upper portion was dragged away and dumped in a rubbish tip close to Temple III, to be uncovered by archeologists in 1959. '''Stela 30''' is the first surviving monument to be erected after the Hiatus. Its style and iconography is similar to that of Caracol, one of the more important of Tikal's enemies. Stela 31, with the sculpted image of Siyaj Chan K'awiil II '''Stela 31''' is the accession monument of Siyaj Chan K'awiil II, also bearing two portraits of his father, Yax Nuun Ayiin, as a youth dressed as a Teotihuacan warrior. He carries a spearthrower in one hand and bears a shield decorated with the face of Tlaloc, the Teotihuacan war god. In ancient times the sculpture was broken and the upper portion was moved to the summit of Temple 33 and ritually buried. Stela 31 has been described as the greatest Early Classic sculpture to survive at Tikal. A long hieroglyphic text is carved onto the back of the monument, the longest to survive from the Early Classic, which describes the arrival of Siyah K'ak' at El Peru and Tikal in January 378. It was also the first stela at Tikal to be carved on all four faces. '''Stela 32''' is a fragmented monument with a foreign Teotihuacan-style sculpture apparently depicting the lord of that city with the attributes of the central Mexican storm god Tlaloc, including his goggle eyes and tasselled headdress. '''Stela 39''' is a broken monument that was erected in the Lost World complex. The upper portion of the stela is missing but the lower portion shows the lower body and legs of Chak Tok Ich'aak, holding a flint axe in his left hand. He is trampling the figure of a bound, richly dressed captive. The monument is dated to AD 376. The text on the back of the monument describes a bloodletting ritual to celebrate a Katun-ending. The stela also names Chak Tok Ich'aak I's father as K'inich Muwaan Jol. '''Stela 40''' bears a portrait of Kan Chitam and dates to AD 468. '''Stela 43''' is paired with Altar 35. It is a plain monument at the base of the stairway of Temple IV. === Oqbra === A ceramic censer representing an elderly deity, found in Burial 10. '''Burial 1''' is a tomb in the Lost World complex. A fine ceramic bowl was recovered from the tomb, with the handle formed from three-dimensional head and neck of a bird emerging from the two-dimensional body painted on the lid. '''Burial 10''' is the tomb of Yax Nuun Ayiin. It is located beneath Structure 34 in the North Acropolis. The tomb contained a rich array of offerings, including ceramic vessels and food, and nine youths were sacrificed to accompany the dead king. A dog was also entombed with the deceased king. Pots in the tomb were stuccoed and painted and many demonstrated a blend of Maya and Teotihuacan styles. Among the offerings was an incense-burner in the shape of an elderly underworld god, sitting on a stool made of human bones and holding a severed head in his hands. The tomb was sealed with a corbel vault, then the pyramid was built on top. '''Burial 48''' is generally accepted as the tomb of Sihyaj Chan Kʼawiil II. It is located beneath Temple 33 in the North Acropolis. The chamber of the tomb was cut from the bedrock and contained the remains of the king himself together with those of two adolescents who had been sacrificed in order to accompany the deceased ruler. The walls of the tomb were covered with white stucco painted with hieroglyphs that included the Long Count date equivalent to 20 March 457, probably the date of either the death or interment of the king. The king's skeleton was missing its skull, its femurs and one of its hands while the skeletons of the sacrificial victims were intact. '''Burial 85''' dates to the Late Preclassic and was enclosed by a platform, with a primitive corbel vault. The tomb contained a single male skeleton, which lacked a skull and its thighbones. The dynastic founder of Tikal, Yax Ehb' Xook, has been linked to this tomb, which lies deep in the heart of the North Acropolis. The deceased had probably died in battle with his body being mutilated by his enemies before being recovered and interred by his followers. The bones were wrapped carefully in textiles to form an upright bundle. The missing head was replaced by a small greenstone mask with shell-inlaid teeth and eyes and bearing a three-pointed royal headband. This head wears an emblem of rulership on its forehead and is a rare Preclassic lowland Maya portrait of a king. Among the contents of the tomb were a stingray spine, a spondylus shell and twenty-six ceramic vessels. '''Burial 116''' is the tomb of Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. It is a large vaulted chamber deep within the pyramid, below the level of the Great Plaza. The tomb contained rich offerings of jadeite, ceramics, shell and works of art. The body of the king was covered with large quantities of jade ornaments including an enormous necklace with especially large beads, as depicted in sculpted portraits of the king. One of the outstanding pieces recovered from the tomb was an ornate jade mosaic vessel with the lid bearing a sculpted portrait of the king himself. '''Burial 195''' was flooded with mud in antiquity. This flood had covered wooden objects that had completely rotted away by the time the tomb was excavated, leaving hollows in the dried mud. Archeologists filled these hollows with stucco and thus excavated four effigies of the god K'awiil, the wooden originals long gone. '''Burial 196''' is a Late Classic royal tomb that contained a jade mosaic vessel topped with the head of the Maize God. == Referenzi == 68o1vv0w5fbjeufk1a5gplfsfzh5c85 279079 279078 2022-08-14T14:30:22Z Trigcly 17859 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Stampa:Tikal Temple1 2006 08 11.JPG|daqsminuri|It-Tempju I ta' Tikal huwa għoli 47 metru (154 pied).]] '''Tikal''' (/tiˈkɑːl/; ''Tik’al'' bl-ortografija moderna tal-[[Maja]]) huwa l-fdal ta' belt antika, li x'aktarx kienet tissejjaħ '''Yax Mutal''', u li tinsab f'foresta tropikali fil-[[Gwatemala]]. Huwa wieħed mill-ikbar siti [[Arkeoloġija|arkeoloġiċi]] u ċentri urbani taċ-ċivilizzazzjoni tal-Maja pre-Kolumbjana. Jinsab fir-reġjun arkeoloġiku tal-Baċir ta' Petén fit-territorju attwali tat-Tramuntana tal-Gwatemala. Is-sit jinsab fid-dipartiment ta' El Petén u huwa parti mill-Park Nazzjonali ta' Tikal. Fl-1979 sar [[Sit ta' Wirt Dinji]] tal-[[UNESCO]].<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/64/|titlu=Tikal National Park|kunjom=Centre|isem=UNESCO World Heritage|sit=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2022-08-14}}</ref> Tikal kien il-[[belt kapitali]] ta' stat ħakkiem li sar wieħed mill-iżjed renji setgħana tal-Maja tal-qedem. Għalkemm l-arkitettura [[Monument|monumentali]] tas-sit tmur lura saħansitra tas-seklu 4 [[Ante Christum natum|Q.K]]., Tikal laħaq il-quċċata tiegħu matul il-Perjodu Klassiku, għall-ħabta tal-200 sad-900. Matul dak iż-żmien, il-belt iddominat il-biċċa l-kbira tar-reġjun tal-Maja [[Politika|politikament]], ekonomikament u militarment, filwaqt li interaġixxiet ma' żoni fil-Mesoamerka kollha, bħall-metropoli l-kbira ta' [[Teotihuacan]] fil-Wied tal-Messiku daqstant 'il bogħod. Hemm evidenza li Tikal inħakem minn Teotihuacan fis-seklu 4 W.K. Wara t-tmiem tal-Perjodu Klassiku Aħħari, ma nbena l-ebda monument maġġuri f'Tikal u hemm evidenza li l-palazzi tal-elit ingħataw in-nar. Dan l-avvenimenti mexew id f'id ma' tnaqqis gradwali fil-popolazzjoni, u laħqu l-qofol tagħhom fl-abbandun tas-sit sal-aħħar tas-seklu 10. Tikal hija l-iżjed belt mifhuma minn kwalunkwe waħda mill-bliet tal-Maja l-kbar fl-artijiet baxxi, b'lista twila ta' mexxejja dinastiċi, bl-iskoperta tal-oqbra ta' bosta mill-mexxejja fuq din il-lista u bl-investigazzjoni tal-monumenti, tat-tempji u tal-palazzi tagħhom. == Etimoloġija == [[Stampa:Tikalemblem.jpg|daqsminuri|Glifiċi emblematiċi ta' isem Tikal]] L-isem ''Tikal'' jaf oriġina minn ''ti ak'al'' fil-lingwa tal-Maja tal-[[Yucatan]]; jingħad li huwa isem relattivament modern li jfisser "f'ġibjun". Milli jidher l-isem ingħata lil wieħed mill-ġibjuni antiki tas-sit mill-kaċċaturi u mill-vjaġġaturi fir-reġjun. Interpretazzjoni oħra tal-isem hi li jfisser "il-post tal-vuċijiet" fil-lingwa tal-Maja ta' Itza. Madankollu, Tikal mhuwiex l-isem antik tas-sit iżda pjuttost l-isem li ġie adottat ftit wara l-iskoperta tas-sit fis-snin 40 tas-seklu 19. Il-kitbiet ġeroglifiċi fil-fdalijiet jirreferu għall-belt antika bħala ''Yax Mutal'' jew ''Yax Mutul'', li tfisser "l-ewwel Mutal". Tikal jaf bdiet tissejjaħ hekk minħabba li Dos Pilas beda juża l-istess glifiċi emblematiċi; il-mexxejja tal-belt x'aktarx li riedu jiddistingwu bejn il-bliet b'dan il-mod. Ir-renju kollu kien jissejjaħ sempliċement ''Mutul'', li huwa l-interpretazzjoni tal-glifiċi emblematiċi tal-"qatta' xagħar" fir-ritratt fuq il-lemin. It-tifsira preċiża għadha mhux ċerta. == Ġeografija == [[Stampa:Mayamap.png|daqsminuri|280x280px|Mappa taż-żona tal-Maja fir-reġjun Mesoamerikan. Kemm Tikal kif ukoll Calakmul jinsabu qrib iċ-ċentru taż-żona.]] The closest large modern settlements are Flores and Santa Elena, approximately 64 kilometers (40 mi) by road to the southwest. Tikal is approximately 303 kilometers (188 mi) north of Guatemala City. It is 19 kilometers (12 mi) south of the contemporary Maya city of Uaxactun and 30 kilometers (19 mi) northwest of Yaxha. The city was located 100 kilometers (62 mi) southeast of its great Classic Period rival, Calakmul, and 85 kilometers (53 mi) northwest of Calakmul's ally Caracol, now in Belize. The city has been completely mapped and covered an area greater than 16 square kilometers (6.2 sq mi) that included about 3,000 structures. The topography of the site consists of a series of parallel limestone ridges rising above swampy lowlands. The major architecture of the site is clustered upon areas of higher ground and linked by raised causeways spanning the swamps. The area around Tikal has been declared as the Tikal National Park and the preserved area covers 570 square kilometers (220 sq mi). It was created on 26 May 1955 under the auspices of the Instituto de Antropología e Historia and was the first protected area in Guatemala. The ruins lie among the tropical rainforests of northern Guatemala that formed the cradle of lowland Maya civilization. The city itself was located among abundant fertile upland soils, and may have dominated a natural east–west trade route across the Yucatan Peninsula. Conspicuous trees at the Tikal park include gigantic kapok (''Ceiba pentandra'') the sacred tree of the Maya; tropical cedar (''Cedrela odorata''), and Honduras mahogany (''Swietenia macrophylla''). Regarding the fauna, agoutis, white-nosed coatis, gray foxes, Geoffroy's spider monkeys, howler monkeys, harpy eagles, falcons, ocellated turkeys, guans, toucans, green parrots and leafcutter ants can be seen there regularly. Jaguars, ocelots, and cougars are also said to roam in the park. Tikal had no water other than what was collected from rainwater and stored in ten reservoirs. Archeologists working in Tikal during the 20th century refurbished one of these ancient reservoirs to store water for their own use. The average annual rainfall at Tikal is 1,945 millimeters (76.6 in). However, the arrival of rain was often unpredictable, and long periods of drought could occur before the crops ripened, which severely threatened the inhabitants of the city. == Popolazzjoni == Population estimates for Tikal vary from 10,000 to as high as 90,000 inhabitants. The population of Tikal began a continuous curve of growth starting in the Preclassic Period (approximately 2000 BC – AD 200), with a peak in the Late Classic with the population growing rapidly from AD 700 through to 830, followed by a sharp decline. For the 120 square kilometers (46 sq mi) area falling within the earthwork defenses of the hinterland, the peak population is estimated at 517 per square kilometer (1340 per square mile). In an area within a 12 kilometers (7.5 mi) radius of the site core, peak population is estimated at 120,000; population density is estimated at 265 per square kilometer (689 per square mile). In a region within a 25 kilometers (16 mi) radius of the site core and including some satellite sites, peak population is estimated at 425,000 with a density of 216 per square kilometer (515 per square mile). These population figures are even more impressive because of the extensive swamplands that were unsuitable for habitation or agriculture. However, some archeologists, such as David Webster, believe these figures to be far too high. == Sit ta' Wirt Dinji == == Storja == === Preklassika === There are traces of early agriculture at the site dating as far back as 1000 BC, in the Middle Preclassic. A cache of Mamon ceramics dating from about 700-400 BC were found in a sealed chultun, a subterranean bottle-shaped chamber. Major construction at Tikal was already taking place in the Late Preclassic period, first appearing around 400–300 BC, including the building of major pyramids and platforms, although the city was still dwarfed by sites further north such as El Mirador and Nakbe. At this time, Tikal participated in the widespread Chikanel culture that dominated the Central and Northern Maya areas at this time – a region that included the entire Yucatan Peninsula including northern and eastern Guatemala and all of Belize. Two temples dating to Late Chikanel times had masonry-walled superstructures that may have been corbel-vaulted, although this has not been proven. One of these had elaborate paintings on the outer walls showing human figures against a scrollwork background, painted in yellow, black, pink and red. In the 1st century AD rich burials first appeared and Tikal underwent a political and cultural florescence as its giant northern neighbors declined. At the end of the Late Preclassic, the Izapan style art and architecture from the Pacific Coast began to influence Tikal, as demonstrated by a broken sculpture from the acropolis and early murals at the city. === Klassika bikrija === Dynastic rulership among the lowland Maya is most deeply rooted at Tikal. According to later hieroglyphic records, the dynasty was founded by Yax Ehb Xook, perhaps in the 1st century AD. At the beginning of the Early Classic, power in the Maya region was concentrated at Tikal and Calakmul, in the core of the Maya heartland. Tikal may have benefited from the collapse of the large Preclassic states such as El Mirador. In the Early Classic Tikal rapidly developed into the most dynamic city in the Maya region, stimulating the development of other nearby Maya cities. The site, however, was often at war and inscriptions tell of alliances and conflict with other Maya states, including Uaxactun, Caracol, Naranjo and Calakmul. The site was defeated at the end of the Early Classic by Caracol, which rose to take Tikal's place as the paramount center in the southern Maya lowlands. The earlier part of the Early Classic saw hostilities between Tikal and its neighbor Uaxactun, with Uaxactun recording the capture of prisoners from Tikal. There appears to have been a breakdown in the male succession by AD 317, when Lady Unen Bahlam conducted a katun-ending ceremony, apparently as queen of the city. ==== Tikal u Teotihuacan ==== The great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico appears to have decisively intervened in Tikal politics. As early as 200 AD Teotihuacan had embassies in Tikal. The fourteenth king of Tikal was Chak Tok Ich'aak (Great Jaguar Paw). Chak Tok Ich'aak built a palace that was preserved and developed by later rulers until it became the core of the Central Acropolis. Little is known about Chak Tok Ich'aak except that he was killed on 14 January 378 AD.^{[''contradictory'']} On the same day, Siyah K’ak' (Fire Is Born) arrived from the west, having passed through El Peru, a site to the west of Tikal, on 8 January. On Stela 31 he is named as "Lord of the West". Siyah K’ak' was probably a foreign general serving a figure represented by a non-Maya hieroglyph of a spearthrower combined with an owl, a glyph that is well known from the great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the distant Valley of Mexico. Spearthrower Owl may even have been the ruler of Teotihuacan. These recorded events strongly suggest that Siyah K’ak' led a Teotihuacan invasion that defeated the native Tikal king, who was captured and immediately executed. Siyah K'ak' appears to have been aided by a powerful political faction at Tikal itself; roughly at the time of the conquest, a group of Teotihuacan natives were apparently residing near the Lost World complex. He also exerted control over other cities in the area, including Uaxactun, where he became king, but did not take the throne of Tikal for himself. Within a year, the son of Spearthrower Owl by the name of Yax Nuun Ayiin I (First Crocodile) had been installed as the fifteenth king of Tikal while he was still a boy, being enthroned on 13 September 379. He reigned for 47 years as king of Tikal, and remained a vassal of Siyah K'ak' for as long as the latter lived. It seems likely that Yax Nuun Ayiin I took a wife from the preexisting, defeated, Tikal dynasty and thus legitimized the right to rule of his son, Siyaj Chan K'awiil II. Río Azul, a small site 100 kilometers (62 mi) northeast of Tikal, was conquered by the latter during the reign of Yax Nuun Ayiin I. The site became an outpost of Tikal, shielding it from hostile cities further north, and also became a trade link to the Caribbean. Although the new rulers of Tikal were foreign, their descendants were rapidly Mayanized. Tikal became the key ally and trading partner of Teotihuacan in the Maya lowlands. After being conquered by Teotihuacan, Tikal rapidly dominated the northern and eastern Peten. Uaxactun, together with smaller towns in the region, were absorbed into Tikal's kingdom. Other sites, such as Bejucal and Motul de San José near Lake Petén Itzá became vassals of their more powerful neighbor to the north. By the middle of the 5th century Tikal had a core territory of at least 25 kilometers (16 mi) in every direction. Around the 5th century an impressive system of fortifications consisting of ditches and earthworks was built along the northern periphery of Tikal's hinterland, joining up with the natural defenses provided by large areas of swampland lying to the east and west of the city. Additional fortifications were probably also built to the south. These defenses protected Tikal's core population and agricultural resources, encircling an area of approximately 120 square kilometers (46 sq mi). Recent research suggests that the earthworks served as a water collection system rather than a defensive purpose. ==== Tikal u Copán ==== In the 5th century the power of the city reached as far south as Copán, whose founder K'inich Yax K'uk' Mo' was clearly connected with Tikal. Copán itself was not in an ethnically Maya region and the founding of the Copán dynasty probably involved the direct intervention of Tikal. K'inich Yax K'uk' Mo' arrived in Copán in December 426 and bone analysis of his remains shows that he passed his childhood and youth at Tikal. An individual known as Ajaw K'uk' Mo' (lord K'uk' Mo') is referred to in an early text at Tikal and may well be the same person. His tomb had Teotihuacan characteristics and he was depicted in later portraits dressed in the warrior garb of Teotihuacan. Hieroglyphic texts refer to him as "Lord of the West", much like Siyah K’ak'. At the same time, in late 426, Copán founded the nearby site of Quiriguá, possibly sponsored by Tikal itself. The founding of these two centers may have been part of an effort to impose Tikal's authority upon the southeastern portion of the Maya region. The interaction between these sites and Tikal was intense over the next three centuries. A long-running rivalry between Tikal and Calakmul began in the 6th century, with each of the two cities forming its own network of mutually hostile alliances arrayed against each other in what has been likened to a long-running war between two Maya superpowers. The kings of these two capitals adopted the title ''kaloomte''', a term that has not been precisely translated but that implies something akin to "high king". The early 6th century saw another queen ruling the city, known only as the "Lady of Tikal", who was very likely a daughter of Chak Tok Ich'aak II. She seems never to have ruled in her own right, rather being partnered with male co-rulers. The first of these was Kaloomte' B'alam, who seems to have had a long career as a general at Tikal before becoming co-ruler and 19th in the dynastic sequence. The Lady of Tikal herself seems not have been counted in the dynastic numbering. It appears she was later paired with lord "Bird Claw", who is presumed to be the otherwise unknown 20th ruler. === Klassika Aħħarija === ==== L-aqwa żmien ta' Tikal ==== In the mid 6th century, Caracol seems to have allied with Calakmul and defeated Tikal, closing the Early Classic. The "Tikal hiatus" refers to a period between the late 6th to late 7th century where there was a lapse in the writing of inscriptions and large-scale construction at Tikal. In the latter half of the 6th century AD, a serious crisis befell the city, with no new stelae being erected and with widespread deliberate mutilation of public sculpture. This hiatus in activity at Tikal was long unexplained until later epigraphic decipherments identified that the period was prompted by Tikal's comprehensive defeat at the hands of Calakmul and the Caracol polity in AD 562, a defeat that seems to have resulted in the capture and sacrifice of the king of Tikal. The badly eroded Altar 21 at Caracol described how Tikal suffered this disastrous defeat in a major war in April 562. It seems that Caracol was an ally of Calakmul in the wider conflict between that city and Tikal, with the defeat of Tikal having a lasting impact upon the city. Tikal was not sacked but its power and influence were broken. After its great victory, Caracol grew rapidly and some of Tikal's population may have been forcibly relocated there. During the hiatus period, at least one ruler of Tikal took refuge with Janaab' Pakal of Palenque, another of Calakmul's victims. Calakmul itself thrived during Tikal's long hiatus period. The beginning of the Tikal hiatus has served as a marker by which archeologists commonly subdivide the Classic period of Mesoamerican chronology into the Early and Late Classic. ==== Tikal u Dos Pilas ==== In 629 Tikal founded Dos Pilas, some 110 kilometers (68 mi) to the southwest, as a military outpost in order to control trade along the course of the Pasión River. B'alaj Chan K'awiil was installed on the throne of the new outpost at the age of four, in 635. When he was older, for many years he served as a loyal vassal fighting for his brother, the king of Tikal. Roughly twenty years later, Dos Pilas was attacked by Calakmul and was soundly defeated. B'alaj Chan K'awiil was captured by the king of Calakmul but, instead of being sacrificed, he was re-instated on his throne as a vassal of his former enemy. He attacked Tikal in 657, forcing Nuun Ujol Chaak, then king of Tikal, to temporarily abandon the city. The first two rulers of Dos Pilas continued to use the Mutal emblem glyph of Tikal, and they probably felt that they had a legitimate claim to the throne of Tikal itself. For some reason, B'alaj Chan K'awiil was not installed as the new ruler of Tikal; instead he stayed at Dos Pilas. Tikal counterattacked against Dos Pilas in 672, driving B'alaj Chan K'awiil into an exile that lasted five years. Calakmul tried to encircle Tikal within an area dominated by its allies, such as El Peru, Dos Pilas, and Caracol. In 682, Jasaw Chan K'awiil I erected the first dated monument at Tikal in 120 years and claimed the title of ''kaloomte''', so ending the hiatus. He initiated a program of new construction and turned the tables on Calakmul when, in 695, he captured the enemy noble and threw the enemy state into a long decline from which it never fully recovered. After this, Calakmul never again erected a monument celebrating a military victory. ==== Tikal wara Teotihuacan ==== By the 7th century, there was no active Teotihuacan presence at any Maya site and the center of Teotihuacan had been razed by 700. Even after this, formal war attire illustrated on monuments was Teotihuacan style. Jasaw Chan K'awiil I and his heir Yik'in Chan K'awiil continued hostilities against Calakmul and its allies and imposed firm regional control over the area around Tikal, extending as far as the territory around Lake Petén Itzá. These two rulers were responsible for much of the impressive architecture visible today. In 738, Quiriguá, a vassal of Copán, Tikal's key ally in the south, switched allegiance to Calakmul, defeated Copán and gained its own independence. It appears that this was a conscious effort on the part of Calakmul to bring about the collapse of Tikal's southern allies. This upset the balance of power in the southern Maya area and lead to a steady decline in the fortunes of Copán. In the 8th century, the rulers of Tikal collected monuments from across the city and erected them in front of the North Acropolis. By the late 8th century and early 9th century, activity at Tikal slowed. Impressive architecture was still built but few hieroglyphic inscriptions refer to later rulers. === Klassika Terminali === By the 9th century, the crisis of the Classic Maya collapse was sweeping across the region, with populations plummeting and city after city falling into silence. Increasingly endemic warfare in the Maya region caused Tikal's supporting population to heavily concentrate close to the city itself, accelerating the use of intensive agriculture and the corresponding environmental decline. Construction continued at the beginning of the century, with the erection of Temple 3, the last of the city's major pyramids, and the erection of monuments to mark the 19th K'atun in 810. The beginning of the 10th Bak'tun in 830 passed uncelebrated, and marks the beginning of a 60-year hiatus, probably resulting from the collapse of central control in the city. During this hiatus, satellite sites traditionally under Tikal's control began to erect their own monuments featuring local rulers and using the Mutal emblem glyph, with Tikal apparently lacking the authority or the power to crush these bids for independence. In 849, Jewel K'awiil is mentioned on a stela at Seibal as visiting that city as the Divine Lord of Tikal but he is not recorded elsewhere and Tikal's once-great power was little more than a memory. The sites of Ixlu and Jimbal had by now inherited the once exclusive Mutal emblem glyph. As Tikal and its hinterland reached peak population, the area suffered deforestation, erosion and nutrient loss followed by a rapid decline in population levels. Recent analysis also indicates that the city's freshwater sources became highly contaminated with mercury, phosphate and cyanobacteria leading to the accumulation of toxins. Tikal and its immediate surroundings seem to have lost most of their population between 830 and 950 and central authority seems to have collapsed rapidly. There is not much evidence from Tikal that the city was directly affected by the endemic warfare that afflicted parts of the Maya region during the Terminal Classic, although an influx of refugees from the Petexbatún region may have exacerbated problems resulting from the already stretched environmental resources. The site core seen from the south, with Temple I at center, the North Acropolis to the left and Central Acropolis to the right In the latter half of the 9th century there was an attempt to revive royal power at the much-diminished city of Tikal, as evidenced by a stela erected in the Great Plaza by Jasaw Chan K'awiil II in 869. This was the last monument erected at Tikal before the city finally fell into silence. The former satellites of Tikal, such as Jimbal and Uaxactun, did not last much longer, erecting their final monuments in 889. By the end of the 9th century the vast majority of Tikal's population had deserted the city, its royal palaces were occupied by squatters and simple thatched dwellings were being erected in the city's ceremonial plazas. The squatters blocked some doorways in the rooms they reoccupied in the monumental structures of the site and left rubbish that included a mixture of domestic refuse and non-utilitarian items such as musical instruments. These inhabitants reused the earlier monuments for their own ritual activities, far removed from those of the royal dynasty that had erected them. Some monuments were vandalized and some were moved to new locations. Before its final abandonment all respect for the old rulers had disappeared, with the tombs of the North Acropolis being explored for jade and the easier-to-find tombs were looted. After 950, Tikal was all but deserted, although a remnant population may have survived in perishable huts interspersed among the ruins. Even these final inhabitants abandoned the city in the 10th or 11th centuries and the rainforest claimed the ruins for the next thousand years. Some of Tikal's population may have migrated to the Peten Lakes region, which remained heavily populated in spite of a plunge in population levels in the first half of the 9th century. The most likely cause of collapse at Tikal is overpopulation and agrarian failure. The fall of Tikal was a blow to the heart of Classic Maya civilization, the city having been at the forefront of courtly life, art and architecture for over a thousand years, with an ancient ruling dynasty. However, new research regarding paleoenvironmental proxies from the Tikal reservoir system suggests that a meteorological drought may have led to the abandonment of Tikal, fouling some reservoirs near the temple and palace with algae blooms, while other reservoirs remained drinkable. Buildings were painted with mercury-bearing cinnabar, which were washed off by rain and polluted some reservoirs. Works of Kohler and colleagues showed that this city reached an unsustainable level of inequalities at the end.^{[''clarification needed'']} === Moderna === Archeologist Edwin M. Shook, field director of the Tikal Project; Shook was also instrumental in having Tikal established as Guatemala's first National Park. In 1525, the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés passed within a few kilometers of the ruins of Tikal but did not mention them in his letters. After Spanish friar Andrés de Avendaño became lost in the Petén forests in early 1696 he described a ruin that may well have been Tikal. As is often the case with huge ancient ruins, knowledge of the site was never completely lost in the region. It seems that local people never forgot about Tikal and they guided Guatemalan expeditions to the ruins in the 1850s. Some second- or third-hand accounts of Tikal appeared in print starting in the 17th century, continuing through the writings of John Lloyd Stephens in the early 19th century (Stephens and his illustrator Frederick Catherwood heard rumors of a lost city, with white building tops towering above the jungle, during their 1839–40 travels in the region). Because of the site's remoteness from modern towns, however, no explorers visited Tikal until Modesto Méndez and Ambrosio Tut, respectively the commissioner and the governor of Petén, visited it in 1848. Artist Eusebio Lara accompanied them and their account was published in Germany in 1853. Several other expeditions came to further investigate, map, and photograph Tikal in the 19th century (including Alfred P. Maudslay in 1881-82) and the early 20th century. Pioneering archeologists started to clear, map and record the ruins in the 1880s. In 1951, a small airstrip was built at the ruins, which previously could only be reached by several days' travel through the jungle on foot or mule. In 1956 the Tikal project began to map the city on a scale not previously seen in the Maya area. From 1956 through 1970, major archeological excavations were carried out by the University of Pennsylvania Tikal Project. They mapped much of the site and excavated and restored many of the structures. Excavations directed by Edwin M. Shook and later by William Coe of the university investigated the North Acropolis and the Central Plaza from 1957 to 1969. The Tikal Project recorded over 200 monuments at the site. In 1979, the Guatemalan government began a further archeological project at Tikal, which continued through to 1984. Filmmaker George Lucas used Tikal as a filming location for the fictional moon Yavin 4 in the first ''Star Wars'' film, ''Episode IV: A New Hope'', which premiered in 1977. Temple I at Tikal was featured on the reverse of the 50 centavo banknote. Eon Productions used the site for the James Bond film ''Moonraker''. Tikal is now a major tourist attraction surrounded by its own national park. A site museum has been built at Tikal; it was completed in 1964. == Deskrizzjoni tas-sit == Tikal has been partially restored by the University of Pennsylvania and the government of Guatemala. It was one of the largest of the Classic period Maya cities and was one of the largest cities in the Americas. The architecture of the ancient city is built from limestone and includes the remains of temples that tower over 70 meters (230 ft) high, large royal palaces, in addition to a number of smaller pyramids, palaces, residences, administrative buildings, platforms and inscribed stone monuments. There is even a building which seemed to have been a jail, originally with wooden bars across the windows and doors. There are also seven courts for playing the Mesoamerican ballgame, including a set of 3 in the Seven Temples Plaza, a unique feature in Mesoamerica. The limestone used for construction was local and quarried on-site. The depressions formed by the extraction of stone for building were plastered to waterproof them and were used as reservoirs, together with some waterproofed natural depressions. The main plazas were surfaced with stucco and laid at a gradient that channelled rainfall into a system of canals that fed the reservoirs. The residential area of Tikal covers an estimated 60 square kilometers (23 sq mi), much of which has not yet been cleared, mapped, or excavated. The 16 square kilometers (6.2 sq mi) area around the site core has been intensively mapped; it may have enclosed an area of some 125 square kilometers (48 sq mi) (see below). A huge set of earthworks discovered by Dennis E. Puleston and Donald Callender in the 1960s rings Tikal with a 6-meter (20 ft) wide trench behind a rampart. Recently, a project exploring the defensive earthworks has shown that the scale of the earthworks is highly variable and that in many places it is inconsequential as a defensive feature. In addition, some parts of the earthwork were integrated into a canal system. The earthwork of Tikal varies significantly in coverage from what was originally proposed and it is much more complex and multifaceted than originally thought. === Toroq === By the Late Classic, a network of ''sacbeob'' (causeways) linked various parts of the city, running for several kilometers through its urban core. These linked the Great Plaza with Temple 4 (located about 750 meters (2,460 feet) to the west) and the Temple of the Inscriptions (about 1 kilometer (0.62 mi) to the southeast). These broad causeways were built of packed and plastered limestone and have been named after early explorers and archeologists; the Maler, Maudslay, Tozzer and Méndez causeways. They assisted the passage of everyday traffic during the rain season and also served as dams. The '''Maler Causeway''' runs north from behind Temple I to Group H. A large bas-relief is carved onto limestone bedrock upon the course of the causeway just south of Group H. It depicts two bound captives and dates to the Late Classic. The '''Maudsley Causeway''' runs 0.8 kilometers (0.50 mi) northeast from Temple IV to Group H. The '''Mendez Causeway''' runs southeast from the East Plaza to Temple VI, a distance of about 1.3 kilometers (0.81 mi). The '''Tozzer Causeway''' runs west from the Great Plaza to Temple IV. === Gruppi arkitettoniċi === The '''Great Plaza''' lies at the core of the site; it is flanked on the east and west sides by two great temple-pyramids. On the north side it is bordered by the North Acropolis and on the south by the Central Acropolis. The '''Central Acropolis''' is a palace complex just south of the Great Plaza. The '''North Acropolis''', together with the Great Plaza immediately to the south, is one of the most studied architectural groups in the Maya area; the Tikal Project excavated a massive trench across the complex, thoroughly investigating its construction history. It is a complex group with construction beginning in the Preclassic Period, around 350 BC. It developed into a funerary complex for the ruling dynasty of the Classic Period, with each additional royal burial adding new temples on top of the older structures. After AD 400 a row of tall pyramids was added to the earlier Northern Platform, which measured 100 by 80 meters (330 by 260 ft), gradually hiding it from view. Eight temple pyramids were built in the 6th century AD, each of them had an elaborate roofcomb and a stairway flanked by masks of the gods. By the 9th century AD, 43 stelae and 30 altars had been erected in the North Acropolis; 18 of these monuments were carved with hieroglyphic texts and royal portraits. The North Acropolis continued to receive burials into the Postclassic Period. The '''South Acropolis''' is found next to Temple V. It was built upon a large basal platform that covers an area of more than 20,000 square meters (220,000 sq ft). The '''Plaza of the Seven Temples''' is to the west of the South Acropolis. It is bordered on the east side by a row of nearly identical temples, by palaces on the south and west sides and by an unusual triple ballcourt on the north side. The '''Mundo Perdido''' is to the west of the Plaza of the Seven Temples. It is the largest ceremonial complex dating from the Preclassic period at Tikal. The complex was organized as a large E-Group consisting of a pyramid aligned with a platform to the east that supported three temples. The Mundo Perdido complex was rebuilt many times over the course of its history. By AD 250–300 its architectural style was influenced by the great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico, including the use of the ''talud-tablero'' form. During the Early Classic period (c. 250–600) the Mundo Perdido became one of the twin foci of the city, the other being the North Acropolis. From AD 250 to 378 it may have served as the royal necropolis. The Mundo Perdido complex was given its name by the archeologists of the University of Pennsylvania; it is centered upon the Lost World Pyramid and a small platform to the west of it. To the south of Mundo Perdido, recent 2021 excavations have revealed a one-third size replication of La Ciudadela, or The Citadel, in Teotihuacan. This area may have been used as a diplomatic headquarters and as an effort to further stamp Teotihuacan culture upon the residents of Tikal. '''Group G''' lies just south of the Mendez Causeway. The complex dates to the Late Classic and consists of palace-type structures and is one of the largest groups of its type at Tikal. It has two stories but most of the rooms are on the lower floor, a total of 29 vaulted chambers. The remains of two further chambers belong to the upper story. One of the entrances to the group was framed by a gigantic mask. '''Group H''' is centered on a large plaza to the north of the Great Plaza. It is bordered by temples dating to the Late Classic. There are nine '''Twin-Pyramid Complexes''' at Tikal, one of which was completely dismantled in ancient times and some others were partly destroyed. They vary in size but consist of two pyramids facing each other on an east–west axis. These pyramids are flat-topped and have stairways on all four sides. A row of plain stelae is placed immediately to the west of the eastern pyramid and to the north of the pyramids. Lying roughly equidistant from them, there is usually a sculpted stela and altar pair. On the south side of these complexes there is a long vaulted building containing a single room with nine doorways. The entire complex was built at once and these complexes were built at 20-year (or ''k'atun'') intervals during the Late Classic. The first twin pyramid complex was built in the early 6th century in the East Plaza. It was once thought that these complexes were unique to Tikal but rare examples have now been found at other sites, such as Yaxha and Ixlu, and they may reflect the extent of Tikal's political dominance in the Late Classic. '''Group Q''' is a twin-pyramid complex, and is one of the largest at Tikal. It was built by Yax Nuun Ayiin II in 771 in order to mark the end of the 17th K'atun. Most of it has been restored and its monuments have been re-erected. '''Group R''' is another twin-pyramid complex, dated to 790. It is close to the Maler Causeway. === Strutturi === There are thousands of ancient structures at Tikal and only a fraction of these have been excavated, after decades of archeological work. The most prominent surviving buildings include six very large pyramids, labelled Temples I – VI, each of which support a temple structure on their summits. Some of these pyramids are over 60 meters (200 feet) high. They were numbered sequentially during the early survey of the site. It is estimated that each of these major temples could have been built in as little as two years. '''Temple I''' (also known as the ''Temple of Ah Cacao'' or ''Temple of the Great Jaguar'') is a funerary pyramid dedicated to Jasaw Chan K'awil, who was entombed in the structure in AD 734, the pyramid was completed around 740–750. The temple rises 47 meters (154 ft) high. The massive roofcomb that topped the temple was originally decorated with a giant sculpture of the enthroned king, although little of this decoration survives. The tomb of the king was discovered by Aubrey Trik of the University of Pennsylvania in 1962. Among items recovered from the Late Classic tomb were a large collection of inscribed human and animal bone tubes and strips with sophisticated scenes depicting deities and people, finely carved and rubbed with vermilion, as well as jade and shell ornaments and ceramic vessels filled with offerings of food and drink. The shrine at the summit of the pyramid has three chambers, each behind the next, with the doorways spanned by wooden lintels fashioned from multiple beams. The outermost lintel is plain but the two inner lintels were carved, some of the beams were removed in the 19th century and their location is unknown, while others were taken to museums in Europe. '''Temple II''' (also known as the ''Temple of the Mask'') it was built around AD 700 and stands 38 meters (125 ft) high. Like other major temples at Tikal, the summit shrine had three consecutive chambers with the doorways spanned by wooden lintels, only the middle of which was carved. The temple was dedicated to the wife of Jasaw Chan K'awil, although no tomb was found. The queen's portrait was carved into the lintel spanning the doorway of the summit shrine. One of the beams from this lintel is now in the American Museum of Natural History in New York City. '''Temple III''' (also known as the ''Temple of the Jaguar Priest'') was the last of the great pyramids to be built at Tikal. It stood 55 meters (180 ft) tall and contained an elaborately sculpted but damaged roof lintel, possibly showing Dark Sun engaged in a ritual dance around AD 810. The temple shrine possesses two chambers. '''Temple IV''' is the tallest temple-pyramid at Tikal, measuring 70 meters (230 ft) from the plaza floor level to the top of its roof comb. Temple IV marks the reign of Yik’in Chan Kawil (Ruler B, the son of Ruler A or Jasaw Chan K'awiil I) and two carved wooden lintels over the doorway that leads into the temple on the pyramid's summit record a long count date (9.15.10.0.0) that corresponds to CE 741 (Sharer 1994:169). Temple IV is the largest pyramid built anywhere in the Maya region in the 8th century, and as it currently stands is the tallest pre-Columbian structure in the Americas although the Pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacan may originally have been taller, as may have been one of the structures at El Mirador. '''Temple V''' stands south of the Central Acropolis and is the mortuary pyramid of an as yet unidentified ruler. The temple stands 57 meters (187 ft) high, making it the second tallest structure at Tikal – only Temple IV is taller. The temple has been dated to about AD 700, in the Late Classic period, via radiocarbon analysis and the dating of ceramics associated with the structure places its construction during the reign of Nun Bak Chak in the second half of the 7th century. '''Temple VI''' is also known as the ''Temple of the Inscriptions'' and was dedicated in AD 766. It is notable for its 12-meter (39 ft) high roof-comb. Panels of hieroglyphs cover the back and sides of the roof-comb. The temple faces onto a plaza to the west and its front is unrestored. '''Temple 33''' was a funerary pyramid erected over the tomb of Siyaj Chan K'awiil I (known as Burial 48) in the North Acropolis. It started life in the Early Classic as a wide basal platform decorated with large stucco masks that flanked the stairway. Later in the Early Classic a new superstructure was added, with its own masks and decorated panels. During the Hiatus a third stage was built over the earlier constructions, the stairway was demolished and another royal burial, of an unidentified ruler, was set into the structure (Burial 23). While the new pyramid was being built another high ranking tomb (Burial 24) was inserted into the rubble core of the building. The pyramid was then completed, standing 33 meters (108 ft) tall. The final version of Temple 33 was completely dismantled by archeologists in 1965 in order to arrive at the earlier stages of construction. '''Structure 34''' is a pyramid in the North Acropolis that was built by Siyaj Chan K'awiil II over the tomb of his father, Yax Nuun Ayiin I. The pyramid was topped by a three chambered shrine, the rooms situated one behind the other. Detail of Teotihuacan-related imagery decorating the sloping ''talud'' sections of the ''talud-tablero'' sides of Structure 5D-43. '''Structure 5D-43''' is an unusual radial temple in the East Plaza, built over a pre-existing twin pyramid complex. It is built into the end of the East Plaza Ballcourt and possessed four entry doorways and three stairways, the fourth (south) side was too close to the Central Acropolis for a stairway on that side. The building has a ''talud-tablero'' platform profile, modified from the original style found at Teotihuacan. In fact, it has been suggested that the style of the building has closer affinities with El Tajin and Xochicalco than with Teotihuacan itself. The vertical ''tablero'' panels are set between sloping ''talud'' panels and are decorated with paired disc symbols. Large flower symbols are set into the sloping ''talud'' panels, related to the Venus and star symbols used at Teotihuacan. The roof of the structure was decorated with friezes although only fragments now remain, showing a monstrous face, perhaps that of a jaguar, with another head emerging from the mouth. The second head possesses a bifurcated tongue but is probably not that of a snake. The temple, and its associated ballcourt, probably date to the reign of Nuun Ujol Chaak or that of his son Jasaw Chan K'awiil I, in the later part of the 7th century. '''Structure 5C-49''' possesses a clear Teotihuacan-linked architectural style; it has balustrades, an architectural feature that is very rare in the Maya region, and a ''talud-tablero'' façade; it dates to the 4th century AD. It is located near to the Lost World pyramid. '''Structure 5C-53''' is a small Teotihuacan-style platform that dates to about AD 600. It had stairways on all four sides and did not possess a superstructure. The '''Lost World Pyramid''' (Structure 5C-54) is the largest structure in the Mundo Perdido complex. It lies in the southwest portion of Tikal's central core, south of Temple III and west of Temple V. It was decorated with stucco masks of the sun god and dates to the Late Preclassic; this pyramid is part of an enclosed complex of structures that remained intact and un-impacted by later building activity at Tikal. By the end of the Late Preclassic this pyramid was one of the largest structures in the Maya region. It attained its final form during the reign of Chak Tok Ich'aak in the 4th century AD, in the Early Classic, standing more than 30 meters (98 ft) high with stairways on all four sides and a flat top that possibly supported a superstructure built from perishable materials. Although the plaza later suffered significant alteration, the organization of a group of temples on the east side of this complex adheres to the layout that defines the so-called E-Groups, identified as solar observatories. '''Structure 5D-96''' is the central temple on the east side of the Plaza of the Seven Temples. It has been restored and its rear outer wall is decorated with skull-and-crossbones motifs. '''Group 6C-16''' is an elite residential complex that has been thoroughly excavated. It lies a few hundred m south of the Lost World Complex and the excavations have revealed elaborate stucco masks, ballplayer murals, relief sculptures and buildings with Teotihuacan characteristics. The '''Great Plaza Ballcourt''' is a small ballcourt that lies between Temple I and the Central Acropolis. The '''Bat Palace''' is also known as the Palace of Windows and lies to the west of Temple III. It has two storeys, with a double range of chambers on the lower storey and a single range in the upper storey, which has been restored. The palace has ancient graffiti and possesses low windows. '''Complex N''' lies to the west of the Bat Palace and Temple III. The complex dates to AD 711. In 2018, 60,000 uncharted structures were revealed by archeologists with help of Lidar. Thanks to the new findings, some archeologists believe that 7-11 million Maya people inhabited in the northern Guatemala during the late classical period from 650 to 800 A.D. Lidar digitally removed the tree canopy to reveal ancient remains and showed that Maya cities like Tikal were bigger than previously thought. The project was mapped near the Maya Biosphere Reserve in the Petén region of Guatemala. === Altars[edit] === '''Altar 5''' is carved with two nobles, one of whom is probably Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. They are performing a ritual using the bones of an important woman. Altar 5 was found in Complex N, which lies to the west of Temple III. '''Altar 8''' is sculpted with a bound captive. It was found within Complex P in Group H and is now in the Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología in Guatemala City. '''Altar 9''' is associated with Stela 21 and bears the sculpture of a bound captive. It is located in front of Temple VI. '''Altar 10''' is carved with a captive tied to a scaffold. It is in the northern enclosure of Group Q, a twin-pyramid complex and has suffered from erosion. '''Altar 35''' is a plain monument associated with Stela 43. The stela-altar pair is centrally located at the base of the stairway of Temple IV. === Lintels === The elaborately carved wooden Lintel 3 from Temple IV. It celebrates a military victory by Yik'in Chan K'awiil in 743. At Tikal, beams of sapodilla wood were placed as lintels spanning the inner doorways of temples. These are the most elaborately carved wooden lintels to have survived anywhere in the Maya region. '''Lintel 3''' from Temple IV was taken to Basel in Switzerland in the 19th century. It was in almost perfect condition and depicts Yik'in Chan K'awiil seated on a palanquin. === Steli === Stelae are carved stone shafts, often sculpted with figures and hieroglyphs. A selection of the most notable stelae at Tikal follows: '''Stela 1''' dates to the 5th century and depicts the king Siyaj Chan K'awiil II in a standing position. '''Stela 4''' is dated to AD 396, during the reign of Yax Nuun Ayiin after the intrusion of Teotihuacan in the Maya area. The stela displays a mix of Maya and Teotihuacan qualities, and deities from both cultures. It has a portrait of the king with the Underworld Jaguar God under one arm and the Mexican Tlaloc under the other. His helmet is a simplified version of the Teotihuacan War Serpent. Unusually for Maya sculpture, but typically for Teotihuacan, Yax Nuun Ayiin is depicted with a frontal face, rather than in profile. '''Stela 5''' was dedicated in 744 by Yik'in Chan K'awiil. '''Stela 6''' is a badly damaged monument dating to 514 and bears the name of the "Lady of Tikal" who celebrated the end of the 4th K'atun in that year. '''Stela 10''' is twinned with Stela 12 but is badly damaged. It described the accession of Kaloomte' B'alam in the early 6th century and earlier events in his career, including the capture of a prisoner depicted on the monument. '''Stela 11''' was the last monument ever erected at Tikal; it was dedicated in 869 by Jasaw Chan K'awiil II. '''Stela 12''' is linked to the queen known as the "Lady of Tikal" and king Kaloomte' B'alam. The queen is described as performing the year-ending rituals but the monument was dedicated in honor of the king. '''Stela 16''' was dedicated in 711, during the reign of Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. The sculpture, including a portrait of the king and a hieroglyphic text, are limited to the front face of the monument. It was found in Complex N, west of Temple III. '''Stela 18''' was one of two stelae erected by Yax Nuun Ayiin I to celebrate the ''k'atun''-ending of AD 396. It was re-erected at the base of Temple 34, his funerary shrine. '''Stela 19''' was dedicated in 790 by Yax Nuun Ayiin II. '''Stela 20''' was found in Complex P, in Group H, and was moved to the Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología in Guatemala City. '''Stela 21''' was dedicated in 736 by Yik'in Chan K'awiil. Only the bottom of the stela is intact, the rest having been mutilated in ancient times. The surviving sculpture is of fine quality, consisting of the feet of a figure and of accompanying hieroglyphic text. The stela is associated with Altar 9 and is located in front of Temple VI. '''Stela 22''' was dedicated in 771 by Yax Nuun Ayiin II in the northern enclosure of Group Q, a twin-pyramid complex. The face of the figure on the stela has been mutilated. '''Stela 23''' was broken in antiquity and was re-erected in a residential complex. The defaced portrait on the monument is that of the so-called "Lady of Tikal", a daughter of Chak Tok Ich'aak II who became queen at the age of six but never ruled in her own right, being paired with male co-rulers. It dates to the early 6th century. '''Stela 24''' was erected at the foot of Temple 3 in 810, accompanied by Altar 7. Both were broken into fragments in ancient times, although the name of Dark Sun survives on three fragments. '''Stela 26''' was found in the summit shrine of Temple 34, underneath a broken masonry altar. The monument had originally been erected at the base of the temple during the Early Classic period and was later broken, probably at the beginning of the Late Classic. Its remains were then interred within the temple shrine. '''Stela 29''' bears a Long Count (8.12.14.8.15) date equivalent to AD 292, the earliest surviving Long Count date from the Maya lowlands. The stela is also the earliest monument to bear the Tikal emblem glyph. It bears a sculpture of the king facing to the right, holding the head of an underworld jaguar god, one of the patron deities of the city. The stela was deliberately smashed during the 6th century or some time later, the upper portion was dragged away and dumped in a rubbish tip close to Temple III, to be uncovered by archeologists in 1959. '''Stela 30''' is the first surviving monument to be erected after the Hiatus. Its style and iconography is similar to that of Caracol, one of the more important of Tikal's enemies. Stela 31, with the sculpted image of Siyaj Chan K'awiil II '''Stela 31''' is the accession monument of Siyaj Chan K'awiil II, also bearing two portraits of his father, Yax Nuun Ayiin, as a youth dressed as a Teotihuacan warrior. He carries a spearthrower in one hand and bears a shield decorated with the face of Tlaloc, the Teotihuacan war god. In ancient times the sculpture was broken and the upper portion was moved to the summit of Temple 33 and ritually buried. Stela 31 has been described as the greatest Early Classic sculpture to survive at Tikal. A long hieroglyphic text is carved onto the back of the monument, the longest to survive from the Early Classic, which describes the arrival of Siyah K'ak' at El Peru and Tikal in January 378. It was also the first stela at Tikal to be carved on all four faces. '''Stela 32''' is a fragmented monument with a foreign Teotihuacan-style sculpture apparently depicting the lord of that city with the attributes of the central Mexican storm god Tlaloc, including his goggle eyes and tasselled headdress. '''Stela 39''' is a broken monument that was erected in the Lost World complex. The upper portion of the stela is missing but the lower portion shows the lower body and legs of Chak Tok Ich'aak, holding a flint axe in his left hand. He is trampling the figure of a bound, richly dressed captive. The monument is dated to AD 376. The text on the back of the monument describes a bloodletting ritual to celebrate a Katun-ending. The stela also names Chak Tok Ich'aak I's father as K'inich Muwaan Jol. '''Stela 40''' bears a portrait of Kan Chitam and dates to AD 468. '''Stela 43''' is paired with Altar 35. It is a plain monument at the base of the stairway of Temple IV. === Oqbra === A ceramic censer representing an elderly deity, found in Burial 10. '''Burial 1''' is a tomb in the Lost World complex. A fine ceramic bowl was recovered from the tomb, with the handle formed from three-dimensional head and neck of a bird emerging from the two-dimensional body painted on the lid. '''Burial 10''' is the tomb of Yax Nuun Ayiin. It is located beneath Structure 34 in the North Acropolis. The tomb contained a rich array of offerings, including ceramic vessels and food, and nine youths were sacrificed to accompany the dead king. A dog was also entombed with the deceased king. Pots in the tomb were stuccoed and painted and many demonstrated a blend of Maya and Teotihuacan styles. Among the offerings was an incense-burner in the shape of an elderly underworld god, sitting on a stool made of human bones and holding a severed head in his hands. The tomb was sealed with a corbel vault, then the pyramid was built on top. '''Burial 48''' is generally accepted as the tomb of Sihyaj Chan Kʼawiil II. It is located beneath Temple 33 in the North Acropolis. The chamber of the tomb was cut from the bedrock and contained the remains of the king himself together with those of two adolescents who had been sacrificed in order to accompany the deceased ruler. The walls of the tomb were covered with white stucco painted with hieroglyphs that included the Long Count date equivalent to 20 March 457, probably the date of either the death or interment of the king. The king's skeleton was missing its skull, its femurs and one of its hands while the skeletons of the sacrificial victims were intact. '''Burial 85''' dates to the Late Preclassic and was enclosed by a platform, with a primitive corbel vault. The tomb contained a single male skeleton, which lacked a skull and its thighbones. The dynastic founder of Tikal, Yax Ehb' Xook, has been linked to this tomb, which lies deep in the heart of the North Acropolis. The deceased had probably died in battle with his body being mutilated by his enemies before being recovered and interred by his followers. The bones were wrapped carefully in textiles to form an upright bundle. The missing head was replaced by a small greenstone mask with shell-inlaid teeth and eyes and bearing a three-pointed royal headband. This head wears an emblem of rulership on its forehead and is a rare Preclassic lowland Maya portrait of a king. Among the contents of the tomb were a stingray spine, a spondylus shell and twenty-six ceramic vessels. '''Burial 116''' is the tomb of Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. It is a large vaulted chamber deep within the pyramid, below the level of the Great Plaza. The tomb contained rich offerings of jadeite, ceramics, shell and works of art. The body of the king was covered with large quantities of jade ornaments including an enormous necklace with especially large beads, as depicted in sculpted portraits of the king. One of the outstanding pieces recovered from the tomb was an ornate jade mosaic vessel with the lid bearing a sculpted portrait of the king himself. '''Burial 195''' was flooded with mud in antiquity. This flood had covered wooden objects that had completely rotted away by the time the tomb was excavated, leaving hollows in the dried mud. Archeologists filled these hollows with stucco and thus excavated four effigies of the god K'awiil, the wooden originals long gone. '''Burial 196''' is a Late Classic royal tomb that contained a jade mosaic vessel topped with the head of the Maize God. == Referenzi == lptem0e7q22f8y9xn7uxr95ul8pyuq1 279080 279079 2022-08-14T14:30:40Z Trigcly 17859 added [[Category:Siti arkeoloġiċi]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] wikitext text/x-wiki [[Stampa:Tikal Temple1 2006 08 11.JPG|daqsminuri|It-Tempju I ta' Tikal huwa għoli 47 metru (154 pied).]] '''Tikal''' (/tiˈkɑːl/; ''Tik’al'' bl-ortografija moderna tal-[[Maja]]) huwa l-fdal ta' belt antika, li x'aktarx kienet tissejjaħ '''Yax Mutal''', u li tinsab f'foresta tropikali fil-[[Gwatemala]]. Huwa wieħed mill-ikbar siti [[Arkeoloġija|arkeoloġiċi]] u ċentri urbani taċ-ċivilizzazzjoni tal-Maja pre-Kolumbjana. Jinsab fir-reġjun arkeoloġiku tal-Baċir ta' Petén fit-territorju attwali tat-Tramuntana tal-Gwatemala. Is-sit jinsab fid-dipartiment ta' El Petén u huwa parti mill-Park Nazzjonali ta' Tikal. Fl-1979 sar [[Sit ta' Wirt Dinji]] tal-[[UNESCO]].<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/64/|titlu=Tikal National Park|kunjom=Centre|isem=UNESCO World Heritage|sit=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2022-08-14}}</ref> Tikal kien il-[[belt kapitali]] ta' stat ħakkiem li sar wieħed mill-iżjed renji setgħana tal-Maja tal-qedem. Għalkemm l-arkitettura [[Monument|monumentali]] tas-sit tmur lura saħansitra tas-seklu 4 [[Ante Christum natum|Q.K]]., Tikal laħaq il-quċċata tiegħu matul il-Perjodu Klassiku, għall-ħabta tal-200 sad-900. Matul dak iż-żmien, il-belt iddominat il-biċċa l-kbira tar-reġjun tal-Maja [[Politika|politikament]], ekonomikament u militarment, filwaqt li interaġixxiet ma' żoni fil-Mesoamerka kollha, bħall-metropoli l-kbira ta' [[Teotihuacan]] fil-Wied tal-Messiku daqstant 'il bogħod. Hemm evidenza li Tikal inħakem minn Teotihuacan fis-seklu 4 W.K. Wara t-tmiem tal-Perjodu Klassiku Aħħari, ma nbena l-ebda monument maġġuri f'Tikal u hemm evidenza li l-palazzi tal-elit ingħataw in-nar. Dan l-avvenimenti mexew id f'id ma' tnaqqis gradwali fil-popolazzjoni, u laħqu l-qofol tagħhom fl-abbandun tas-sit sal-aħħar tas-seklu 10. Tikal hija l-iżjed belt mifhuma minn kwalunkwe waħda mill-bliet tal-Maja l-kbar fl-artijiet baxxi, b'lista twila ta' mexxejja dinastiċi, bl-iskoperta tal-oqbra ta' bosta mill-mexxejja fuq din il-lista u bl-investigazzjoni tal-monumenti, tat-tempji u tal-palazzi tagħhom. == Etimoloġija == [[Stampa:Tikalemblem.jpg|daqsminuri|Glifiċi emblematiċi ta' isem Tikal]] L-isem ''Tikal'' jaf oriġina minn ''ti ak'al'' fil-lingwa tal-Maja tal-[[Yucatan]]; jingħad li huwa isem relattivament modern li jfisser "f'ġibjun". Milli jidher l-isem ingħata lil wieħed mill-ġibjuni antiki tas-sit mill-kaċċaturi u mill-vjaġġaturi fir-reġjun. Interpretazzjoni oħra tal-isem hi li jfisser "il-post tal-vuċijiet" fil-lingwa tal-Maja ta' Itza. Madankollu, Tikal mhuwiex l-isem antik tas-sit iżda pjuttost l-isem li ġie adottat ftit wara l-iskoperta tas-sit fis-snin 40 tas-seklu 19. Il-kitbiet ġeroglifiċi fil-fdalijiet jirreferu għall-belt antika bħala ''Yax Mutal'' jew ''Yax Mutul'', li tfisser "l-ewwel Mutal". Tikal jaf bdiet tissejjaħ hekk minħabba li Dos Pilas beda juża l-istess glifiċi emblematiċi; il-mexxejja tal-belt x'aktarx li riedu jiddistingwu bejn il-bliet b'dan il-mod. Ir-renju kollu kien jissejjaħ sempliċement ''Mutul'', li huwa l-interpretazzjoni tal-glifiċi emblematiċi tal-"qatta' xagħar" fir-ritratt fuq il-lemin. It-tifsira preċiża għadha mhux ċerta. == Ġeografija == [[Stampa:Mayamap.png|daqsminuri|280x280px|Mappa taż-żona tal-Maja fir-reġjun Mesoamerikan. Kemm Tikal kif ukoll Calakmul jinsabu qrib iċ-ċentru taż-żona.]] The closest large modern settlements are Flores and Santa Elena, approximately 64 kilometers (40 mi) by road to the southwest. Tikal is approximately 303 kilometers (188 mi) north of Guatemala City. It is 19 kilometers (12 mi) south of the contemporary Maya city of Uaxactun and 30 kilometers (19 mi) northwest of Yaxha. The city was located 100 kilometers (62 mi) southeast of its great Classic Period rival, Calakmul, and 85 kilometers (53 mi) northwest of Calakmul's ally Caracol, now in Belize. The city has been completely mapped and covered an area greater than 16 square kilometers (6.2 sq mi) that included about 3,000 structures. The topography of the site consists of a series of parallel limestone ridges rising above swampy lowlands. The major architecture of the site is clustered upon areas of higher ground and linked by raised causeways spanning the swamps. The area around Tikal has been declared as the Tikal National Park and the preserved area covers 570 square kilometers (220 sq mi). It was created on 26 May 1955 under the auspices of the Instituto de Antropología e Historia and was the first protected area in Guatemala. The ruins lie among the tropical rainforests of northern Guatemala that formed the cradle of lowland Maya civilization. The city itself was located among abundant fertile upland soils, and may have dominated a natural east–west trade route across the Yucatan Peninsula. Conspicuous trees at the Tikal park include gigantic kapok (''Ceiba pentandra'') the sacred tree of the Maya; tropical cedar (''Cedrela odorata''), and Honduras mahogany (''Swietenia macrophylla''). Regarding the fauna, agoutis, white-nosed coatis, gray foxes, Geoffroy's spider monkeys, howler monkeys, harpy eagles, falcons, ocellated turkeys, guans, toucans, green parrots and leafcutter ants can be seen there regularly. Jaguars, ocelots, and cougars are also said to roam in the park. Tikal had no water other than what was collected from rainwater and stored in ten reservoirs. Archeologists working in Tikal during the 20th century refurbished one of these ancient reservoirs to store water for their own use. The average annual rainfall at Tikal is 1,945 millimeters (76.6 in). However, the arrival of rain was often unpredictable, and long periods of drought could occur before the crops ripened, which severely threatened the inhabitants of the city. == Popolazzjoni == Population estimates for Tikal vary from 10,000 to as high as 90,000 inhabitants. The population of Tikal began a continuous curve of growth starting in the Preclassic Period (approximately 2000 BC – AD 200), with a peak in the Late Classic with the population growing rapidly from AD 700 through to 830, followed by a sharp decline. For the 120 square kilometers (46 sq mi) area falling within the earthwork defenses of the hinterland, the peak population is estimated at 517 per square kilometer (1340 per square mile). In an area within a 12 kilometers (7.5 mi) radius of the site core, peak population is estimated at 120,000; population density is estimated at 265 per square kilometer (689 per square mile). In a region within a 25 kilometers (16 mi) radius of the site core and including some satellite sites, peak population is estimated at 425,000 with a density of 216 per square kilometer (515 per square mile). These population figures are even more impressive because of the extensive swamplands that were unsuitable for habitation or agriculture. However, some archeologists, such as David Webster, believe these figures to be far too high. == Sit ta' Wirt Dinji == == Storja == === Preklassika === There are traces of early agriculture at the site dating as far back as 1000 BC, in the Middle Preclassic. A cache of Mamon ceramics dating from about 700-400 BC were found in a sealed chultun, a subterranean bottle-shaped chamber. Major construction at Tikal was already taking place in the Late Preclassic period, first appearing around 400–300 BC, including the building of major pyramids and platforms, although the city was still dwarfed by sites further north such as El Mirador and Nakbe. At this time, Tikal participated in the widespread Chikanel culture that dominated the Central and Northern Maya areas at this time – a region that included the entire Yucatan Peninsula including northern and eastern Guatemala and all of Belize. Two temples dating to Late Chikanel times had masonry-walled superstructures that may have been corbel-vaulted, although this has not been proven. One of these had elaborate paintings on the outer walls showing human figures against a scrollwork background, painted in yellow, black, pink and red. In the 1st century AD rich burials first appeared and Tikal underwent a political and cultural florescence as its giant northern neighbors declined. At the end of the Late Preclassic, the Izapan style art and architecture from the Pacific Coast began to influence Tikal, as demonstrated by a broken sculpture from the acropolis and early murals at the city. === Klassika bikrija === Dynastic rulership among the lowland Maya is most deeply rooted at Tikal. According to later hieroglyphic records, the dynasty was founded by Yax Ehb Xook, perhaps in the 1st century AD. At the beginning of the Early Classic, power in the Maya region was concentrated at Tikal and Calakmul, in the core of the Maya heartland. Tikal may have benefited from the collapse of the large Preclassic states such as El Mirador. In the Early Classic Tikal rapidly developed into the most dynamic city in the Maya region, stimulating the development of other nearby Maya cities. The site, however, was often at war and inscriptions tell of alliances and conflict with other Maya states, including Uaxactun, Caracol, Naranjo and Calakmul. The site was defeated at the end of the Early Classic by Caracol, which rose to take Tikal's place as the paramount center in the southern Maya lowlands. The earlier part of the Early Classic saw hostilities between Tikal and its neighbor Uaxactun, with Uaxactun recording the capture of prisoners from Tikal. There appears to have been a breakdown in the male succession by AD 317, when Lady Unen Bahlam conducted a katun-ending ceremony, apparently as queen of the city. ==== Tikal u Teotihuacan ==== The great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico appears to have decisively intervened in Tikal politics. As early as 200 AD Teotihuacan had embassies in Tikal. The fourteenth king of Tikal was Chak Tok Ich'aak (Great Jaguar Paw). Chak Tok Ich'aak built a palace that was preserved and developed by later rulers until it became the core of the Central Acropolis. Little is known about Chak Tok Ich'aak except that he was killed on 14 January 378 AD.^{[''contradictory'']} On the same day, Siyah K’ak' (Fire Is Born) arrived from the west, having passed through El Peru, a site to the west of Tikal, on 8 January. On Stela 31 he is named as "Lord of the West". Siyah K’ak' was probably a foreign general serving a figure represented by a non-Maya hieroglyph of a spearthrower combined with an owl, a glyph that is well known from the great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the distant Valley of Mexico. Spearthrower Owl may even have been the ruler of Teotihuacan. These recorded events strongly suggest that Siyah K’ak' led a Teotihuacan invasion that defeated the native Tikal king, who was captured and immediately executed. Siyah K'ak' appears to have been aided by a powerful political faction at Tikal itself; roughly at the time of the conquest, a group of Teotihuacan natives were apparently residing near the Lost World complex. He also exerted control over other cities in the area, including Uaxactun, where he became king, but did not take the throne of Tikal for himself. Within a year, the son of Spearthrower Owl by the name of Yax Nuun Ayiin I (First Crocodile) had been installed as the fifteenth king of Tikal while he was still a boy, being enthroned on 13 September 379. He reigned for 47 years as king of Tikal, and remained a vassal of Siyah K'ak' for as long as the latter lived. It seems likely that Yax Nuun Ayiin I took a wife from the preexisting, defeated, Tikal dynasty and thus legitimized the right to rule of his son, Siyaj Chan K'awiil II. Río Azul, a small site 100 kilometers (62 mi) northeast of Tikal, was conquered by the latter during the reign of Yax Nuun Ayiin I. The site became an outpost of Tikal, shielding it from hostile cities further north, and also became a trade link to the Caribbean. Although the new rulers of Tikal were foreign, their descendants were rapidly Mayanized. Tikal became the key ally and trading partner of Teotihuacan in the Maya lowlands. After being conquered by Teotihuacan, Tikal rapidly dominated the northern and eastern Peten. Uaxactun, together with smaller towns in the region, were absorbed into Tikal's kingdom. Other sites, such as Bejucal and Motul de San José near Lake Petén Itzá became vassals of their more powerful neighbor to the north. By the middle of the 5th century Tikal had a core territory of at least 25 kilometers (16 mi) in every direction. Around the 5th century an impressive system of fortifications consisting of ditches and earthworks was built along the northern periphery of Tikal's hinterland, joining up with the natural defenses provided by large areas of swampland lying to the east and west of the city. Additional fortifications were probably also built to the south. These defenses protected Tikal's core population and agricultural resources, encircling an area of approximately 120 square kilometers (46 sq mi). Recent research suggests that the earthworks served as a water collection system rather than a defensive purpose. ==== Tikal u Copán ==== In the 5th century the power of the city reached as far south as Copán, whose founder K'inich Yax K'uk' Mo' was clearly connected with Tikal. Copán itself was not in an ethnically Maya region and the founding of the Copán dynasty probably involved the direct intervention of Tikal. K'inich Yax K'uk' Mo' arrived in Copán in December 426 and bone analysis of his remains shows that he passed his childhood and youth at Tikal. An individual known as Ajaw K'uk' Mo' (lord K'uk' Mo') is referred to in an early text at Tikal and may well be the same person. His tomb had Teotihuacan characteristics and he was depicted in later portraits dressed in the warrior garb of Teotihuacan. Hieroglyphic texts refer to him as "Lord of the West", much like Siyah K’ak'. At the same time, in late 426, Copán founded the nearby site of Quiriguá, possibly sponsored by Tikal itself. The founding of these two centers may have been part of an effort to impose Tikal's authority upon the southeastern portion of the Maya region. The interaction between these sites and Tikal was intense over the next three centuries. A long-running rivalry between Tikal and Calakmul began in the 6th century, with each of the two cities forming its own network of mutually hostile alliances arrayed against each other in what has been likened to a long-running war between two Maya superpowers. The kings of these two capitals adopted the title ''kaloomte''', a term that has not been precisely translated but that implies something akin to "high king". The early 6th century saw another queen ruling the city, known only as the "Lady of Tikal", who was very likely a daughter of Chak Tok Ich'aak II. She seems never to have ruled in her own right, rather being partnered with male co-rulers. The first of these was Kaloomte' B'alam, who seems to have had a long career as a general at Tikal before becoming co-ruler and 19th in the dynastic sequence. The Lady of Tikal herself seems not have been counted in the dynastic numbering. It appears she was later paired with lord "Bird Claw", who is presumed to be the otherwise unknown 20th ruler. === Klassika Aħħarija === ==== L-aqwa żmien ta' Tikal ==== In the mid 6th century, Caracol seems to have allied with Calakmul and defeated Tikal, closing the Early Classic. The "Tikal hiatus" refers to a period between the late 6th to late 7th century where there was a lapse in the writing of inscriptions and large-scale construction at Tikal. In the latter half of the 6th century AD, a serious crisis befell the city, with no new stelae being erected and with widespread deliberate mutilation of public sculpture. This hiatus in activity at Tikal was long unexplained until later epigraphic decipherments identified that the period was prompted by Tikal's comprehensive defeat at the hands of Calakmul and the Caracol polity in AD 562, a defeat that seems to have resulted in the capture and sacrifice of the king of Tikal. The badly eroded Altar 21 at Caracol described how Tikal suffered this disastrous defeat in a major war in April 562. It seems that Caracol was an ally of Calakmul in the wider conflict between that city and Tikal, with the defeat of Tikal having a lasting impact upon the city. Tikal was not sacked but its power and influence were broken. After its great victory, Caracol grew rapidly and some of Tikal's population may have been forcibly relocated there. During the hiatus period, at least one ruler of Tikal took refuge with Janaab' Pakal of Palenque, another of Calakmul's victims. Calakmul itself thrived during Tikal's long hiatus period. The beginning of the Tikal hiatus has served as a marker by which archeologists commonly subdivide the Classic period of Mesoamerican chronology into the Early and Late Classic. ==== Tikal u Dos Pilas ==== In 629 Tikal founded Dos Pilas, some 110 kilometers (68 mi) to the southwest, as a military outpost in order to control trade along the course of the Pasión River. B'alaj Chan K'awiil was installed on the throne of the new outpost at the age of four, in 635. When he was older, for many years he served as a loyal vassal fighting for his brother, the king of Tikal. Roughly twenty years later, Dos Pilas was attacked by Calakmul and was soundly defeated. B'alaj Chan K'awiil was captured by the king of Calakmul but, instead of being sacrificed, he was re-instated on his throne as a vassal of his former enemy. He attacked Tikal in 657, forcing Nuun Ujol Chaak, then king of Tikal, to temporarily abandon the city. The first two rulers of Dos Pilas continued to use the Mutal emblem glyph of Tikal, and they probably felt that they had a legitimate claim to the throne of Tikal itself. For some reason, B'alaj Chan K'awiil was not installed as the new ruler of Tikal; instead he stayed at Dos Pilas. Tikal counterattacked against Dos Pilas in 672, driving B'alaj Chan K'awiil into an exile that lasted five years. Calakmul tried to encircle Tikal within an area dominated by its allies, such as El Peru, Dos Pilas, and Caracol. In 682, Jasaw Chan K'awiil I erected the first dated monument at Tikal in 120 years and claimed the title of ''kaloomte''', so ending the hiatus. He initiated a program of new construction and turned the tables on Calakmul when, in 695, he captured the enemy noble and threw the enemy state into a long decline from which it never fully recovered. After this, Calakmul never again erected a monument celebrating a military victory. ==== Tikal wara Teotihuacan ==== By the 7th century, there was no active Teotihuacan presence at any Maya site and the center of Teotihuacan had been razed by 700. Even after this, formal war attire illustrated on monuments was Teotihuacan style. Jasaw Chan K'awiil I and his heir Yik'in Chan K'awiil continued hostilities against Calakmul and its allies and imposed firm regional control over the area around Tikal, extending as far as the territory around Lake Petén Itzá. These two rulers were responsible for much of the impressive architecture visible today. In 738, Quiriguá, a vassal of Copán, Tikal's key ally in the south, switched allegiance to Calakmul, defeated Copán and gained its own independence. It appears that this was a conscious effort on the part of Calakmul to bring about the collapse of Tikal's southern allies. This upset the balance of power in the southern Maya area and lead to a steady decline in the fortunes of Copán. In the 8th century, the rulers of Tikal collected monuments from across the city and erected them in front of the North Acropolis. By the late 8th century and early 9th century, activity at Tikal slowed. Impressive architecture was still built but few hieroglyphic inscriptions refer to later rulers. === Klassika Terminali === By the 9th century, the crisis of the Classic Maya collapse was sweeping across the region, with populations plummeting and city after city falling into silence. Increasingly endemic warfare in the Maya region caused Tikal's supporting population to heavily concentrate close to the city itself, accelerating the use of intensive agriculture and the corresponding environmental decline. Construction continued at the beginning of the century, with the erection of Temple 3, the last of the city's major pyramids, and the erection of monuments to mark the 19th K'atun in 810. The beginning of the 10th Bak'tun in 830 passed uncelebrated, and marks the beginning of a 60-year hiatus, probably resulting from the collapse of central control in the city. During this hiatus, satellite sites traditionally under Tikal's control began to erect their own monuments featuring local rulers and using the Mutal emblem glyph, with Tikal apparently lacking the authority or the power to crush these bids for independence. In 849, Jewel K'awiil is mentioned on a stela at Seibal as visiting that city as the Divine Lord of Tikal but he is not recorded elsewhere and Tikal's once-great power was little more than a memory. The sites of Ixlu and Jimbal had by now inherited the once exclusive Mutal emblem glyph. As Tikal and its hinterland reached peak population, the area suffered deforestation, erosion and nutrient loss followed by a rapid decline in population levels. Recent analysis also indicates that the city's freshwater sources became highly contaminated with mercury, phosphate and cyanobacteria leading to the accumulation of toxins. Tikal and its immediate surroundings seem to have lost most of their population between 830 and 950 and central authority seems to have collapsed rapidly. There is not much evidence from Tikal that the city was directly affected by the endemic warfare that afflicted parts of the Maya region during the Terminal Classic, although an influx of refugees from the Petexbatún region may have exacerbated problems resulting from the already stretched environmental resources. The site core seen from the south, with Temple I at center, the North Acropolis to the left and Central Acropolis to the right In the latter half of the 9th century there was an attempt to revive royal power at the much-diminished city of Tikal, as evidenced by a stela erected in the Great Plaza by Jasaw Chan K'awiil II in 869. This was the last monument erected at Tikal before the city finally fell into silence. The former satellites of Tikal, such as Jimbal and Uaxactun, did not last much longer, erecting their final monuments in 889. By the end of the 9th century the vast majority of Tikal's population had deserted the city, its royal palaces were occupied by squatters and simple thatched dwellings were being erected in the city's ceremonial plazas. The squatters blocked some doorways in the rooms they reoccupied in the monumental structures of the site and left rubbish that included a mixture of domestic refuse and non-utilitarian items such as musical instruments. These inhabitants reused the earlier monuments for their own ritual activities, far removed from those of the royal dynasty that had erected them. Some monuments were vandalized and some were moved to new locations. Before its final abandonment all respect for the old rulers had disappeared, with the tombs of the North Acropolis being explored for jade and the easier-to-find tombs were looted. After 950, Tikal was all but deserted, although a remnant population may have survived in perishable huts interspersed among the ruins. Even these final inhabitants abandoned the city in the 10th or 11th centuries and the rainforest claimed the ruins for the next thousand years. Some of Tikal's population may have migrated to the Peten Lakes region, which remained heavily populated in spite of a plunge in population levels in the first half of the 9th century. The most likely cause of collapse at Tikal is overpopulation and agrarian failure. The fall of Tikal was a blow to the heart of Classic Maya civilization, the city having been at the forefront of courtly life, art and architecture for over a thousand years, with an ancient ruling dynasty. However, new research regarding paleoenvironmental proxies from the Tikal reservoir system suggests that a meteorological drought may have led to the abandonment of Tikal, fouling some reservoirs near the temple and palace with algae blooms, while other reservoirs remained drinkable. Buildings were painted with mercury-bearing cinnabar, which were washed off by rain and polluted some reservoirs. Works of Kohler and colleagues showed that this city reached an unsustainable level of inequalities at the end.^{[''clarification needed'']} === Moderna === Archeologist Edwin M. Shook, field director of the Tikal Project; Shook was also instrumental in having Tikal established as Guatemala's first National Park. In 1525, the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés passed within a few kilometers of the ruins of Tikal but did not mention them in his letters. After Spanish friar Andrés de Avendaño became lost in the Petén forests in early 1696 he described a ruin that may well have been Tikal. As is often the case with huge ancient ruins, knowledge of the site was never completely lost in the region. It seems that local people never forgot about Tikal and they guided Guatemalan expeditions to the ruins in the 1850s. Some second- or third-hand accounts of Tikal appeared in print starting in the 17th century, continuing through the writings of John Lloyd Stephens in the early 19th century (Stephens and his illustrator Frederick Catherwood heard rumors of a lost city, with white building tops towering above the jungle, during their 1839–40 travels in the region). Because of the site's remoteness from modern towns, however, no explorers visited Tikal until Modesto Méndez and Ambrosio Tut, respectively the commissioner and the governor of Petén, visited it in 1848. Artist Eusebio Lara accompanied them and their account was published in Germany in 1853. Several other expeditions came to further investigate, map, and photograph Tikal in the 19th century (including Alfred P. Maudslay in 1881-82) and the early 20th century. Pioneering archeologists started to clear, map and record the ruins in the 1880s. In 1951, a small airstrip was built at the ruins, which previously could only be reached by several days' travel through the jungle on foot or mule. In 1956 the Tikal project began to map the city on a scale not previously seen in the Maya area. From 1956 through 1970, major archeological excavations were carried out by the University of Pennsylvania Tikal Project. They mapped much of the site and excavated and restored many of the structures. Excavations directed by Edwin M. Shook and later by William Coe of the university investigated the North Acropolis and the Central Plaza from 1957 to 1969. The Tikal Project recorded over 200 monuments at the site. In 1979, the Guatemalan government began a further archeological project at Tikal, which continued through to 1984. Filmmaker George Lucas used Tikal as a filming location for the fictional moon Yavin 4 in the first ''Star Wars'' film, ''Episode IV: A New Hope'', which premiered in 1977. Temple I at Tikal was featured on the reverse of the 50 centavo banknote. Eon Productions used the site for the James Bond film ''Moonraker''. Tikal is now a major tourist attraction surrounded by its own national park. A site museum has been built at Tikal; it was completed in 1964. == Deskrizzjoni tas-sit == Tikal has been partially restored by the University of Pennsylvania and the government of Guatemala. It was one of the largest of the Classic period Maya cities and was one of the largest cities in the Americas. The architecture of the ancient city is built from limestone and includes the remains of temples that tower over 70 meters (230 ft) high, large royal palaces, in addition to a number of smaller pyramids, palaces, residences, administrative buildings, platforms and inscribed stone monuments. There is even a building which seemed to have been a jail, originally with wooden bars across the windows and doors. There are also seven courts for playing the Mesoamerican ballgame, including a set of 3 in the Seven Temples Plaza, a unique feature in Mesoamerica. The limestone used for construction was local and quarried on-site. The depressions formed by the extraction of stone for building were plastered to waterproof them and were used as reservoirs, together with some waterproofed natural depressions. The main plazas were surfaced with stucco and laid at a gradient that channelled rainfall into a system of canals that fed the reservoirs. The residential area of Tikal covers an estimated 60 square kilometers (23 sq mi), much of which has not yet been cleared, mapped, or excavated. The 16 square kilometers (6.2 sq mi) area around the site core has been intensively mapped; it may have enclosed an area of some 125 square kilometers (48 sq mi) (see below). A huge set of earthworks discovered by Dennis E. Puleston and Donald Callender in the 1960s rings Tikal with a 6-meter (20 ft) wide trench behind a rampart. Recently, a project exploring the defensive earthworks has shown that the scale of the earthworks is highly variable and that in many places it is inconsequential as a defensive feature. In addition, some parts of the earthwork were integrated into a canal system. The earthwork of Tikal varies significantly in coverage from what was originally proposed and it is much more complex and multifaceted than originally thought. === Toroq === By the Late Classic, a network of ''sacbeob'' (causeways) linked various parts of the city, running for several kilometers through its urban core. These linked the Great Plaza with Temple 4 (located about 750 meters (2,460 feet) to the west) and the Temple of the Inscriptions (about 1 kilometer (0.62 mi) to the southeast). These broad causeways were built of packed and plastered limestone and have been named after early explorers and archeologists; the Maler, Maudslay, Tozzer and Méndez causeways. They assisted the passage of everyday traffic during the rain season and also served as dams. The '''Maler Causeway''' runs north from behind Temple I to Group H. A large bas-relief is carved onto limestone bedrock upon the course of the causeway just south of Group H. It depicts two bound captives and dates to the Late Classic. The '''Maudsley Causeway''' runs 0.8 kilometers (0.50 mi) northeast from Temple IV to Group H. The '''Mendez Causeway''' runs southeast from the East Plaza to Temple VI, a distance of about 1.3 kilometers (0.81 mi). The '''Tozzer Causeway''' runs west from the Great Plaza to Temple IV. === Gruppi arkitettoniċi === The '''Great Plaza''' lies at the core of the site; it is flanked on the east and west sides by two great temple-pyramids. On the north side it is bordered by the North Acropolis and on the south by the Central Acropolis. The '''Central Acropolis''' is a palace complex just south of the Great Plaza. The '''North Acropolis''', together with the Great Plaza immediately to the south, is one of the most studied architectural groups in the Maya area; the Tikal Project excavated a massive trench across the complex, thoroughly investigating its construction history. It is a complex group with construction beginning in the Preclassic Period, around 350 BC. It developed into a funerary complex for the ruling dynasty of the Classic Period, with each additional royal burial adding new temples on top of the older structures. After AD 400 a row of tall pyramids was added to the earlier Northern Platform, which measured 100 by 80 meters (330 by 260 ft), gradually hiding it from view. Eight temple pyramids were built in the 6th century AD, each of them had an elaborate roofcomb and a stairway flanked by masks of the gods. By the 9th century AD, 43 stelae and 30 altars had been erected in the North Acropolis; 18 of these monuments were carved with hieroglyphic texts and royal portraits. The North Acropolis continued to receive burials into the Postclassic Period. The '''South Acropolis''' is found next to Temple V. It was built upon a large basal platform that covers an area of more than 20,000 square meters (220,000 sq ft). The '''Plaza of the Seven Temples''' is to the west of the South Acropolis. It is bordered on the east side by a row of nearly identical temples, by palaces on the south and west sides and by an unusual triple ballcourt on the north side. The '''Mundo Perdido''' is to the west of the Plaza of the Seven Temples. It is the largest ceremonial complex dating from the Preclassic period at Tikal. The complex was organized as a large E-Group consisting of a pyramid aligned with a platform to the east that supported three temples. The Mundo Perdido complex was rebuilt many times over the course of its history. By AD 250–300 its architectural style was influenced by the great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico, including the use of the ''talud-tablero'' form. During the Early Classic period (c. 250–600) the Mundo Perdido became one of the twin foci of the city, the other being the North Acropolis. From AD 250 to 378 it may have served as the royal necropolis. The Mundo Perdido complex was given its name by the archeologists of the University of Pennsylvania; it is centered upon the Lost World Pyramid and a small platform to the west of it. To the south of Mundo Perdido, recent 2021 excavations have revealed a one-third size replication of La Ciudadela, or The Citadel, in Teotihuacan. This area may have been used as a diplomatic headquarters and as an effort to further stamp Teotihuacan culture upon the residents of Tikal. '''Group G''' lies just south of the Mendez Causeway. The complex dates to the Late Classic and consists of palace-type structures and is one of the largest groups of its type at Tikal. It has two stories but most of the rooms are on the lower floor, a total of 29 vaulted chambers. The remains of two further chambers belong to the upper story. One of the entrances to the group was framed by a gigantic mask. '''Group H''' is centered on a large plaza to the north of the Great Plaza. It is bordered by temples dating to the Late Classic. There are nine '''Twin-Pyramid Complexes''' at Tikal, one of which was completely dismantled in ancient times and some others were partly destroyed. They vary in size but consist of two pyramids facing each other on an east–west axis. These pyramids are flat-topped and have stairways on all four sides. A row of plain stelae is placed immediately to the west of the eastern pyramid and to the north of the pyramids. Lying roughly equidistant from them, there is usually a sculpted stela and altar pair. On the south side of these complexes there is a long vaulted building containing a single room with nine doorways. The entire complex was built at once and these complexes were built at 20-year (or ''k'atun'') intervals during the Late Classic. The first twin pyramid complex was built in the early 6th century in the East Plaza. It was once thought that these complexes were unique to Tikal but rare examples have now been found at other sites, such as Yaxha and Ixlu, and they may reflect the extent of Tikal's political dominance in the Late Classic. '''Group Q''' is a twin-pyramid complex, and is one of the largest at Tikal. It was built by Yax Nuun Ayiin II in 771 in order to mark the end of the 17th K'atun. Most of it has been restored and its monuments have been re-erected. '''Group R''' is another twin-pyramid complex, dated to 790. It is close to the Maler Causeway. === Strutturi === There are thousands of ancient structures at Tikal and only a fraction of these have been excavated, after decades of archeological work. The most prominent surviving buildings include six very large pyramids, labelled Temples I – VI, each of which support a temple structure on their summits. Some of these pyramids are over 60 meters (200 feet) high. They were numbered sequentially during the early survey of the site. It is estimated that each of these major temples could have been built in as little as two years. '''Temple I''' (also known as the ''Temple of Ah Cacao'' or ''Temple of the Great Jaguar'') is a funerary pyramid dedicated to Jasaw Chan K'awil, who was entombed in the structure in AD 734, the pyramid was completed around 740–750. The temple rises 47 meters (154 ft) high. The massive roofcomb that topped the temple was originally decorated with a giant sculpture of the enthroned king, although little of this decoration survives. The tomb of the king was discovered by Aubrey Trik of the University of Pennsylvania in 1962. Among items recovered from the Late Classic tomb were a large collection of inscribed human and animal bone tubes and strips with sophisticated scenes depicting deities and people, finely carved and rubbed with vermilion, as well as jade and shell ornaments and ceramic vessels filled with offerings of food and drink. The shrine at the summit of the pyramid has three chambers, each behind the next, with the doorways spanned by wooden lintels fashioned from multiple beams. The outermost lintel is plain but the two inner lintels were carved, some of the beams were removed in the 19th century and their location is unknown, while others were taken to museums in Europe. '''Temple II''' (also known as the ''Temple of the Mask'') it was built around AD 700 and stands 38 meters (125 ft) high. Like other major temples at Tikal, the summit shrine had three consecutive chambers with the doorways spanned by wooden lintels, only the middle of which was carved. The temple was dedicated to the wife of Jasaw Chan K'awil, although no tomb was found. The queen's portrait was carved into the lintel spanning the doorway of the summit shrine. One of the beams from this lintel is now in the American Museum of Natural History in New York City. '''Temple III''' (also known as the ''Temple of the Jaguar Priest'') was the last of the great pyramids to be built at Tikal. It stood 55 meters (180 ft) tall and contained an elaborately sculpted but damaged roof lintel, possibly showing Dark Sun engaged in a ritual dance around AD 810. The temple shrine possesses two chambers. '''Temple IV''' is the tallest temple-pyramid at Tikal, measuring 70 meters (230 ft) from the plaza floor level to the top of its roof comb. Temple IV marks the reign of Yik’in Chan Kawil (Ruler B, the son of Ruler A or Jasaw Chan K'awiil I) and two carved wooden lintels over the doorway that leads into the temple on the pyramid's summit record a long count date (9.15.10.0.0) that corresponds to CE 741 (Sharer 1994:169). Temple IV is the largest pyramid built anywhere in the Maya region in the 8th century, and as it currently stands is the tallest pre-Columbian structure in the Americas although the Pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacan may originally have been taller, as may have been one of the structures at El Mirador. '''Temple V''' stands south of the Central Acropolis and is the mortuary pyramid of an as yet unidentified ruler. The temple stands 57 meters (187 ft) high, making it the second tallest structure at Tikal – only Temple IV is taller. The temple has been dated to about AD 700, in the Late Classic period, via radiocarbon analysis and the dating of ceramics associated with the structure places its construction during the reign of Nun Bak Chak in the second half of the 7th century. '''Temple VI''' is also known as the ''Temple of the Inscriptions'' and was dedicated in AD 766. It is notable for its 12-meter (39 ft) high roof-comb. Panels of hieroglyphs cover the back and sides of the roof-comb. The temple faces onto a plaza to the west and its front is unrestored. '''Temple 33''' was a funerary pyramid erected over the tomb of Siyaj Chan K'awiil I (known as Burial 48) in the North Acropolis. It started life in the Early Classic as a wide basal platform decorated with large stucco masks that flanked the stairway. Later in the Early Classic a new superstructure was added, with its own masks and decorated panels. During the Hiatus a third stage was built over the earlier constructions, the stairway was demolished and another royal burial, of an unidentified ruler, was set into the structure (Burial 23). While the new pyramid was being built another high ranking tomb (Burial 24) was inserted into the rubble core of the building. The pyramid was then completed, standing 33 meters (108 ft) tall. The final version of Temple 33 was completely dismantled by archeologists in 1965 in order to arrive at the earlier stages of construction. '''Structure 34''' is a pyramid in the North Acropolis that was built by Siyaj Chan K'awiil II over the tomb of his father, Yax Nuun Ayiin I. The pyramid was topped by a three chambered shrine, the rooms situated one behind the other. Detail of Teotihuacan-related imagery decorating the sloping ''talud'' sections of the ''talud-tablero'' sides of Structure 5D-43. '''Structure 5D-43''' is an unusual radial temple in the East Plaza, built over a pre-existing twin pyramid complex. It is built into the end of the East Plaza Ballcourt and possessed four entry doorways and three stairways, the fourth (south) side was too close to the Central Acropolis for a stairway on that side. The building has a ''talud-tablero'' platform profile, modified from the original style found at Teotihuacan. In fact, it has been suggested that the style of the building has closer affinities with El Tajin and Xochicalco than with Teotihuacan itself. The vertical ''tablero'' panels are set between sloping ''talud'' panels and are decorated with paired disc symbols. Large flower symbols are set into the sloping ''talud'' panels, related to the Venus and star symbols used at Teotihuacan. The roof of the structure was decorated with friezes although only fragments now remain, showing a monstrous face, perhaps that of a jaguar, with another head emerging from the mouth. The second head possesses a bifurcated tongue but is probably not that of a snake. The temple, and its associated ballcourt, probably date to the reign of Nuun Ujol Chaak or that of his son Jasaw Chan K'awiil I, in the later part of the 7th century. '''Structure 5C-49''' possesses a clear Teotihuacan-linked architectural style; it has balustrades, an architectural feature that is very rare in the Maya region, and a ''talud-tablero'' façade; it dates to the 4th century AD. It is located near to the Lost World pyramid. '''Structure 5C-53''' is a small Teotihuacan-style platform that dates to about AD 600. It had stairways on all four sides and did not possess a superstructure. The '''Lost World Pyramid''' (Structure 5C-54) is the largest structure in the Mundo Perdido complex. It lies in the southwest portion of Tikal's central core, south of Temple III and west of Temple V. It was decorated with stucco masks of the sun god and dates to the Late Preclassic; this pyramid is part of an enclosed complex of structures that remained intact and un-impacted by later building activity at Tikal. By the end of the Late Preclassic this pyramid was one of the largest structures in the Maya region. It attained its final form during the reign of Chak Tok Ich'aak in the 4th century AD, in the Early Classic, standing more than 30 meters (98 ft) high with stairways on all four sides and a flat top that possibly supported a superstructure built from perishable materials. Although the plaza later suffered significant alteration, the organization of a group of temples on the east side of this complex adheres to the layout that defines the so-called E-Groups, identified as solar observatories. '''Structure 5D-96''' is the central temple on the east side of the Plaza of the Seven Temples. It has been restored and its rear outer wall is decorated with skull-and-crossbones motifs. '''Group 6C-16''' is an elite residential complex that has been thoroughly excavated. It lies a few hundred m south of the Lost World Complex and the excavations have revealed elaborate stucco masks, ballplayer murals, relief sculptures and buildings with Teotihuacan characteristics. The '''Great Plaza Ballcourt''' is a small ballcourt that lies between Temple I and the Central Acropolis. The '''Bat Palace''' is also known as the Palace of Windows and lies to the west of Temple III. It has two storeys, with a double range of chambers on the lower storey and a single range in the upper storey, which has been restored. The palace has ancient graffiti and possesses low windows. '''Complex N''' lies to the west of the Bat Palace and Temple III. The complex dates to AD 711. In 2018, 60,000 uncharted structures were revealed by archeologists with help of Lidar. Thanks to the new findings, some archeologists believe that 7-11 million Maya people inhabited in the northern Guatemala during the late classical period from 650 to 800 A.D. Lidar digitally removed the tree canopy to reveal ancient remains and showed that Maya cities like Tikal were bigger than previously thought. The project was mapped near the Maya Biosphere Reserve in the Petén region of Guatemala. === Altars[edit] === '''Altar 5''' is carved with two nobles, one of whom is probably Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. They are performing a ritual using the bones of an important woman. Altar 5 was found in Complex N, which lies to the west of Temple III. '''Altar 8''' is sculpted with a bound captive. It was found within Complex P in Group H and is now in the Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología in Guatemala City. '''Altar 9''' is associated with Stela 21 and bears the sculpture of a bound captive. It is located in front of Temple VI. '''Altar 10''' is carved with a captive tied to a scaffold. It is in the northern enclosure of Group Q, a twin-pyramid complex and has suffered from erosion. '''Altar 35''' is a plain monument associated with Stela 43. The stela-altar pair is centrally located at the base of the stairway of Temple IV. === Lintels === The elaborately carved wooden Lintel 3 from Temple IV. It celebrates a military victory by Yik'in Chan K'awiil in 743. At Tikal, beams of sapodilla wood were placed as lintels spanning the inner doorways of temples. These are the most elaborately carved wooden lintels to have survived anywhere in the Maya region. '''Lintel 3''' from Temple IV was taken to Basel in Switzerland in the 19th century. It was in almost perfect condition and depicts Yik'in Chan K'awiil seated on a palanquin. === Steli === Stelae are carved stone shafts, often sculpted with figures and hieroglyphs. A selection of the most notable stelae at Tikal follows: '''Stela 1''' dates to the 5th century and depicts the king Siyaj Chan K'awiil II in a standing position. '''Stela 4''' is dated to AD 396, during the reign of Yax Nuun Ayiin after the intrusion of Teotihuacan in the Maya area. The stela displays a mix of Maya and Teotihuacan qualities, and deities from both cultures. It has a portrait of the king with the Underworld Jaguar God under one arm and the Mexican Tlaloc under the other. His helmet is a simplified version of the Teotihuacan War Serpent. Unusually for Maya sculpture, but typically for Teotihuacan, Yax Nuun Ayiin is depicted with a frontal face, rather than in profile. '''Stela 5''' was dedicated in 744 by Yik'in Chan K'awiil. '''Stela 6''' is a badly damaged monument dating to 514 and bears the name of the "Lady of Tikal" who celebrated the end of the 4th K'atun in that year. '''Stela 10''' is twinned with Stela 12 but is badly damaged. It described the accession of Kaloomte' B'alam in the early 6th century and earlier events in his career, including the capture of a prisoner depicted on the monument. '''Stela 11''' was the last monument ever erected at Tikal; it was dedicated in 869 by Jasaw Chan K'awiil II. '''Stela 12''' is linked to the queen known as the "Lady of Tikal" and king Kaloomte' B'alam. The queen is described as performing the year-ending rituals but the monument was dedicated in honor of the king. '''Stela 16''' was dedicated in 711, during the reign of Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. The sculpture, including a portrait of the king and a hieroglyphic text, are limited to the front face of the monument. It was found in Complex N, west of Temple III. '''Stela 18''' was one of two stelae erected by Yax Nuun Ayiin I to celebrate the ''k'atun''-ending of AD 396. It was re-erected at the base of Temple 34, his funerary shrine. '''Stela 19''' was dedicated in 790 by Yax Nuun Ayiin II. '''Stela 20''' was found in Complex P, in Group H, and was moved to the Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología in Guatemala City. '''Stela 21''' was dedicated in 736 by Yik'in Chan K'awiil. Only the bottom of the stela is intact, the rest having been mutilated in ancient times. The surviving sculpture is of fine quality, consisting of the feet of a figure and of accompanying hieroglyphic text. The stela is associated with Altar 9 and is located in front of Temple VI. '''Stela 22''' was dedicated in 771 by Yax Nuun Ayiin II in the northern enclosure of Group Q, a twin-pyramid complex. The face of the figure on the stela has been mutilated. '''Stela 23''' was broken in antiquity and was re-erected in a residential complex. The defaced portrait on the monument is that of the so-called "Lady of Tikal", a daughter of Chak Tok Ich'aak II who became queen at the age of six but never ruled in her own right, being paired with male co-rulers. It dates to the early 6th century. '''Stela 24''' was erected at the foot of Temple 3 in 810, accompanied by Altar 7. Both were broken into fragments in ancient times, although the name of Dark Sun survives on three fragments. '''Stela 26''' was found in the summit shrine of Temple 34, underneath a broken masonry altar. The monument had originally been erected at the base of the temple during the Early Classic period and was later broken, probably at the beginning of the Late Classic. Its remains were then interred within the temple shrine. '''Stela 29''' bears a Long Count (8.12.14.8.15) date equivalent to AD 292, the earliest surviving Long Count date from the Maya lowlands. The stela is also the earliest monument to bear the Tikal emblem glyph. It bears a sculpture of the king facing to the right, holding the head of an underworld jaguar god, one of the patron deities of the city. The stela was deliberately smashed during the 6th century or some time later, the upper portion was dragged away and dumped in a rubbish tip close to Temple III, to be uncovered by archeologists in 1959. '''Stela 30''' is the first surviving monument to be erected after the Hiatus. Its style and iconography is similar to that of Caracol, one of the more important of Tikal's enemies. Stela 31, with the sculpted image of Siyaj Chan K'awiil II '''Stela 31''' is the accession monument of Siyaj Chan K'awiil II, also bearing two portraits of his father, Yax Nuun Ayiin, as a youth dressed as a Teotihuacan warrior. He carries a spearthrower in one hand and bears a shield decorated with the face of Tlaloc, the Teotihuacan war god. In ancient times the sculpture was broken and the upper portion was moved to the summit of Temple 33 and ritually buried. Stela 31 has been described as the greatest Early Classic sculpture to survive at Tikal. A long hieroglyphic text is carved onto the back of the monument, the longest to survive from the Early Classic, which describes the arrival of Siyah K'ak' at El Peru and Tikal in January 378. It was also the first stela at Tikal to be carved on all four faces. '''Stela 32''' is a fragmented monument with a foreign Teotihuacan-style sculpture apparently depicting the lord of that city with the attributes of the central Mexican storm god Tlaloc, including his goggle eyes and tasselled headdress. '''Stela 39''' is a broken monument that was erected in the Lost World complex. The upper portion of the stela is missing but the lower portion shows the lower body and legs of Chak Tok Ich'aak, holding a flint axe in his left hand. He is trampling the figure of a bound, richly dressed captive. The monument is dated to AD 376. The text on the back of the monument describes a bloodletting ritual to celebrate a Katun-ending. The stela also names Chak Tok Ich'aak I's father as K'inich Muwaan Jol. '''Stela 40''' bears a portrait of Kan Chitam and dates to AD 468. '''Stela 43''' is paired with Altar 35. It is a plain monument at the base of the stairway of Temple IV. === Oqbra === A ceramic censer representing an elderly deity, found in Burial 10. '''Burial 1''' is a tomb in the Lost World complex. A fine ceramic bowl was recovered from the tomb, with the handle formed from three-dimensional head and neck of a bird emerging from the two-dimensional body painted on the lid. '''Burial 10''' is the tomb of Yax Nuun Ayiin. It is located beneath Structure 34 in the North Acropolis. The tomb contained a rich array of offerings, including ceramic vessels and food, and nine youths were sacrificed to accompany the dead king. A dog was also entombed with the deceased king. Pots in the tomb were stuccoed and painted and many demonstrated a blend of Maya and Teotihuacan styles. Among the offerings was an incense-burner in the shape of an elderly underworld god, sitting on a stool made of human bones and holding a severed head in his hands. The tomb was sealed with a corbel vault, then the pyramid was built on top. '''Burial 48''' is generally accepted as the tomb of Sihyaj Chan Kʼawiil II. It is located beneath Temple 33 in the North Acropolis. The chamber of the tomb was cut from the bedrock and contained the remains of the king himself together with those of two adolescents who had been sacrificed in order to accompany the deceased ruler. The walls of the tomb were covered with white stucco painted with hieroglyphs that included the Long Count date equivalent to 20 March 457, probably the date of either the death or interment of the king. The king's skeleton was missing its skull, its femurs and one of its hands while the skeletons of the sacrificial victims were intact. '''Burial 85''' dates to the Late Preclassic and was enclosed by a platform, with a primitive corbel vault. The tomb contained a single male skeleton, which lacked a skull and its thighbones. The dynastic founder of Tikal, Yax Ehb' Xook, has been linked to this tomb, which lies deep in the heart of the North Acropolis. The deceased had probably died in battle with his body being mutilated by his enemies before being recovered and interred by his followers. The bones were wrapped carefully in textiles to form an upright bundle. The missing head was replaced by a small greenstone mask with shell-inlaid teeth and eyes and bearing a three-pointed royal headband. This head wears an emblem of rulership on its forehead and is a rare Preclassic lowland Maya portrait of a king. Among the contents of the tomb were a stingray spine, a spondylus shell and twenty-six ceramic vessels. '''Burial 116''' is the tomb of Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. It is a large vaulted chamber deep within the pyramid, below the level of the Great Plaza. The tomb contained rich offerings of jadeite, ceramics, shell and works of art. The body of the king was covered with large quantities of jade ornaments including an enormous necklace with especially large beads, as depicted in sculpted portraits of the king. One of the outstanding pieces recovered from the tomb was an ornate jade mosaic vessel with the lid bearing a sculpted portrait of the king himself. '''Burial 195''' was flooded with mud in antiquity. This flood had covered wooden objects that had completely rotted away by the time the tomb was excavated, leaving hollows in the dried mud. Archeologists filled these hollows with stucco and thus excavated four effigies of the god K'awiil, the wooden originals long gone. '''Burial 196''' is a Late Classic royal tomb that contained a jade mosaic vessel topped with the head of the Maize God. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Siti arkeoloġiċi]] gir4992girsy5ne7hnxd0xx71wvpvw4 279081 279080 2022-08-14T14:30:48Z Trigcly 17859 added [[Category:Siti ta' Wirt Dinji]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] wikitext text/x-wiki [[Stampa:Tikal Temple1 2006 08 11.JPG|daqsminuri|It-Tempju I ta' Tikal huwa għoli 47 metru (154 pied).]] '''Tikal''' (/tiˈkɑːl/; ''Tik’al'' bl-ortografija moderna tal-[[Maja]]) huwa l-fdal ta' belt antika, li x'aktarx kienet tissejjaħ '''Yax Mutal''', u li tinsab f'foresta tropikali fil-[[Gwatemala]]. Huwa wieħed mill-ikbar siti [[Arkeoloġija|arkeoloġiċi]] u ċentri urbani taċ-ċivilizzazzjoni tal-Maja pre-Kolumbjana. Jinsab fir-reġjun arkeoloġiku tal-Baċir ta' Petén fit-territorju attwali tat-Tramuntana tal-Gwatemala. Is-sit jinsab fid-dipartiment ta' El Petén u huwa parti mill-Park Nazzjonali ta' Tikal. Fl-1979 sar [[Sit ta' Wirt Dinji]] tal-[[UNESCO]].<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/64/|titlu=Tikal National Park|kunjom=Centre|isem=UNESCO World Heritage|sit=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2022-08-14}}</ref> Tikal kien il-[[belt kapitali]] ta' stat ħakkiem li sar wieħed mill-iżjed renji setgħana tal-Maja tal-qedem. Għalkemm l-arkitettura [[Monument|monumentali]] tas-sit tmur lura saħansitra tas-seklu 4 [[Ante Christum natum|Q.K]]., Tikal laħaq il-quċċata tiegħu matul il-Perjodu Klassiku, għall-ħabta tal-200 sad-900. Matul dak iż-żmien, il-belt iddominat il-biċċa l-kbira tar-reġjun tal-Maja [[Politika|politikament]], ekonomikament u militarment, filwaqt li interaġixxiet ma' żoni fil-Mesoamerka kollha, bħall-metropoli l-kbira ta' [[Teotihuacan]] fil-Wied tal-Messiku daqstant 'il bogħod. Hemm evidenza li Tikal inħakem minn Teotihuacan fis-seklu 4 W.K. Wara t-tmiem tal-Perjodu Klassiku Aħħari, ma nbena l-ebda monument maġġuri f'Tikal u hemm evidenza li l-palazzi tal-elit ingħataw in-nar. Dan l-avvenimenti mexew id f'id ma' tnaqqis gradwali fil-popolazzjoni, u laħqu l-qofol tagħhom fl-abbandun tas-sit sal-aħħar tas-seklu 10. Tikal hija l-iżjed belt mifhuma minn kwalunkwe waħda mill-bliet tal-Maja l-kbar fl-artijiet baxxi, b'lista twila ta' mexxejja dinastiċi, bl-iskoperta tal-oqbra ta' bosta mill-mexxejja fuq din il-lista u bl-investigazzjoni tal-monumenti, tat-tempji u tal-palazzi tagħhom. == Etimoloġija == [[Stampa:Tikalemblem.jpg|daqsminuri|Glifiċi emblematiċi ta' isem Tikal]] L-isem ''Tikal'' jaf oriġina minn ''ti ak'al'' fil-lingwa tal-Maja tal-[[Yucatan]]; jingħad li huwa isem relattivament modern li jfisser "f'ġibjun". Milli jidher l-isem ingħata lil wieħed mill-ġibjuni antiki tas-sit mill-kaċċaturi u mill-vjaġġaturi fir-reġjun. Interpretazzjoni oħra tal-isem hi li jfisser "il-post tal-vuċijiet" fil-lingwa tal-Maja ta' Itza. Madankollu, Tikal mhuwiex l-isem antik tas-sit iżda pjuttost l-isem li ġie adottat ftit wara l-iskoperta tas-sit fis-snin 40 tas-seklu 19. Il-kitbiet ġeroglifiċi fil-fdalijiet jirreferu għall-belt antika bħala ''Yax Mutal'' jew ''Yax Mutul'', li tfisser "l-ewwel Mutal". Tikal jaf bdiet tissejjaħ hekk minħabba li Dos Pilas beda juża l-istess glifiċi emblematiċi; il-mexxejja tal-belt x'aktarx li riedu jiddistingwu bejn il-bliet b'dan il-mod. Ir-renju kollu kien jissejjaħ sempliċement ''Mutul'', li huwa l-interpretazzjoni tal-glifiċi emblematiċi tal-"qatta' xagħar" fir-ritratt fuq il-lemin. It-tifsira preċiża għadha mhux ċerta. == Ġeografija == [[Stampa:Mayamap.png|daqsminuri|280x280px|Mappa taż-żona tal-Maja fir-reġjun Mesoamerikan. Kemm Tikal kif ukoll Calakmul jinsabu qrib iċ-ċentru taż-żona.]] The closest large modern settlements are Flores and Santa Elena, approximately 64 kilometers (40 mi) by road to the southwest. Tikal is approximately 303 kilometers (188 mi) north of Guatemala City. It is 19 kilometers (12 mi) south of the contemporary Maya city of Uaxactun and 30 kilometers (19 mi) northwest of Yaxha. The city was located 100 kilometers (62 mi) southeast of its great Classic Period rival, Calakmul, and 85 kilometers (53 mi) northwest of Calakmul's ally Caracol, now in Belize. The city has been completely mapped and covered an area greater than 16 square kilometers (6.2 sq mi) that included about 3,000 structures. The topography of the site consists of a series of parallel limestone ridges rising above swampy lowlands. The major architecture of the site is clustered upon areas of higher ground and linked by raised causeways spanning the swamps. The area around Tikal has been declared as the Tikal National Park and the preserved area covers 570 square kilometers (220 sq mi). It was created on 26 May 1955 under the auspices of the Instituto de Antropología e Historia and was the first protected area in Guatemala. The ruins lie among the tropical rainforests of northern Guatemala that formed the cradle of lowland Maya civilization. The city itself was located among abundant fertile upland soils, and may have dominated a natural east–west trade route across the Yucatan Peninsula. Conspicuous trees at the Tikal park include gigantic kapok (''Ceiba pentandra'') the sacred tree of the Maya; tropical cedar (''Cedrela odorata''), and Honduras mahogany (''Swietenia macrophylla''). Regarding the fauna, agoutis, white-nosed coatis, gray foxes, Geoffroy's spider monkeys, howler monkeys, harpy eagles, falcons, ocellated turkeys, guans, toucans, green parrots and leafcutter ants can be seen there regularly. Jaguars, ocelots, and cougars are also said to roam in the park. Tikal had no water other than what was collected from rainwater and stored in ten reservoirs. Archeologists working in Tikal during the 20th century refurbished one of these ancient reservoirs to store water for their own use. The average annual rainfall at Tikal is 1,945 millimeters (76.6 in). However, the arrival of rain was often unpredictable, and long periods of drought could occur before the crops ripened, which severely threatened the inhabitants of the city. == Popolazzjoni == Population estimates for Tikal vary from 10,000 to as high as 90,000 inhabitants. The population of Tikal began a continuous curve of growth starting in the Preclassic Period (approximately 2000 BC – AD 200), with a peak in the Late Classic with the population growing rapidly from AD 700 through to 830, followed by a sharp decline. For the 120 square kilometers (46 sq mi) area falling within the earthwork defenses of the hinterland, the peak population is estimated at 517 per square kilometer (1340 per square mile). In an area within a 12 kilometers (7.5 mi) radius of the site core, peak population is estimated at 120,000; population density is estimated at 265 per square kilometer (689 per square mile). In a region within a 25 kilometers (16 mi) radius of the site core and including some satellite sites, peak population is estimated at 425,000 with a density of 216 per square kilometer (515 per square mile). These population figures are even more impressive because of the extensive swamplands that were unsuitable for habitation or agriculture. However, some archeologists, such as David Webster, believe these figures to be far too high. == Sit ta' Wirt Dinji == == Storja == === Preklassika === There are traces of early agriculture at the site dating as far back as 1000 BC, in the Middle Preclassic. A cache of Mamon ceramics dating from about 700-400 BC were found in a sealed chultun, a subterranean bottle-shaped chamber. Major construction at Tikal was already taking place in the Late Preclassic period, first appearing around 400–300 BC, including the building of major pyramids and platforms, although the city was still dwarfed by sites further north such as El Mirador and Nakbe. At this time, Tikal participated in the widespread Chikanel culture that dominated the Central and Northern Maya areas at this time – a region that included the entire Yucatan Peninsula including northern and eastern Guatemala and all of Belize. Two temples dating to Late Chikanel times had masonry-walled superstructures that may have been corbel-vaulted, although this has not been proven. One of these had elaborate paintings on the outer walls showing human figures against a scrollwork background, painted in yellow, black, pink and red. In the 1st century AD rich burials first appeared and Tikal underwent a political and cultural florescence as its giant northern neighbors declined. At the end of the Late Preclassic, the Izapan style art and architecture from the Pacific Coast began to influence Tikal, as demonstrated by a broken sculpture from the acropolis and early murals at the city. === Klassika bikrija === Dynastic rulership among the lowland Maya is most deeply rooted at Tikal. According to later hieroglyphic records, the dynasty was founded by Yax Ehb Xook, perhaps in the 1st century AD. At the beginning of the Early Classic, power in the Maya region was concentrated at Tikal and Calakmul, in the core of the Maya heartland. Tikal may have benefited from the collapse of the large Preclassic states such as El Mirador. In the Early Classic Tikal rapidly developed into the most dynamic city in the Maya region, stimulating the development of other nearby Maya cities. The site, however, was often at war and inscriptions tell of alliances and conflict with other Maya states, including Uaxactun, Caracol, Naranjo and Calakmul. The site was defeated at the end of the Early Classic by Caracol, which rose to take Tikal's place as the paramount center in the southern Maya lowlands. The earlier part of the Early Classic saw hostilities between Tikal and its neighbor Uaxactun, with Uaxactun recording the capture of prisoners from Tikal. There appears to have been a breakdown in the male succession by AD 317, when Lady Unen Bahlam conducted a katun-ending ceremony, apparently as queen of the city. ==== Tikal u Teotihuacan ==== The great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico appears to have decisively intervened in Tikal politics. As early as 200 AD Teotihuacan had embassies in Tikal. The fourteenth king of Tikal was Chak Tok Ich'aak (Great Jaguar Paw). Chak Tok Ich'aak built a palace that was preserved and developed by later rulers until it became the core of the Central Acropolis. Little is known about Chak Tok Ich'aak except that he was killed on 14 January 378 AD.^{[''contradictory'']} On the same day, Siyah K’ak' (Fire Is Born) arrived from the west, having passed through El Peru, a site to the west of Tikal, on 8 January. On Stela 31 he is named as "Lord of the West". Siyah K’ak' was probably a foreign general serving a figure represented by a non-Maya hieroglyph of a spearthrower combined with an owl, a glyph that is well known from the great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the distant Valley of Mexico. Spearthrower Owl may even have been the ruler of Teotihuacan. These recorded events strongly suggest that Siyah K’ak' led a Teotihuacan invasion that defeated the native Tikal king, who was captured and immediately executed. Siyah K'ak' appears to have been aided by a powerful political faction at Tikal itself; roughly at the time of the conquest, a group of Teotihuacan natives were apparently residing near the Lost World complex. He also exerted control over other cities in the area, including Uaxactun, where he became king, but did not take the throne of Tikal for himself. Within a year, the son of Spearthrower Owl by the name of Yax Nuun Ayiin I (First Crocodile) had been installed as the fifteenth king of Tikal while he was still a boy, being enthroned on 13 September 379. He reigned for 47 years as king of Tikal, and remained a vassal of Siyah K'ak' for as long as the latter lived. It seems likely that Yax Nuun Ayiin I took a wife from the preexisting, defeated, Tikal dynasty and thus legitimized the right to rule of his son, Siyaj Chan K'awiil II. Río Azul, a small site 100 kilometers (62 mi) northeast of Tikal, was conquered by the latter during the reign of Yax Nuun Ayiin I. The site became an outpost of Tikal, shielding it from hostile cities further north, and also became a trade link to the Caribbean. Although the new rulers of Tikal were foreign, their descendants were rapidly Mayanized. Tikal became the key ally and trading partner of Teotihuacan in the Maya lowlands. After being conquered by Teotihuacan, Tikal rapidly dominated the northern and eastern Peten. Uaxactun, together with smaller towns in the region, were absorbed into Tikal's kingdom. Other sites, such as Bejucal and Motul de San José near Lake Petén Itzá became vassals of their more powerful neighbor to the north. By the middle of the 5th century Tikal had a core territory of at least 25 kilometers (16 mi) in every direction. Around the 5th century an impressive system of fortifications consisting of ditches and earthworks was built along the northern periphery of Tikal's hinterland, joining up with the natural defenses provided by large areas of swampland lying to the east and west of the city. Additional fortifications were probably also built to the south. These defenses protected Tikal's core population and agricultural resources, encircling an area of approximately 120 square kilometers (46 sq mi). Recent research suggests that the earthworks served as a water collection system rather than a defensive purpose. ==== Tikal u Copán ==== In the 5th century the power of the city reached as far south as Copán, whose founder K'inich Yax K'uk' Mo' was clearly connected with Tikal. Copán itself was not in an ethnically Maya region and the founding of the Copán dynasty probably involved the direct intervention of Tikal. K'inich Yax K'uk' Mo' arrived in Copán in December 426 and bone analysis of his remains shows that he passed his childhood and youth at Tikal. An individual known as Ajaw K'uk' Mo' (lord K'uk' Mo') is referred to in an early text at Tikal and may well be the same person. His tomb had Teotihuacan characteristics and he was depicted in later portraits dressed in the warrior garb of Teotihuacan. Hieroglyphic texts refer to him as "Lord of the West", much like Siyah K’ak'. At the same time, in late 426, Copán founded the nearby site of Quiriguá, possibly sponsored by Tikal itself. The founding of these two centers may have been part of an effort to impose Tikal's authority upon the southeastern portion of the Maya region. The interaction between these sites and Tikal was intense over the next three centuries. A long-running rivalry between Tikal and Calakmul began in the 6th century, with each of the two cities forming its own network of mutually hostile alliances arrayed against each other in what has been likened to a long-running war between two Maya superpowers. The kings of these two capitals adopted the title ''kaloomte''', a term that has not been precisely translated but that implies something akin to "high king". The early 6th century saw another queen ruling the city, known only as the "Lady of Tikal", who was very likely a daughter of Chak Tok Ich'aak II. She seems never to have ruled in her own right, rather being partnered with male co-rulers. The first of these was Kaloomte' B'alam, who seems to have had a long career as a general at Tikal before becoming co-ruler and 19th in the dynastic sequence. The Lady of Tikal herself seems not have been counted in the dynastic numbering. It appears she was later paired with lord "Bird Claw", who is presumed to be the otherwise unknown 20th ruler. === Klassika Aħħarija === ==== L-aqwa żmien ta' Tikal ==== In the mid 6th century, Caracol seems to have allied with Calakmul and defeated Tikal, closing the Early Classic. The "Tikal hiatus" refers to a period between the late 6th to late 7th century where there was a lapse in the writing of inscriptions and large-scale construction at Tikal. In the latter half of the 6th century AD, a serious crisis befell the city, with no new stelae being erected and with widespread deliberate mutilation of public sculpture. This hiatus in activity at Tikal was long unexplained until later epigraphic decipherments identified that the period was prompted by Tikal's comprehensive defeat at the hands of Calakmul and the Caracol polity in AD 562, a defeat that seems to have resulted in the capture and sacrifice of the king of Tikal. The badly eroded Altar 21 at Caracol described how Tikal suffered this disastrous defeat in a major war in April 562. It seems that Caracol was an ally of Calakmul in the wider conflict between that city and Tikal, with the defeat of Tikal having a lasting impact upon the city. Tikal was not sacked but its power and influence were broken. After its great victory, Caracol grew rapidly and some of Tikal's population may have been forcibly relocated there. During the hiatus period, at least one ruler of Tikal took refuge with Janaab' Pakal of Palenque, another of Calakmul's victims. Calakmul itself thrived during Tikal's long hiatus period. The beginning of the Tikal hiatus has served as a marker by which archeologists commonly subdivide the Classic period of Mesoamerican chronology into the Early and Late Classic. ==== Tikal u Dos Pilas ==== In 629 Tikal founded Dos Pilas, some 110 kilometers (68 mi) to the southwest, as a military outpost in order to control trade along the course of the Pasión River. B'alaj Chan K'awiil was installed on the throne of the new outpost at the age of four, in 635. When he was older, for many years he served as a loyal vassal fighting for his brother, the king of Tikal. Roughly twenty years later, Dos Pilas was attacked by Calakmul and was soundly defeated. B'alaj Chan K'awiil was captured by the king of Calakmul but, instead of being sacrificed, he was re-instated on his throne as a vassal of his former enemy. He attacked Tikal in 657, forcing Nuun Ujol Chaak, then king of Tikal, to temporarily abandon the city. The first two rulers of Dos Pilas continued to use the Mutal emblem glyph of Tikal, and they probably felt that they had a legitimate claim to the throne of Tikal itself. For some reason, B'alaj Chan K'awiil was not installed as the new ruler of Tikal; instead he stayed at Dos Pilas. Tikal counterattacked against Dos Pilas in 672, driving B'alaj Chan K'awiil into an exile that lasted five years. Calakmul tried to encircle Tikal within an area dominated by its allies, such as El Peru, Dos Pilas, and Caracol. In 682, Jasaw Chan K'awiil I erected the first dated monument at Tikal in 120 years and claimed the title of ''kaloomte''', so ending the hiatus. He initiated a program of new construction and turned the tables on Calakmul when, in 695, he captured the enemy noble and threw the enemy state into a long decline from which it never fully recovered. After this, Calakmul never again erected a monument celebrating a military victory. ==== Tikal wara Teotihuacan ==== By the 7th century, there was no active Teotihuacan presence at any Maya site and the center of Teotihuacan had been razed by 700. Even after this, formal war attire illustrated on monuments was Teotihuacan style. Jasaw Chan K'awiil I and his heir Yik'in Chan K'awiil continued hostilities against Calakmul and its allies and imposed firm regional control over the area around Tikal, extending as far as the territory around Lake Petén Itzá. These two rulers were responsible for much of the impressive architecture visible today. In 738, Quiriguá, a vassal of Copán, Tikal's key ally in the south, switched allegiance to Calakmul, defeated Copán and gained its own independence. It appears that this was a conscious effort on the part of Calakmul to bring about the collapse of Tikal's southern allies. This upset the balance of power in the southern Maya area and lead to a steady decline in the fortunes of Copán. In the 8th century, the rulers of Tikal collected monuments from across the city and erected them in front of the North Acropolis. By the late 8th century and early 9th century, activity at Tikal slowed. Impressive architecture was still built but few hieroglyphic inscriptions refer to later rulers. === Klassika Terminali === By the 9th century, the crisis of the Classic Maya collapse was sweeping across the region, with populations plummeting and city after city falling into silence. Increasingly endemic warfare in the Maya region caused Tikal's supporting population to heavily concentrate close to the city itself, accelerating the use of intensive agriculture and the corresponding environmental decline. Construction continued at the beginning of the century, with the erection of Temple 3, the last of the city's major pyramids, and the erection of monuments to mark the 19th K'atun in 810. The beginning of the 10th Bak'tun in 830 passed uncelebrated, and marks the beginning of a 60-year hiatus, probably resulting from the collapse of central control in the city. During this hiatus, satellite sites traditionally under Tikal's control began to erect their own monuments featuring local rulers and using the Mutal emblem glyph, with Tikal apparently lacking the authority or the power to crush these bids for independence. In 849, Jewel K'awiil is mentioned on a stela at Seibal as visiting that city as the Divine Lord of Tikal but he is not recorded elsewhere and Tikal's once-great power was little more than a memory. The sites of Ixlu and Jimbal had by now inherited the once exclusive Mutal emblem glyph. As Tikal and its hinterland reached peak population, the area suffered deforestation, erosion and nutrient loss followed by a rapid decline in population levels. Recent analysis also indicates that the city's freshwater sources became highly contaminated with mercury, phosphate and cyanobacteria leading to the accumulation of toxins. Tikal and its immediate surroundings seem to have lost most of their population between 830 and 950 and central authority seems to have collapsed rapidly. There is not much evidence from Tikal that the city was directly affected by the endemic warfare that afflicted parts of the Maya region during the Terminal Classic, although an influx of refugees from the Petexbatún region may have exacerbated problems resulting from the already stretched environmental resources. The site core seen from the south, with Temple I at center, the North Acropolis to the left and Central Acropolis to the right In the latter half of the 9th century there was an attempt to revive royal power at the much-diminished city of Tikal, as evidenced by a stela erected in the Great Plaza by Jasaw Chan K'awiil II in 869. This was the last monument erected at Tikal before the city finally fell into silence. The former satellites of Tikal, such as Jimbal and Uaxactun, did not last much longer, erecting their final monuments in 889. By the end of the 9th century the vast majority of Tikal's population had deserted the city, its royal palaces were occupied by squatters and simple thatched dwellings were being erected in the city's ceremonial plazas. The squatters blocked some doorways in the rooms they reoccupied in the monumental structures of the site and left rubbish that included a mixture of domestic refuse and non-utilitarian items such as musical instruments. These inhabitants reused the earlier monuments for their own ritual activities, far removed from those of the royal dynasty that had erected them. Some monuments were vandalized and some were moved to new locations. Before its final abandonment all respect for the old rulers had disappeared, with the tombs of the North Acropolis being explored for jade and the easier-to-find tombs were looted. After 950, Tikal was all but deserted, although a remnant population may have survived in perishable huts interspersed among the ruins. Even these final inhabitants abandoned the city in the 10th or 11th centuries and the rainforest claimed the ruins for the next thousand years. Some of Tikal's population may have migrated to the Peten Lakes region, which remained heavily populated in spite of a plunge in population levels in the first half of the 9th century. The most likely cause of collapse at Tikal is overpopulation and agrarian failure. The fall of Tikal was a blow to the heart of Classic Maya civilization, the city having been at the forefront of courtly life, art and architecture for over a thousand years, with an ancient ruling dynasty. However, new research regarding paleoenvironmental proxies from the Tikal reservoir system suggests that a meteorological drought may have led to the abandonment of Tikal, fouling some reservoirs near the temple and palace with algae blooms, while other reservoirs remained drinkable. Buildings were painted with mercury-bearing cinnabar, which were washed off by rain and polluted some reservoirs. Works of Kohler and colleagues showed that this city reached an unsustainable level of inequalities at the end.^{[''clarification needed'']} === Moderna === Archeologist Edwin M. Shook, field director of the Tikal Project; Shook was also instrumental in having Tikal established as Guatemala's first National Park. In 1525, the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés passed within a few kilometers of the ruins of Tikal but did not mention them in his letters. After Spanish friar Andrés de Avendaño became lost in the Petén forests in early 1696 he described a ruin that may well have been Tikal. As is often the case with huge ancient ruins, knowledge of the site was never completely lost in the region. It seems that local people never forgot about Tikal and they guided Guatemalan expeditions to the ruins in the 1850s. Some second- or third-hand accounts of Tikal appeared in print starting in the 17th century, continuing through the writings of John Lloyd Stephens in the early 19th century (Stephens and his illustrator Frederick Catherwood heard rumors of a lost city, with white building tops towering above the jungle, during their 1839–40 travels in the region). Because of the site's remoteness from modern towns, however, no explorers visited Tikal until Modesto Méndez and Ambrosio Tut, respectively the commissioner and the governor of Petén, visited it in 1848. Artist Eusebio Lara accompanied them and their account was published in Germany in 1853. Several other expeditions came to further investigate, map, and photograph Tikal in the 19th century (including Alfred P. Maudslay in 1881-82) and the early 20th century. Pioneering archeologists started to clear, map and record the ruins in the 1880s. In 1951, a small airstrip was built at the ruins, which previously could only be reached by several days' travel through the jungle on foot or mule. In 1956 the Tikal project began to map the city on a scale not previously seen in the Maya area. From 1956 through 1970, major archeological excavations were carried out by the University of Pennsylvania Tikal Project. They mapped much of the site and excavated and restored many of the structures. Excavations directed by Edwin M. Shook and later by William Coe of the university investigated the North Acropolis and the Central Plaza from 1957 to 1969. The Tikal Project recorded over 200 monuments at the site. In 1979, the Guatemalan government began a further archeological project at Tikal, which continued through to 1984. Filmmaker George Lucas used Tikal as a filming location for the fictional moon Yavin 4 in the first ''Star Wars'' film, ''Episode IV: A New Hope'', which premiered in 1977. Temple I at Tikal was featured on the reverse of the 50 centavo banknote. Eon Productions used the site for the James Bond film ''Moonraker''. Tikal is now a major tourist attraction surrounded by its own national park. A site museum has been built at Tikal; it was completed in 1964. == Deskrizzjoni tas-sit == Tikal has been partially restored by the University of Pennsylvania and the government of Guatemala. It was one of the largest of the Classic period Maya cities and was one of the largest cities in the Americas. The architecture of the ancient city is built from limestone and includes the remains of temples that tower over 70 meters (230 ft) high, large royal palaces, in addition to a number of smaller pyramids, palaces, residences, administrative buildings, platforms and inscribed stone monuments. There is even a building which seemed to have been a jail, originally with wooden bars across the windows and doors. There are also seven courts for playing the Mesoamerican ballgame, including a set of 3 in the Seven Temples Plaza, a unique feature in Mesoamerica. The limestone used for construction was local and quarried on-site. The depressions formed by the extraction of stone for building were plastered to waterproof them and were used as reservoirs, together with some waterproofed natural depressions. The main plazas were surfaced with stucco and laid at a gradient that channelled rainfall into a system of canals that fed the reservoirs. The residential area of Tikal covers an estimated 60 square kilometers (23 sq mi), much of which has not yet been cleared, mapped, or excavated. The 16 square kilometers (6.2 sq mi) area around the site core has been intensively mapped; it may have enclosed an area of some 125 square kilometers (48 sq mi) (see below). A huge set of earthworks discovered by Dennis E. Puleston and Donald Callender in the 1960s rings Tikal with a 6-meter (20 ft) wide trench behind a rampart. Recently, a project exploring the defensive earthworks has shown that the scale of the earthworks is highly variable and that in many places it is inconsequential as a defensive feature. In addition, some parts of the earthwork were integrated into a canal system. The earthwork of Tikal varies significantly in coverage from what was originally proposed and it is much more complex and multifaceted than originally thought. === Toroq === By the Late Classic, a network of ''sacbeob'' (causeways) linked various parts of the city, running for several kilometers through its urban core. These linked the Great Plaza with Temple 4 (located about 750 meters (2,460 feet) to the west) and the Temple of the Inscriptions (about 1 kilometer (0.62 mi) to the southeast). These broad causeways were built of packed and plastered limestone and have been named after early explorers and archeologists; the Maler, Maudslay, Tozzer and Méndez causeways. They assisted the passage of everyday traffic during the rain season and also served as dams. The '''Maler Causeway''' runs north from behind Temple I to Group H. A large bas-relief is carved onto limestone bedrock upon the course of the causeway just south of Group H. It depicts two bound captives and dates to the Late Classic. The '''Maudsley Causeway''' runs 0.8 kilometers (0.50 mi) northeast from Temple IV to Group H. The '''Mendez Causeway''' runs southeast from the East Plaza to Temple VI, a distance of about 1.3 kilometers (0.81 mi). The '''Tozzer Causeway''' runs west from the Great Plaza to Temple IV. === Gruppi arkitettoniċi === The '''Great Plaza''' lies at the core of the site; it is flanked on the east and west sides by two great temple-pyramids. On the north side it is bordered by the North Acropolis and on the south by the Central Acropolis. The '''Central Acropolis''' is a palace complex just south of the Great Plaza. The '''North Acropolis''', together with the Great Plaza immediately to the south, is one of the most studied architectural groups in the Maya area; the Tikal Project excavated a massive trench across the complex, thoroughly investigating its construction history. It is a complex group with construction beginning in the Preclassic Period, around 350 BC. It developed into a funerary complex for the ruling dynasty of the Classic Period, with each additional royal burial adding new temples on top of the older structures. After AD 400 a row of tall pyramids was added to the earlier Northern Platform, which measured 100 by 80 meters (330 by 260 ft), gradually hiding it from view. Eight temple pyramids were built in the 6th century AD, each of them had an elaborate roofcomb and a stairway flanked by masks of the gods. By the 9th century AD, 43 stelae and 30 altars had been erected in the North Acropolis; 18 of these monuments were carved with hieroglyphic texts and royal portraits. The North Acropolis continued to receive burials into the Postclassic Period. The '''South Acropolis''' is found next to Temple V. It was built upon a large basal platform that covers an area of more than 20,000 square meters (220,000 sq ft). The '''Plaza of the Seven Temples''' is to the west of the South Acropolis. It is bordered on the east side by a row of nearly identical temples, by palaces on the south and west sides and by an unusual triple ballcourt on the north side. The '''Mundo Perdido''' is to the west of the Plaza of the Seven Temples. It is the largest ceremonial complex dating from the Preclassic period at Tikal. The complex was organized as a large E-Group consisting of a pyramid aligned with a platform to the east that supported three temples. The Mundo Perdido complex was rebuilt many times over the course of its history. By AD 250–300 its architectural style was influenced by the great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico, including the use of the ''talud-tablero'' form. During the Early Classic period (c. 250–600) the Mundo Perdido became one of the twin foci of the city, the other being the North Acropolis. From AD 250 to 378 it may have served as the royal necropolis. The Mundo Perdido complex was given its name by the archeologists of the University of Pennsylvania; it is centered upon the Lost World Pyramid and a small platform to the west of it. To the south of Mundo Perdido, recent 2021 excavations have revealed a one-third size replication of La Ciudadela, or The Citadel, in Teotihuacan. This area may have been used as a diplomatic headquarters and as an effort to further stamp Teotihuacan culture upon the residents of Tikal. '''Group G''' lies just south of the Mendez Causeway. The complex dates to the Late Classic and consists of palace-type structures and is one of the largest groups of its type at Tikal. It has two stories but most of the rooms are on the lower floor, a total of 29 vaulted chambers. The remains of two further chambers belong to the upper story. One of the entrances to the group was framed by a gigantic mask. '''Group H''' is centered on a large plaza to the north of the Great Plaza. It is bordered by temples dating to the Late Classic. There are nine '''Twin-Pyramid Complexes''' at Tikal, one of which was completely dismantled in ancient times and some others were partly destroyed. They vary in size but consist of two pyramids facing each other on an east–west axis. These pyramids are flat-topped and have stairways on all four sides. A row of plain stelae is placed immediately to the west of the eastern pyramid and to the north of the pyramids. Lying roughly equidistant from them, there is usually a sculpted stela and altar pair. On the south side of these complexes there is a long vaulted building containing a single room with nine doorways. The entire complex was built at once and these complexes were built at 20-year (or ''k'atun'') intervals during the Late Classic. The first twin pyramid complex was built in the early 6th century in the East Plaza. It was once thought that these complexes were unique to Tikal but rare examples have now been found at other sites, such as Yaxha and Ixlu, and they may reflect the extent of Tikal's political dominance in the Late Classic. '''Group Q''' is a twin-pyramid complex, and is one of the largest at Tikal. It was built by Yax Nuun Ayiin II in 771 in order to mark the end of the 17th K'atun. Most of it has been restored and its monuments have been re-erected. '''Group R''' is another twin-pyramid complex, dated to 790. It is close to the Maler Causeway. === Strutturi === There are thousands of ancient structures at Tikal and only a fraction of these have been excavated, after decades of archeological work. The most prominent surviving buildings include six very large pyramids, labelled Temples I – VI, each of which support a temple structure on their summits. Some of these pyramids are over 60 meters (200 feet) high. They were numbered sequentially during the early survey of the site. It is estimated that each of these major temples could have been built in as little as two years. '''Temple I''' (also known as the ''Temple of Ah Cacao'' or ''Temple of the Great Jaguar'') is a funerary pyramid dedicated to Jasaw Chan K'awil, who was entombed in the structure in AD 734, the pyramid was completed around 740–750. The temple rises 47 meters (154 ft) high. The massive roofcomb that topped the temple was originally decorated with a giant sculpture of the enthroned king, although little of this decoration survives. The tomb of the king was discovered by Aubrey Trik of the University of Pennsylvania in 1962. Among items recovered from the Late Classic tomb were a large collection of inscribed human and animal bone tubes and strips with sophisticated scenes depicting deities and people, finely carved and rubbed with vermilion, as well as jade and shell ornaments and ceramic vessels filled with offerings of food and drink. The shrine at the summit of the pyramid has three chambers, each behind the next, with the doorways spanned by wooden lintels fashioned from multiple beams. The outermost lintel is plain but the two inner lintels were carved, some of the beams were removed in the 19th century and their location is unknown, while others were taken to museums in Europe. '''Temple II''' (also known as the ''Temple of the Mask'') it was built around AD 700 and stands 38 meters (125 ft) high. Like other major temples at Tikal, the summit shrine had three consecutive chambers with the doorways spanned by wooden lintels, only the middle of which was carved. The temple was dedicated to the wife of Jasaw Chan K'awil, although no tomb was found. The queen's portrait was carved into the lintel spanning the doorway of the summit shrine. One of the beams from this lintel is now in the American Museum of Natural History in New York City. '''Temple III''' (also known as the ''Temple of the Jaguar Priest'') was the last of the great pyramids to be built at Tikal. It stood 55 meters (180 ft) tall and contained an elaborately sculpted but damaged roof lintel, possibly showing Dark Sun engaged in a ritual dance around AD 810. The temple shrine possesses two chambers. '''Temple IV''' is the tallest temple-pyramid at Tikal, measuring 70 meters (230 ft) from the plaza floor level to the top of its roof comb. Temple IV marks the reign of Yik’in Chan Kawil (Ruler B, the son of Ruler A or Jasaw Chan K'awiil I) and two carved wooden lintels over the doorway that leads into the temple on the pyramid's summit record a long count date (9.15.10.0.0) that corresponds to CE 741 (Sharer 1994:169). Temple IV is the largest pyramid built anywhere in the Maya region in the 8th century, and as it currently stands is the tallest pre-Columbian structure in the Americas although the Pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacan may originally have been taller, as may have been one of the structures at El Mirador. '''Temple V''' stands south of the Central Acropolis and is the mortuary pyramid of an as yet unidentified ruler. The temple stands 57 meters (187 ft) high, making it the second tallest structure at Tikal – only Temple IV is taller. The temple has been dated to about AD 700, in the Late Classic period, via radiocarbon analysis and the dating of ceramics associated with the structure places its construction during the reign of Nun Bak Chak in the second half of the 7th century. '''Temple VI''' is also known as the ''Temple of the Inscriptions'' and was dedicated in AD 766. It is notable for its 12-meter (39 ft) high roof-comb. Panels of hieroglyphs cover the back and sides of the roof-comb. The temple faces onto a plaza to the west and its front is unrestored. '''Temple 33''' was a funerary pyramid erected over the tomb of Siyaj Chan K'awiil I (known as Burial 48) in the North Acropolis. It started life in the Early Classic as a wide basal platform decorated with large stucco masks that flanked the stairway. Later in the Early Classic a new superstructure was added, with its own masks and decorated panels. During the Hiatus a third stage was built over the earlier constructions, the stairway was demolished and another royal burial, of an unidentified ruler, was set into the structure (Burial 23). While the new pyramid was being built another high ranking tomb (Burial 24) was inserted into the rubble core of the building. The pyramid was then completed, standing 33 meters (108 ft) tall. The final version of Temple 33 was completely dismantled by archeologists in 1965 in order to arrive at the earlier stages of construction. '''Structure 34''' is a pyramid in the North Acropolis that was built by Siyaj Chan K'awiil II over the tomb of his father, Yax Nuun Ayiin I. The pyramid was topped by a three chambered shrine, the rooms situated one behind the other. Detail of Teotihuacan-related imagery decorating the sloping ''talud'' sections of the ''talud-tablero'' sides of Structure 5D-43. '''Structure 5D-43''' is an unusual radial temple in the East Plaza, built over a pre-existing twin pyramid complex. It is built into the end of the East Plaza Ballcourt and possessed four entry doorways and three stairways, the fourth (south) side was too close to the Central Acropolis for a stairway on that side. The building has a ''talud-tablero'' platform profile, modified from the original style found at Teotihuacan. In fact, it has been suggested that the style of the building has closer affinities with El Tajin and Xochicalco than with Teotihuacan itself. The vertical ''tablero'' panels are set between sloping ''talud'' panels and are decorated with paired disc symbols. Large flower symbols are set into the sloping ''talud'' panels, related to the Venus and star symbols used at Teotihuacan. The roof of the structure was decorated with friezes although only fragments now remain, showing a monstrous face, perhaps that of a jaguar, with another head emerging from the mouth. The second head possesses a bifurcated tongue but is probably not that of a snake. The temple, and its associated ballcourt, probably date to the reign of Nuun Ujol Chaak or that of his son Jasaw Chan K'awiil I, in the later part of the 7th century. '''Structure 5C-49''' possesses a clear Teotihuacan-linked architectural style; it has balustrades, an architectural feature that is very rare in the Maya region, and a ''talud-tablero'' façade; it dates to the 4th century AD. It is located near to the Lost World pyramid. '''Structure 5C-53''' is a small Teotihuacan-style platform that dates to about AD 600. It had stairways on all four sides and did not possess a superstructure. The '''Lost World Pyramid''' (Structure 5C-54) is the largest structure in the Mundo Perdido complex. It lies in the southwest portion of Tikal's central core, south of Temple III and west of Temple V. It was decorated with stucco masks of the sun god and dates to the Late Preclassic; this pyramid is part of an enclosed complex of structures that remained intact and un-impacted by later building activity at Tikal. By the end of the Late Preclassic this pyramid was one of the largest structures in the Maya region. It attained its final form during the reign of Chak Tok Ich'aak in the 4th century AD, in the Early Classic, standing more than 30 meters (98 ft) high with stairways on all four sides and a flat top that possibly supported a superstructure built from perishable materials. Although the plaza later suffered significant alteration, the organization of a group of temples on the east side of this complex adheres to the layout that defines the so-called E-Groups, identified as solar observatories. '''Structure 5D-96''' is the central temple on the east side of the Plaza of the Seven Temples. It has been restored and its rear outer wall is decorated with skull-and-crossbones motifs. '''Group 6C-16''' is an elite residential complex that has been thoroughly excavated. It lies a few hundred m south of the Lost World Complex and the excavations have revealed elaborate stucco masks, ballplayer murals, relief sculptures and buildings with Teotihuacan characteristics. The '''Great Plaza Ballcourt''' is a small ballcourt that lies between Temple I and the Central Acropolis. The '''Bat Palace''' is also known as the Palace of Windows and lies to the west of Temple III. It has two storeys, with a double range of chambers on the lower storey and a single range in the upper storey, which has been restored. The palace has ancient graffiti and possesses low windows. '''Complex N''' lies to the west of the Bat Palace and Temple III. The complex dates to AD 711. In 2018, 60,000 uncharted structures were revealed by archeologists with help of Lidar. Thanks to the new findings, some archeologists believe that 7-11 million Maya people inhabited in the northern Guatemala during the late classical period from 650 to 800 A.D. Lidar digitally removed the tree canopy to reveal ancient remains and showed that Maya cities like Tikal were bigger than previously thought. The project was mapped near the Maya Biosphere Reserve in the Petén region of Guatemala. === Altars[edit] === '''Altar 5''' is carved with two nobles, one of whom is probably Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. They are performing a ritual using the bones of an important woman. Altar 5 was found in Complex N, which lies to the west of Temple III. '''Altar 8''' is sculpted with a bound captive. It was found within Complex P in Group H and is now in the Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología in Guatemala City. '''Altar 9''' is associated with Stela 21 and bears the sculpture of a bound captive. It is located in front of Temple VI. '''Altar 10''' is carved with a captive tied to a scaffold. It is in the northern enclosure of Group Q, a twin-pyramid complex and has suffered from erosion. '''Altar 35''' is a plain monument associated with Stela 43. The stela-altar pair is centrally located at the base of the stairway of Temple IV. === Lintels === The elaborately carved wooden Lintel 3 from Temple IV. It celebrates a military victory by Yik'in Chan K'awiil in 743. At Tikal, beams of sapodilla wood were placed as lintels spanning the inner doorways of temples. These are the most elaborately carved wooden lintels to have survived anywhere in the Maya region. '''Lintel 3''' from Temple IV was taken to Basel in Switzerland in the 19th century. It was in almost perfect condition and depicts Yik'in Chan K'awiil seated on a palanquin. === Steli === Stelae are carved stone shafts, often sculpted with figures and hieroglyphs. A selection of the most notable stelae at Tikal follows: '''Stela 1''' dates to the 5th century and depicts the king Siyaj Chan K'awiil II in a standing position. '''Stela 4''' is dated to AD 396, during the reign of Yax Nuun Ayiin after the intrusion of Teotihuacan in the Maya area. The stela displays a mix of Maya and Teotihuacan qualities, and deities from both cultures. It has a portrait of the king with the Underworld Jaguar God under one arm and the Mexican Tlaloc under the other. His helmet is a simplified version of the Teotihuacan War Serpent. Unusually for Maya sculpture, but typically for Teotihuacan, Yax Nuun Ayiin is depicted with a frontal face, rather than in profile. '''Stela 5''' was dedicated in 744 by Yik'in Chan K'awiil. '''Stela 6''' is a badly damaged monument dating to 514 and bears the name of the "Lady of Tikal" who celebrated the end of the 4th K'atun in that year. '''Stela 10''' is twinned with Stela 12 but is badly damaged. It described the accession of Kaloomte' B'alam in the early 6th century and earlier events in his career, including the capture of a prisoner depicted on the monument. '''Stela 11''' was the last monument ever erected at Tikal; it was dedicated in 869 by Jasaw Chan K'awiil II. '''Stela 12''' is linked to the queen known as the "Lady of Tikal" and king Kaloomte' B'alam. The queen is described as performing the year-ending rituals but the monument was dedicated in honor of the king. '''Stela 16''' was dedicated in 711, during the reign of Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. The sculpture, including a portrait of the king and a hieroglyphic text, are limited to the front face of the monument. It was found in Complex N, west of Temple III. '''Stela 18''' was one of two stelae erected by Yax Nuun Ayiin I to celebrate the ''k'atun''-ending of AD 396. It was re-erected at the base of Temple 34, his funerary shrine. '''Stela 19''' was dedicated in 790 by Yax Nuun Ayiin II. '''Stela 20''' was found in Complex P, in Group H, and was moved to the Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología in Guatemala City. '''Stela 21''' was dedicated in 736 by Yik'in Chan K'awiil. Only the bottom of the stela is intact, the rest having been mutilated in ancient times. The surviving sculpture is of fine quality, consisting of the feet of a figure and of accompanying hieroglyphic text. The stela is associated with Altar 9 and is located in front of Temple VI. '''Stela 22''' was dedicated in 771 by Yax Nuun Ayiin II in the northern enclosure of Group Q, a twin-pyramid complex. The face of the figure on the stela has been mutilated. '''Stela 23''' was broken in antiquity and was re-erected in a residential complex. The defaced portrait on the monument is that of the so-called "Lady of Tikal", a daughter of Chak Tok Ich'aak II who became queen at the age of six but never ruled in her own right, being paired with male co-rulers. It dates to the early 6th century. '''Stela 24''' was erected at the foot of Temple 3 in 810, accompanied by Altar 7. Both were broken into fragments in ancient times, although the name of Dark Sun survives on three fragments. '''Stela 26''' was found in the summit shrine of Temple 34, underneath a broken masonry altar. The monument had originally been erected at the base of the temple during the Early Classic period and was later broken, probably at the beginning of the Late Classic. Its remains were then interred within the temple shrine. '''Stela 29''' bears a Long Count (8.12.14.8.15) date equivalent to AD 292, the earliest surviving Long Count date from the Maya lowlands. The stela is also the earliest monument to bear the Tikal emblem glyph. It bears a sculpture of the king facing to the right, holding the head of an underworld jaguar god, one of the patron deities of the city. The stela was deliberately smashed during the 6th century or some time later, the upper portion was dragged away and dumped in a rubbish tip close to Temple III, to be uncovered by archeologists in 1959. '''Stela 30''' is the first surviving monument to be erected after the Hiatus. Its style and iconography is similar to that of Caracol, one of the more important of Tikal's enemies. Stela 31, with the sculpted image of Siyaj Chan K'awiil II '''Stela 31''' is the accession monument of Siyaj Chan K'awiil II, also bearing two portraits of his father, Yax Nuun Ayiin, as a youth dressed as a Teotihuacan warrior. He carries a spearthrower in one hand and bears a shield decorated with the face of Tlaloc, the Teotihuacan war god. In ancient times the sculpture was broken and the upper portion was moved to the summit of Temple 33 and ritually buried. Stela 31 has been described as the greatest Early Classic sculpture to survive at Tikal. A long hieroglyphic text is carved onto the back of the monument, the longest to survive from the Early Classic, which describes the arrival of Siyah K'ak' at El Peru and Tikal in January 378. It was also the first stela at Tikal to be carved on all four faces. '''Stela 32''' is a fragmented monument with a foreign Teotihuacan-style sculpture apparently depicting the lord of that city with the attributes of the central Mexican storm god Tlaloc, including his goggle eyes and tasselled headdress. '''Stela 39''' is a broken monument that was erected in the Lost World complex. The upper portion of the stela is missing but the lower portion shows the lower body and legs of Chak Tok Ich'aak, holding a flint axe in his left hand. He is trampling the figure of a bound, richly dressed captive. The monument is dated to AD 376. The text on the back of the monument describes a bloodletting ritual to celebrate a Katun-ending. The stela also names Chak Tok Ich'aak I's father as K'inich Muwaan Jol. '''Stela 40''' bears a portrait of Kan Chitam and dates to AD 468. '''Stela 43''' is paired with Altar 35. It is a plain monument at the base of the stairway of Temple IV. === Oqbra === A ceramic censer representing an elderly deity, found in Burial 10. '''Burial 1''' is a tomb in the Lost World complex. A fine ceramic bowl was recovered from the tomb, with the handle formed from three-dimensional head and neck of a bird emerging from the two-dimensional body painted on the lid. '''Burial 10''' is the tomb of Yax Nuun Ayiin. It is located beneath Structure 34 in the North Acropolis. The tomb contained a rich array of offerings, including ceramic vessels and food, and nine youths were sacrificed to accompany the dead king. A dog was also entombed with the deceased king. Pots in the tomb were stuccoed and painted and many demonstrated a blend of Maya and Teotihuacan styles. Among the offerings was an incense-burner in the shape of an elderly underworld god, sitting on a stool made of human bones and holding a severed head in his hands. The tomb was sealed with a corbel vault, then the pyramid was built on top. '''Burial 48''' is generally accepted as the tomb of Sihyaj Chan Kʼawiil II. It is located beneath Temple 33 in the North Acropolis. The chamber of the tomb was cut from the bedrock and contained the remains of the king himself together with those of two adolescents who had been sacrificed in order to accompany the deceased ruler. The walls of the tomb were covered with white stucco painted with hieroglyphs that included the Long Count date equivalent to 20 March 457, probably the date of either the death or interment of the king. The king's skeleton was missing its skull, its femurs and one of its hands while the skeletons of the sacrificial victims were intact. '''Burial 85''' dates to the Late Preclassic and was enclosed by a platform, with a primitive corbel vault. The tomb contained a single male skeleton, which lacked a skull and its thighbones. The dynastic founder of Tikal, Yax Ehb' Xook, has been linked to this tomb, which lies deep in the heart of the North Acropolis. The deceased had probably died in battle with his body being mutilated by his enemies before being recovered and interred by his followers. The bones were wrapped carefully in textiles to form an upright bundle. The missing head was replaced by a small greenstone mask with shell-inlaid teeth and eyes and bearing a three-pointed royal headband. This head wears an emblem of rulership on its forehead and is a rare Preclassic lowland Maya portrait of a king. Among the contents of the tomb were a stingray spine, a spondylus shell and twenty-six ceramic vessels. '''Burial 116''' is the tomb of Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. It is a large vaulted chamber deep within the pyramid, below the level of the Great Plaza. The tomb contained rich offerings of jadeite, ceramics, shell and works of art. The body of the king was covered with large quantities of jade ornaments including an enormous necklace with especially large beads, as depicted in sculpted portraits of the king. One of the outstanding pieces recovered from the tomb was an ornate jade mosaic vessel with the lid bearing a sculpted portrait of the king himself. '''Burial 195''' was flooded with mud in antiquity. This flood had covered wooden objects that had completely rotted away by the time the tomb was excavated, leaving hollows in the dried mud. Archeologists filled these hollows with stucco and thus excavated four effigies of the god K'awiil, the wooden originals long gone. '''Burial 196''' is a Late Classic royal tomb that contained a jade mosaic vessel topped with the head of the Maize God. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Siti arkeoloġiċi]] [[Kategorija:Siti ta' Wirt Dinji]] rj1uvb847k0i546q75quc4y82dx7t9m 279082 279081 2022-08-14T14:30:56Z Trigcly 17859 added [[Category:Parks Nazzjonali]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] wikitext text/x-wiki [[Stampa:Tikal Temple1 2006 08 11.JPG|daqsminuri|It-Tempju I ta' Tikal huwa għoli 47 metru (154 pied).]] '''Tikal''' (/tiˈkɑːl/; ''Tik’al'' bl-ortografija moderna tal-[[Maja]]) huwa l-fdal ta' belt antika, li x'aktarx kienet tissejjaħ '''Yax Mutal''', u li tinsab f'foresta tropikali fil-[[Gwatemala]]. Huwa wieħed mill-ikbar siti [[Arkeoloġija|arkeoloġiċi]] u ċentri urbani taċ-ċivilizzazzjoni tal-Maja pre-Kolumbjana. Jinsab fir-reġjun arkeoloġiku tal-Baċir ta' Petén fit-territorju attwali tat-Tramuntana tal-Gwatemala. Is-sit jinsab fid-dipartiment ta' El Petén u huwa parti mill-Park Nazzjonali ta' Tikal. Fl-1979 sar [[Sit ta' Wirt Dinji]] tal-[[UNESCO]].<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/64/|titlu=Tikal National Park|kunjom=Centre|isem=UNESCO World Heritage|sit=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2022-08-14}}</ref> Tikal kien il-[[belt kapitali]] ta' stat ħakkiem li sar wieħed mill-iżjed renji setgħana tal-Maja tal-qedem. Għalkemm l-arkitettura [[Monument|monumentali]] tas-sit tmur lura saħansitra tas-seklu 4 [[Ante Christum natum|Q.K]]., Tikal laħaq il-quċċata tiegħu matul il-Perjodu Klassiku, għall-ħabta tal-200 sad-900. Matul dak iż-żmien, il-belt iddominat il-biċċa l-kbira tar-reġjun tal-Maja [[Politika|politikament]], ekonomikament u militarment, filwaqt li interaġixxiet ma' żoni fil-Mesoamerka kollha, bħall-metropoli l-kbira ta' [[Teotihuacan]] fil-Wied tal-Messiku daqstant 'il bogħod. Hemm evidenza li Tikal inħakem minn Teotihuacan fis-seklu 4 W.K. Wara t-tmiem tal-Perjodu Klassiku Aħħari, ma nbena l-ebda monument maġġuri f'Tikal u hemm evidenza li l-palazzi tal-elit ingħataw in-nar. Dan l-avvenimenti mexew id f'id ma' tnaqqis gradwali fil-popolazzjoni, u laħqu l-qofol tagħhom fl-abbandun tas-sit sal-aħħar tas-seklu 10. Tikal hija l-iżjed belt mifhuma minn kwalunkwe waħda mill-bliet tal-Maja l-kbar fl-artijiet baxxi, b'lista twila ta' mexxejja dinastiċi, bl-iskoperta tal-oqbra ta' bosta mill-mexxejja fuq din il-lista u bl-investigazzjoni tal-monumenti, tat-tempji u tal-palazzi tagħhom. == Etimoloġija == [[Stampa:Tikalemblem.jpg|daqsminuri|Glifiċi emblematiċi ta' isem Tikal]] L-isem ''Tikal'' jaf oriġina minn ''ti ak'al'' fil-lingwa tal-Maja tal-[[Yucatan]]; jingħad li huwa isem relattivament modern li jfisser "f'ġibjun". Milli jidher l-isem ingħata lil wieħed mill-ġibjuni antiki tas-sit mill-kaċċaturi u mill-vjaġġaturi fir-reġjun. Interpretazzjoni oħra tal-isem hi li jfisser "il-post tal-vuċijiet" fil-lingwa tal-Maja ta' Itza. Madankollu, Tikal mhuwiex l-isem antik tas-sit iżda pjuttost l-isem li ġie adottat ftit wara l-iskoperta tas-sit fis-snin 40 tas-seklu 19. Il-kitbiet ġeroglifiċi fil-fdalijiet jirreferu għall-belt antika bħala ''Yax Mutal'' jew ''Yax Mutul'', li tfisser "l-ewwel Mutal". Tikal jaf bdiet tissejjaħ hekk minħabba li Dos Pilas beda juża l-istess glifiċi emblematiċi; il-mexxejja tal-belt x'aktarx li riedu jiddistingwu bejn il-bliet b'dan il-mod. Ir-renju kollu kien jissejjaħ sempliċement ''Mutul'', li huwa l-interpretazzjoni tal-glifiċi emblematiċi tal-"qatta' xagħar" fir-ritratt fuq il-lemin. It-tifsira preċiża għadha mhux ċerta. == Ġeografija == [[Stampa:Mayamap.png|daqsminuri|280x280px|Mappa taż-żona tal-Maja fir-reġjun Mesoamerikan. Kemm Tikal kif ukoll Calakmul jinsabu qrib iċ-ċentru taż-żona.]] The closest large modern settlements are Flores and Santa Elena, approximately 64 kilometers (40 mi) by road to the southwest. Tikal is approximately 303 kilometers (188 mi) north of Guatemala City. It is 19 kilometers (12 mi) south of the contemporary Maya city of Uaxactun and 30 kilometers (19 mi) northwest of Yaxha. The city was located 100 kilometers (62 mi) southeast of its great Classic Period rival, Calakmul, and 85 kilometers (53 mi) northwest of Calakmul's ally Caracol, now in Belize. The city has been completely mapped and covered an area greater than 16 square kilometers (6.2 sq mi) that included about 3,000 structures. The topography of the site consists of a series of parallel limestone ridges rising above swampy lowlands. The major architecture of the site is clustered upon areas of higher ground and linked by raised causeways spanning the swamps. The area around Tikal has been declared as the Tikal National Park and the preserved area covers 570 square kilometers (220 sq mi). It was created on 26 May 1955 under the auspices of the Instituto de Antropología e Historia and was the first protected area in Guatemala. The ruins lie among the tropical rainforests of northern Guatemala that formed the cradle of lowland Maya civilization. The city itself was located among abundant fertile upland soils, and may have dominated a natural east–west trade route across the Yucatan Peninsula. Conspicuous trees at the Tikal park include gigantic kapok (''Ceiba pentandra'') the sacred tree of the Maya; tropical cedar (''Cedrela odorata''), and Honduras mahogany (''Swietenia macrophylla''). Regarding the fauna, agoutis, white-nosed coatis, gray foxes, Geoffroy's spider monkeys, howler monkeys, harpy eagles, falcons, ocellated turkeys, guans, toucans, green parrots and leafcutter ants can be seen there regularly. Jaguars, ocelots, and cougars are also said to roam in the park. Tikal had no water other than what was collected from rainwater and stored in ten reservoirs. Archeologists working in Tikal during the 20th century refurbished one of these ancient reservoirs to store water for their own use. The average annual rainfall at Tikal is 1,945 millimeters (76.6 in). However, the arrival of rain was often unpredictable, and long periods of drought could occur before the crops ripened, which severely threatened the inhabitants of the city. == Popolazzjoni == Population estimates for Tikal vary from 10,000 to as high as 90,000 inhabitants. The population of Tikal began a continuous curve of growth starting in the Preclassic Period (approximately 2000 BC – AD 200), with a peak in the Late Classic with the population growing rapidly from AD 700 through to 830, followed by a sharp decline. For the 120 square kilometers (46 sq mi) area falling within the earthwork defenses of the hinterland, the peak population is estimated at 517 per square kilometer (1340 per square mile). In an area within a 12 kilometers (7.5 mi) radius of the site core, peak population is estimated at 120,000; population density is estimated at 265 per square kilometer (689 per square mile). In a region within a 25 kilometers (16 mi) radius of the site core and including some satellite sites, peak population is estimated at 425,000 with a density of 216 per square kilometer (515 per square mile). These population figures are even more impressive because of the extensive swamplands that were unsuitable for habitation or agriculture. However, some archeologists, such as David Webster, believe these figures to be far too high. == Sit ta' Wirt Dinji == == Storja == === Preklassika === There are traces of early agriculture at the site dating as far back as 1000 BC, in the Middle Preclassic. A cache of Mamon ceramics dating from about 700-400 BC were found in a sealed chultun, a subterranean bottle-shaped chamber. Major construction at Tikal was already taking place in the Late Preclassic period, first appearing around 400–300 BC, including the building of major pyramids and platforms, although the city was still dwarfed by sites further north such as El Mirador and Nakbe. At this time, Tikal participated in the widespread Chikanel culture that dominated the Central and Northern Maya areas at this time – a region that included the entire Yucatan Peninsula including northern and eastern Guatemala and all of Belize. Two temples dating to Late Chikanel times had masonry-walled superstructures that may have been corbel-vaulted, although this has not been proven. One of these had elaborate paintings on the outer walls showing human figures against a scrollwork background, painted in yellow, black, pink and red. In the 1st century AD rich burials first appeared and Tikal underwent a political and cultural florescence as its giant northern neighbors declined. At the end of the Late Preclassic, the Izapan style art and architecture from the Pacific Coast began to influence Tikal, as demonstrated by a broken sculpture from the acropolis and early murals at the city. === Klassika bikrija === Dynastic rulership among the lowland Maya is most deeply rooted at Tikal. According to later hieroglyphic records, the dynasty was founded by Yax Ehb Xook, perhaps in the 1st century AD. At the beginning of the Early Classic, power in the Maya region was concentrated at Tikal and Calakmul, in the core of the Maya heartland. Tikal may have benefited from the collapse of the large Preclassic states such as El Mirador. In the Early Classic Tikal rapidly developed into the most dynamic city in the Maya region, stimulating the development of other nearby Maya cities. The site, however, was often at war and inscriptions tell of alliances and conflict with other Maya states, including Uaxactun, Caracol, Naranjo and Calakmul. The site was defeated at the end of the Early Classic by Caracol, which rose to take Tikal's place as the paramount center in the southern Maya lowlands. The earlier part of the Early Classic saw hostilities between Tikal and its neighbor Uaxactun, with Uaxactun recording the capture of prisoners from Tikal. There appears to have been a breakdown in the male succession by AD 317, when Lady Unen Bahlam conducted a katun-ending ceremony, apparently as queen of the city. ==== Tikal u Teotihuacan ==== The great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico appears to have decisively intervened in Tikal politics. As early as 200 AD Teotihuacan had embassies in Tikal. The fourteenth king of Tikal was Chak Tok Ich'aak (Great Jaguar Paw). Chak Tok Ich'aak built a palace that was preserved and developed by later rulers until it became the core of the Central Acropolis. Little is known about Chak Tok Ich'aak except that he was killed on 14 January 378 AD.^{[''contradictory'']} On the same day, Siyah K’ak' (Fire Is Born) arrived from the west, having passed through El Peru, a site to the west of Tikal, on 8 January. On Stela 31 he is named as "Lord of the West". Siyah K’ak' was probably a foreign general serving a figure represented by a non-Maya hieroglyph of a spearthrower combined with an owl, a glyph that is well known from the great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the distant Valley of Mexico. Spearthrower Owl may even have been the ruler of Teotihuacan. These recorded events strongly suggest that Siyah K’ak' led a Teotihuacan invasion that defeated the native Tikal king, who was captured and immediately executed. Siyah K'ak' appears to have been aided by a powerful political faction at Tikal itself; roughly at the time of the conquest, a group of Teotihuacan natives were apparently residing near the Lost World complex. He also exerted control over other cities in the area, including Uaxactun, where he became king, but did not take the throne of Tikal for himself. Within a year, the son of Spearthrower Owl by the name of Yax Nuun Ayiin I (First Crocodile) had been installed as the fifteenth king of Tikal while he was still a boy, being enthroned on 13 September 379. He reigned for 47 years as king of Tikal, and remained a vassal of Siyah K'ak' for as long as the latter lived. It seems likely that Yax Nuun Ayiin I took a wife from the preexisting, defeated, Tikal dynasty and thus legitimized the right to rule of his son, Siyaj Chan K'awiil II. Río Azul, a small site 100 kilometers (62 mi) northeast of Tikal, was conquered by the latter during the reign of Yax Nuun Ayiin I. The site became an outpost of Tikal, shielding it from hostile cities further north, and also became a trade link to the Caribbean. Although the new rulers of Tikal were foreign, their descendants were rapidly Mayanized. Tikal became the key ally and trading partner of Teotihuacan in the Maya lowlands. After being conquered by Teotihuacan, Tikal rapidly dominated the northern and eastern Peten. Uaxactun, together with smaller towns in the region, were absorbed into Tikal's kingdom. Other sites, such as Bejucal and Motul de San José near Lake Petén Itzá became vassals of their more powerful neighbor to the north. By the middle of the 5th century Tikal had a core territory of at least 25 kilometers (16 mi) in every direction. Around the 5th century an impressive system of fortifications consisting of ditches and earthworks was built along the northern periphery of Tikal's hinterland, joining up with the natural defenses provided by large areas of swampland lying to the east and west of the city. Additional fortifications were probably also built to the south. These defenses protected Tikal's core population and agricultural resources, encircling an area of approximately 120 square kilometers (46 sq mi). Recent research suggests that the earthworks served as a water collection system rather than a defensive purpose. ==== Tikal u Copán ==== In the 5th century the power of the city reached as far south as Copán, whose founder K'inich Yax K'uk' Mo' was clearly connected with Tikal. Copán itself was not in an ethnically Maya region and the founding of the Copán dynasty probably involved the direct intervention of Tikal. K'inich Yax K'uk' Mo' arrived in Copán in December 426 and bone analysis of his remains shows that he passed his childhood and youth at Tikal. An individual known as Ajaw K'uk' Mo' (lord K'uk' Mo') is referred to in an early text at Tikal and may well be the same person. His tomb had Teotihuacan characteristics and he was depicted in later portraits dressed in the warrior garb of Teotihuacan. Hieroglyphic texts refer to him as "Lord of the West", much like Siyah K’ak'. At the same time, in late 426, Copán founded the nearby site of Quiriguá, possibly sponsored by Tikal itself. The founding of these two centers may have been part of an effort to impose Tikal's authority upon the southeastern portion of the Maya region. The interaction between these sites and Tikal was intense over the next three centuries. A long-running rivalry between Tikal and Calakmul began in the 6th century, with each of the two cities forming its own network of mutually hostile alliances arrayed against each other in what has been likened to a long-running war between two Maya superpowers. The kings of these two capitals adopted the title ''kaloomte''', a term that has not been precisely translated but that implies something akin to "high king". The early 6th century saw another queen ruling the city, known only as the "Lady of Tikal", who was very likely a daughter of Chak Tok Ich'aak II. She seems never to have ruled in her own right, rather being partnered with male co-rulers. The first of these was Kaloomte' B'alam, who seems to have had a long career as a general at Tikal before becoming co-ruler and 19th in the dynastic sequence. The Lady of Tikal herself seems not have been counted in the dynastic numbering. It appears she was later paired with lord "Bird Claw", who is presumed to be the otherwise unknown 20th ruler. === Klassika Aħħarija === ==== L-aqwa żmien ta' Tikal ==== In the mid 6th century, Caracol seems to have allied with Calakmul and defeated Tikal, closing the Early Classic. The "Tikal hiatus" refers to a period between the late 6th to late 7th century where there was a lapse in the writing of inscriptions and large-scale construction at Tikal. In the latter half of the 6th century AD, a serious crisis befell the city, with no new stelae being erected and with widespread deliberate mutilation of public sculpture. This hiatus in activity at Tikal was long unexplained until later epigraphic decipherments identified that the period was prompted by Tikal's comprehensive defeat at the hands of Calakmul and the Caracol polity in AD 562, a defeat that seems to have resulted in the capture and sacrifice of the king of Tikal. The badly eroded Altar 21 at Caracol described how Tikal suffered this disastrous defeat in a major war in April 562. It seems that Caracol was an ally of Calakmul in the wider conflict between that city and Tikal, with the defeat of Tikal having a lasting impact upon the city. Tikal was not sacked but its power and influence were broken. After its great victory, Caracol grew rapidly and some of Tikal's population may have been forcibly relocated there. During the hiatus period, at least one ruler of Tikal took refuge with Janaab' Pakal of Palenque, another of Calakmul's victims. Calakmul itself thrived during Tikal's long hiatus period. The beginning of the Tikal hiatus has served as a marker by which archeologists commonly subdivide the Classic period of Mesoamerican chronology into the Early and Late Classic. ==== Tikal u Dos Pilas ==== In 629 Tikal founded Dos Pilas, some 110 kilometers (68 mi) to the southwest, as a military outpost in order to control trade along the course of the Pasión River. B'alaj Chan K'awiil was installed on the throne of the new outpost at the age of four, in 635. When he was older, for many years he served as a loyal vassal fighting for his brother, the king of Tikal. Roughly twenty years later, Dos Pilas was attacked by Calakmul and was soundly defeated. B'alaj Chan K'awiil was captured by the king of Calakmul but, instead of being sacrificed, he was re-instated on his throne as a vassal of his former enemy. He attacked Tikal in 657, forcing Nuun Ujol Chaak, then king of Tikal, to temporarily abandon the city. The first two rulers of Dos Pilas continued to use the Mutal emblem glyph of Tikal, and they probably felt that they had a legitimate claim to the throne of Tikal itself. For some reason, B'alaj Chan K'awiil was not installed as the new ruler of Tikal; instead he stayed at Dos Pilas. Tikal counterattacked against Dos Pilas in 672, driving B'alaj Chan K'awiil into an exile that lasted five years. Calakmul tried to encircle Tikal within an area dominated by its allies, such as El Peru, Dos Pilas, and Caracol. In 682, Jasaw Chan K'awiil I erected the first dated monument at Tikal in 120 years and claimed the title of ''kaloomte''', so ending the hiatus. He initiated a program of new construction and turned the tables on Calakmul when, in 695, he captured the enemy noble and threw the enemy state into a long decline from which it never fully recovered. After this, Calakmul never again erected a monument celebrating a military victory. ==== Tikal wara Teotihuacan ==== By the 7th century, there was no active Teotihuacan presence at any Maya site and the center of Teotihuacan had been razed by 700. Even after this, formal war attire illustrated on monuments was Teotihuacan style. Jasaw Chan K'awiil I and his heir Yik'in Chan K'awiil continued hostilities against Calakmul and its allies and imposed firm regional control over the area around Tikal, extending as far as the territory around Lake Petén Itzá. These two rulers were responsible for much of the impressive architecture visible today. In 738, Quiriguá, a vassal of Copán, Tikal's key ally in the south, switched allegiance to Calakmul, defeated Copán and gained its own independence. It appears that this was a conscious effort on the part of Calakmul to bring about the collapse of Tikal's southern allies. This upset the balance of power in the southern Maya area and lead to a steady decline in the fortunes of Copán. In the 8th century, the rulers of Tikal collected monuments from across the city and erected them in front of the North Acropolis. By the late 8th century and early 9th century, activity at Tikal slowed. Impressive architecture was still built but few hieroglyphic inscriptions refer to later rulers. === Klassika Terminali === By the 9th century, the crisis of the Classic Maya collapse was sweeping across the region, with populations plummeting and city after city falling into silence. Increasingly endemic warfare in the Maya region caused Tikal's supporting population to heavily concentrate close to the city itself, accelerating the use of intensive agriculture and the corresponding environmental decline. Construction continued at the beginning of the century, with the erection of Temple 3, the last of the city's major pyramids, and the erection of monuments to mark the 19th K'atun in 810. The beginning of the 10th Bak'tun in 830 passed uncelebrated, and marks the beginning of a 60-year hiatus, probably resulting from the collapse of central control in the city. During this hiatus, satellite sites traditionally under Tikal's control began to erect their own monuments featuring local rulers and using the Mutal emblem glyph, with Tikal apparently lacking the authority or the power to crush these bids for independence. In 849, Jewel K'awiil is mentioned on a stela at Seibal as visiting that city as the Divine Lord of Tikal but he is not recorded elsewhere and Tikal's once-great power was little more than a memory. The sites of Ixlu and Jimbal had by now inherited the once exclusive Mutal emblem glyph. As Tikal and its hinterland reached peak population, the area suffered deforestation, erosion and nutrient loss followed by a rapid decline in population levels. Recent analysis also indicates that the city's freshwater sources became highly contaminated with mercury, phosphate and cyanobacteria leading to the accumulation of toxins. Tikal and its immediate surroundings seem to have lost most of their population between 830 and 950 and central authority seems to have collapsed rapidly. There is not much evidence from Tikal that the city was directly affected by the endemic warfare that afflicted parts of the Maya region during the Terminal Classic, although an influx of refugees from the Petexbatún region may have exacerbated problems resulting from the already stretched environmental resources. The site core seen from the south, with Temple I at center, the North Acropolis to the left and Central Acropolis to the right In the latter half of the 9th century there was an attempt to revive royal power at the much-diminished city of Tikal, as evidenced by a stela erected in the Great Plaza by Jasaw Chan K'awiil II in 869. This was the last monument erected at Tikal before the city finally fell into silence. The former satellites of Tikal, such as Jimbal and Uaxactun, did not last much longer, erecting their final monuments in 889. By the end of the 9th century the vast majority of Tikal's population had deserted the city, its royal palaces were occupied by squatters and simple thatched dwellings were being erected in the city's ceremonial plazas. The squatters blocked some doorways in the rooms they reoccupied in the monumental structures of the site and left rubbish that included a mixture of domestic refuse and non-utilitarian items such as musical instruments. These inhabitants reused the earlier monuments for their own ritual activities, far removed from those of the royal dynasty that had erected them. Some monuments were vandalized and some were moved to new locations. Before its final abandonment all respect for the old rulers had disappeared, with the tombs of the North Acropolis being explored for jade and the easier-to-find tombs were looted. After 950, Tikal was all but deserted, although a remnant population may have survived in perishable huts interspersed among the ruins. Even these final inhabitants abandoned the city in the 10th or 11th centuries and the rainforest claimed the ruins for the next thousand years. Some of Tikal's population may have migrated to the Peten Lakes region, which remained heavily populated in spite of a plunge in population levels in the first half of the 9th century. The most likely cause of collapse at Tikal is overpopulation and agrarian failure. The fall of Tikal was a blow to the heart of Classic Maya civilization, the city having been at the forefront of courtly life, art and architecture for over a thousand years, with an ancient ruling dynasty. However, new research regarding paleoenvironmental proxies from the Tikal reservoir system suggests that a meteorological drought may have led to the abandonment of Tikal, fouling some reservoirs near the temple and palace with algae blooms, while other reservoirs remained drinkable. Buildings were painted with mercury-bearing cinnabar, which were washed off by rain and polluted some reservoirs. Works of Kohler and colleagues showed that this city reached an unsustainable level of inequalities at the end.^{[''clarification needed'']} === Moderna === Archeologist Edwin M. Shook, field director of the Tikal Project; Shook was also instrumental in having Tikal established as Guatemala's first National Park. In 1525, the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés passed within a few kilometers of the ruins of Tikal but did not mention them in his letters. After Spanish friar Andrés de Avendaño became lost in the Petén forests in early 1696 he described a ruin that may well have been Tikal. As is often the case with huge ancient ruins, knowledge of the site was never completely lost in the region. It seems that local people never forgot about Tikal and they guided Guatemalan expeditions to the ruins in the 1850s. Some second- or third-hand accounts of Tikal appeared in print starting in the 17th century, continuing through the writings of John Lloyd Stephens in the early 19th century (Stephens and his illustrator Frederick Catherwood heard rumors of a lost city, with white building tops towering above the jungle, during their 1839–40 travels in the region). Because of the site's remoteness from modern towns, however, no explorers visited Tikal until Modesto Méndez and Ambrosio Tut, respectively the commissioner and the governor of Petén, visited it in 1848. Artist Eusebio Lara accompanied them and their account was published in Germany in 1853. Several other expeditions came to further investigate, map, and photograph Tikal in the 19th century (including Alfred P. Maudslay in 1881-82) and the early 20th century. Pioneering archeologists started to clear, map and record the ruins in the 1880s. In 1951, a small airstrip was built at the ruins, which previously could only be reached by several days' travel through the jungle on foot or mule. In 1956 the Tikal project began to map the city on a scale not previously seen in the Maya area. From 1956 through 1970, major archeological excavations were carried out by the University of Pennsylvania Tikal Project. They mapped much of the site and excavated and restored many of the structures. Excavations directed by Edwin M. Shook and later by William Coe of the university investigated the North Acropolis and the Central Plaza from 1957 to 1969. The Tikal Project recorded over 200 monuments at the site. In 1979, the Guatemalan government began a further archeological project at Tikal, which continued through to 1984. Filmmaker George Lucas used Tikal as a filming location for the fictional moon Yavin 4 in the first ''Star Wars'' film, ''Episode IV: A New Hope'', which premiered in 1977. Temple I at Tikal was featured on the reverse of the 50 centavo banknote. Eon Productions used the site for the James Bond film ''Moonraker''. Tikal is now a major tourist attraction surrounded by its own national park. A site museum has been built at Tikal; it was completed in 1964. == Deskrizzjoni tas-sit == Tikal has been partially restored by the University of Pennsylvania and the government of Guatemala. It was one of the largest of the Classic period Maya cities and was one of the largest cities in the Americas. The architecture of the ancient city is built from limestone and includes the remains of temples that tower over 70 meters (230 ft) high, large royal palaces, in addition to a number of smaller pyramids, palaces, residences, administrative buildings, platforms and inscribed stone monuments. There is even a building which seemed to have been a jail, originally with wooden bars across the windows and doors. There are also seven courts for playing the Mesoamerican ballgame, including a set of 3 in the Seven Temples Plaza, a unique feature in Mesoamerica. The limestone used for construction was local and quarried on-site. The depressions formed by the extraction of stone for building were plastered to waterproof them and were used as reservoirs, together with some waterproofed natural depressions. The main plazas were surfaced with stucco and laid at a gradient that channelled rainfall into a system of canals that fed the reservoirs. The residential area of Tikal covers an estimated 60 square kilometers (23 sq mi), much of which has not yet been cleared, mapped, or excavated. The 16 square kilometers (6.2 sq mi) area around the site core has been intensively mapped; it may have enclosed an area of some 125 square kilometers (48 sq mi) (see below). A huge set of earthworks discovered by Dennis E. Puleston and Donald Callender in the 1960s rings Tikal with a 6-meter (20 ft) wide trench behind a rampart. Recently, a project exploring the defensive earthworks has shown that the scale of the earthworks is highly variable and that in many places it is inconsequential as a defensive feature. In addition, some parts of the earthwork were integrated into a canal system. The earthwork of Tikal varies significantly in coverage from what was originally proposed and it is much more complex and multifaceted than originally thought. === Toroq === By the Late Classic, a network of ''sacbeob'' (causeways) linked various parts of the city, running for several kilometers through its urban core. These linked the Great Plaza with Temple 4 (located about 750 meters (2,460 feet) to the west) and the Temple of the Inscriptions (about 1 kilometer (0.62 mi) to the southeast). These broad causeways were built of packed and plastered limestone and have been named after early explorers and archeologists; the Maler, Maudslay, Tozzer and Méndez causeways. They assisted the passage of everyday traffic during the rain season and also served as dams. The '''Maler Causeway''' runs north from behind Temple I to Group H. A large bas-relief is carved onto limestone bedrock upon the course of the causeway just south of Group H. It depicts two bound captives and dates to the Late Classic. The '''Maudsley Causeway''' runs 0.8 kilometers (0.50 mi) northeast from Temple IV to Group H. The '''Mendez Causeway''' runs southeast from the East Plaza to Temple VI, a distance of about 1.3 kilometers (0.81 mi). The '''Tozzer Causeway''' runs west from the Great Plaza to Temple IV. === Gruppi arkitettoniċi === The '''Great Plaza''' lies at the core of the site; it is flanked on the east and west sides by two great temple-pyramids. On the north side it is bordered by the North Acropolis and on the south by the Central Acropolis. The '''Central Acropolis''' is a palace complex just south of the Great Plaza. The '''North Acropolis''', together with the Great Plaza immediately to the south, is one of the most studied architectural groups in the Maya area; the Tikal Project excavated a massive trench across the complex, thoroughly investigating its construction history. It is a complex group with construction beginning in the Preclassic Period, around 350 BC. It developed into a funerary complex for the ruling dynasty of the Classic Period, with each additional royal burial adding new temples on top of the older structures. After AD 400 a row of tall pyramids was added to the earlier Northern Platform, which measured 100 by 80 meters (330 by 260 ft), gradually hiding it from view. Eight temple pyramids were built in the 6th century AD, each of them had an elaborate roofcomb and a stairway flanked by masks of the gods. By the 9th century AD, 43 stelae and 30 altars had been erected in the North Acropolis; 18 of these monuments were carved with hieroglyphic texts and royal portraits. The North Acropolis continued to receive burials into the Postclassic Period. The '''South Acropolis''' is found next to Temple V. It was built upon a large basal platform that covers an area of more than 20,000 square meters (220,000 sq ft). The '''Plaza of the Seven Temples''' is to the west of the South Acropolis. It is bordered on the east side by a row of nearly identical temples, by palaces on the south and west sides and by an unusual triple ballcourt on the north side. The '''Mundo Perdido''' is to the west of the Plaza of the Seven Temples. It is the largest ceremonial complex dating from the Preclassic period at Tikal. The complex was organized as a large E-Group consisting of a pyramid aligned with a platform to the east that supported three temples. The Mundo Perdido complex was rebuilt many times over the course of its history. By AD 250–300 its architectural style was influenced by the great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico, including the use of the ''talud-tablero'' form. During the Early Classic period (c. 250–600) the Mundo Perdido became one of the twin foci of the city, the other being the North Acropolis. From AD 250 to 378 it may have served as the royal necropolis. The Mundo Perdido complex was given its name by the archeologists of the University of Pennsylvania; it is centered upon the Lost World Pyramid and a small platform to the west of it. To the south of Mundo Perdido, recent 2021 excavations have revealed a one-third size replication of La Ciudadela, or The Citadel, in Teotihuacan. This area may have been used as a diplomatic headquarters and as an effort to further stamp Teotihuacan culture upon the residents of Tikal. '''Group G''' lies just south of the Mendez Causeway. The complex dates to the Late Classic and consists of palace-type structures and is one of the largest groups of its type at Tikal. It has two stories but most of the rooms are on the lower floor, a total of 29 vaulted chambers. The remains of two further chambers belong to the upper story. One of the entrances to the group was framed by a gigantic mask. '''Group H''' is centered on a large plaza to the north of the Great Plaza. It is bordered by temples dating to the Late Classic. There are nine '''Twin-Pyramid Complexes''' at Tikal, one of which was completely dismantled in ancient times and some others were partly destroyed. They vary in size but consist of two pyramids facing each other on an east–west axis. These pyramids are flat-topped and have stairways on all four sides. A row of plain stelae is placed immediately to the west of the eastern pyramid and to the north of the pyramids. Lying roughly equidistant from them, there is usually a sculpted stela and altar pair. On the south side of these complexes there is a long vaulted building containing a single room with nine doorways. The entire complex was built at once and these complexes were built at 20-year (or ''k'atun'') intervals during the Late Classic. The first twin pyramid complex was built in the early 6th century in the East Plaza. It was once thought that these complexes were unique to Tikal but rare examples have now been found at other sites, such as Yaxha and Ixlu, and they may reflect the extent of Tikal's political dominance in the Late Classic. '''Group Q''' is a twin-pyramid complex, and is one of the largest at Tikal. It was built by Yax Nuun Ayiin II in 771 in order to mark the end of the 17th K'atun. Most of it has been restored and its monuments have been re-erected. '''Group R''' is another twin-pyramid complex, dated to 790. It is close to the Maler Causeway. === Strutturi === There are thousands of ancient structures at Tikal and only a fraction of these have been excavated, after decades of archeological work. The most prominent surviving buildings include six very large pyramids, labelled Temples I – VI, each of which support a temple structure on their summits. Some of these pyramids are over 60 meters (200 feet) high. They were numbered sequentially during the early survey of the site. It is estimated that each of these major temples could have been built in as little as two years. '''Temple I''' (also known as the ''Temple of Ah Cacao'' or ''Temple of the Great Jaguar'') is a funerary pyramid dedicated to Jasaw Chan K'awil, who was entombed in the structure in AD 734, the pyramid was completed around 740–750. The temple rises 47 meters (154 ft) high. The massive roofcomb that topped the temple was originally decorated with a giant sculpture of the enthroned king, although little of this decoration survives. The tomb of the king was discovered by Aubrey Trik of the University of Pennsylvania in 1962. Among items recovered from the Late Classic tomb were a large collection of inscribed human and animal bone tubes and strips with sophisticated scenes depicting deities and people, finely carved and rubbed with vermilion, as well as jade and shell ornaments and ceramic vessels filled with offerings of food and drink. The shrine at the summit of the pyramid has three chambers, each behind the next, with the doorways spanned by wooden lintels fashioned from multiple beams. The outermost lintel is plain but the two inner lintels were carved, some of the beams were removed in the 19th century and their location is unknown, while others were taken to museums in Europe. '''Temple II''' (also known as the ''Temple of the Mask'') it was built around AD 700 and stands 38 meters (125 ft) high. Like other major temples at Tikal, the summit shrine had three consecutive chambers with the doorways spanned by wooden lintels, only the middle of which was carved. The temple was dedicated to the wife of Jasaw Chan K'awil, although no tomb was found. The queen's portrait was carved into the lintel spanning the doorway of the summit shrine. One of the beams from this lintel is now in the American Museum of Natural History in New York City. '''Temple III''' (also known as the ''Temple of the Jaguar Priest'') was the last of the great pyramids to be built at Tikal. It stood 55 meters (180 ft) tall and contained an elaborately sculpted but damaged roof lintel, possibly showing Dark Sun engaged in a ritual dance around AD 810. The temple shrine possesses two chambers. '''Temple IV''' is the tallest temple-pyramid at Tikal, measuring 70 meters (230 ft) from the plaza floor level to the top of its roof comb. Temple IV marks the reign of Yik’in Chan Kawil (Ruler B, the son of Ruler A or Jasaw Chan K'awiil I) and two carved wooden lintels over the doorway that leads into the temple on the pyramid's summit record a long count date (9.15.10.0.0) that corresponds to CE 741 (Sharer 1994:169). Temple IV is the largest pyramid built anywhere in the Maya region in the 8th century, and as it currently stands is the tallest pre-Columbian structure in the Americas although the Pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacan may originally have been taller, as may have been one of the structures at El Mirador. '''Temple V''' stands south of the Central Acropolis and is the mortuary pyramid of an as yet unidentified ruler. The temple stands 57 meters (187 ft) high, making it the second tallest structure at Tikal – only Temple IV is taller. The temple has been dated to about AD 700, in the Late Classic period, via radiocarbon analysis and the dating of ceramics associated with the structure places its construction during the reign of Nun Bak Chak in the second half of the 7th century. '''Temple VI''' is also known as the ''Temple of the Inscriptions'' and was dedicated in AD 766. It is notable for its 12-meter (39 ft) high roof-comb. Panels of hieroglyphs cover the back and sides of the roof-comb. The temple faces onto a plaza to the west and its front is unrestored. '''Temple 33''' was a funerary pyramid erected over the tomb of Siyaj Chan K'awiil I (known as Burial 48) in the North Acropolis. It started life in the Early Classic as a wide basal platform decorated with large stucco masks that flanked the stairway. Later in the Early Classic a new superstructure was added, with its own masks and decorated panels. During the Hiatus a third stage was built over the earlier constructions, the stairway was demolished and another royal burial, of an unidentified ruler, was set into the structure (Burial 23). While the new pyramid was being built another high ranking tomb (Burial 24) was inserted into the rubble core of the building. The pyramid was then completed, standing 33 meters (108 ft) tall. The final version of Temple 33 was completely dismantled by archeologists in 1965 in order to arrive at the earlier stages of construction. '''Structure 34''' is a pyramid in the North Acropolis that was built by Siyaj Chan K'awiil II over the tomb of his father, Yax Nuun Ayiin I. The pyramid was topped by a three chambered shrine, the rooms situated one behind the other. Detail of Teotihuacan-related imagery decorating the sloping ''talud'' sections of the ''talud-tablero'' sides of Structure 5D-43. '''Structure 5D-43''' is an unusual radial temple in the East Plaza, built over a pre-existing twin pyramid complex. It is built into the end of the East Plaza Ballcourt and possessed four entry doorways and three stairways, the fourth (south) side was too close to the Central Acropolis for a stairway on that side. The building has a ''talud-tablero'' platform profile, modified from the original style found at Teotihuacan. In fact, it has been suggested that the style of the building has closer affinities with El Tajin and Xochicalco than with Teotihuacan itself. The vertical ''tablero'' panels are set between sloping ''talud'' panels and are decorated with paired disc symbols. Large flower symbols are set into the sloping ''talud'' panels, related to the Venus and star symbols used at Teotihuacan. The roof of the structure was decorated with friezes although only fragments now remain, showing a monstrous face, perhaps that of a jaguar, with another head emerging from the mouth. The second head possesses a bifurcated tongue but is probably not that of a snake. The temple, and its associated ballcourt, probably date to the reign of Nuun Ujol Chaak or that of his son Jasaw Chan K'awiil I, in the later part of the 7th century. '''Structure 5C-49''' possesses a clear Teotihuacan-linked architectural style; it has balustrades, an architectural feature that is very rare in the Maya region, and a ''talud-tablero'' façade; it dates to the 4th century AD. It is located near to the Lost World pyramid. '''Structure 5C-53''' is a small Teotihuacan-style platform that dates to about AD 600. It had stairways on all four sides and did not possess a superstructure. The '''Lost World Pyramid''' (Structure 5C-54) is the largest structure in the Mundo Perdido complex. It lies in the southwest portion of Tikal's central core, south of Temple III and west of Temple V. It was decorated with stucco masks of the sun god and dates to the Late Preclassic; this pyramid is part of an enclosed complex of structures that remained intact and un-impacted by later building activity at Tikal. By the end of the Late Preclassic this pyramid was one of the largest structures in the Maya region. It attained its final form during the reign of Chak Tok Ich'aak in the 4th century AD, in the Early Classic, standing more than 30 meters (98 ft) high with stairways on all four sides and a flat top that possibly supported a superstructure built from perishable materials. Although the plaza later suffered significant alteration, the organization of a group of temples on the east side of this complex adheres to the layout that defines the so-called E-Groups, identified as solar observatories. '''Structure 5D-96''' is the central temple on the east side of the Plaza of the Seven Temples. It has been restored and its rear outer wall is decorated with skull-and-crossbones motifs. '''Group 6C-16''' is an elite residential complex that has been thoroughly excavated. It lies a few hundred m south of the Lost World Complex and the excavations have revealed elaborate stucco masks, ballplayer murals, relief sculptures and buildings with Teotihuacan characteristics. The '''Great Plaza Ballcourt''' is a small ballcourt that lies between Temple I and the Central Acropolis. The '''Bat Palace''' is also known as the Palace of Windows and lies to the west of Temple III. It has two storeys, with a double range of chambers on the lower storey and a single range in the upper storey, which has been restored. The palace has ancient graffiti and possesses low windows. '''Complex N''' lies to the west of the Bat Palace and Temple III. The complex dates to AD 711. In 2018, 60,000 uncharted structures were revealed by archeologists with help of Lidar. Thanks to the new findings, some archeologists believe that 7-11 million Maya people inhabited in the northern Guatemala during the late classical period from 650 to 800 A.D. Lidar digitally removed the tree canopy to reveal ancient remains and showed that Maya cities like Tikal were bigger than previously thought. The project was mapped near the Maya Biosphere Reserve in the Petén region of Guatemala. === Altars[edit] === '''Altar 5''' is carved with two nobles, one of whom is probably Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. They are performing a ritual using the bones of an important woman. Altar 5 was found in Complex N, which lies to the west of Temple III. '''Altar 8''' is sculpted with a bound captive. It was found within Complex P in Group H and is now in the Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología in Guatemala City. '''Altar 9''' is associated with Stela 21 and bears the sculpture of a bound captive. It is located in front of Temple VI. '''Altar 10''' is carved with a captive tied to a scaffold. It is in the northern enclosure of Group Q, a twin-pyramid complex and has suffered from erosion. '''Altar 35''' is a plain monument associated with Stela 43. The stela-altar pair is centrally located at the base of the stairway of Temple IV. === Lintels === The elaborately carved wooden Lintel 3 from Temple IV. It celebrates a military victory by Yik'in Chan K'awiil in 743. At Tikal, beams of sapodilla wood were placed as lintels spanning the inner doorways of temples. These are the most elaborately carved wooden lintels to have survived anywhere in the Maya region. '''Lintel 3''' from Temple IV was taken to Basel in Switzerland in the 19th century. It was in almost perfect condition and depicts Yik'in Chan K'awiil seated on a palanquin. === Steli === Stelae are carved stone shafts, often sculpted with figures and hieroglyphs. A selection of the most notable stelae at Tikal follows: '''Stela 1''' dates to the 5th century and depicts the king Siyaj Chan K'awiil II in a standing position. '''Stela 4''' is dated to AD 396, during the reign of Yax Nuun Ayiin after the intrusion of Teotihuacan in the Maya area. The stela displays a mix of Maya and Teotihuacan qualities, and deities from both cultures. It has a portrait of the king with the Underworld Jaguar God under one arm and the Mexican Tlaloc under the other. His helmet is a simplified version of the Teotihuacan War Serpent. Unusually for Maya sculpture, but typically for Teotihuacan, Yax Nuun Ayiin is depicted with a frontal face, rather than in profile. '''Stela 5''' was dedicated in 744 by Yik'in Chan K'awiil. '''Stela 6''' is a badly damaged monument dating to 514 and bears the name of the "Lady of Tikal" who celebrated the end of the 4th K'atun in that year. '''Stela 10''' is twinned with Stela 12 but is badly damaged. It described the accession of Kaloomte' B'alam in the early 6th century and earlier events in his career, including the capture of a prisoner depicted on the monument. '''Stela 11''' was the last monument ever erected at Tikal; it was dedicated in 869 by Jasaw Chan K'awiil II. '''Stela 12''' is linked to the queen known as the "Lady of Tikal" and king Kaloomte' B'alam. The queen is described as performing the year-ending rituals but the monument was dedicated in honor of the king. '''Stela 16''' was dedicated in 711, during the reign of Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. The sculpture, including a portrait of the king and a hieroglyphic text, are limited to the front face of the monument. It was found in Complex N, west of Temple III. '''Stela 18''' was one of two stelae erected by Yax Nuun Ayiin I to celebrate the ''k'atun''-ending of AD 396. It was re-erected at the base of Temple 34, his funerary shrine. '''Stela 19''' was dedicated in 790 by Yax Nuun Ayiin II. '''Stela 20''' was found in Complex P, in Group H, and was moved to the Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología in Guatemala City. '''Stela 21''' was dedicated in 736 by Yik'in Chan K'awiil. Only the bottom of the stela is intact, the rest having been mutilated in ancient times. The surviving sculpture is of fine quality, consisting of the feet of a figure and of accompanying hieroglyphic text. The stela is associated with Altar 9 and is located in front of Temple VI. '''Stela 22''' was dedicated in 771 by Yax Nuun Ayiin II in the northern enclosure of Group Q, a twin-pyramid complex. The face of the figure on the stela has been mutilated. '''Stela 23''' was broken in antiquity and was re-erected in a residential complex. The defaced portrait on the monument is that of the so-called "Lady of Tikal", a daughter of Chak Tok Ich'aak II who became queen at the age of six but never ruled in her own right, being paired with male co-rulers. It dates to the early 6th century. '''Stela 24''' was erected at the foot of Temple 3 in 810, accompanied by Altar 7. Both were broken into fragments in ancient times, although the name of Dark Sun survives on three fragments. '''Stela 26''' was found in the summit shrine of Temple 34, underneath a broken masonry altar. The monument had originally been erected at the base of the temple during the Early Classic period and was later broken, probably at the beginning of the Late Classic. Its remains were then interred within the temple shrine. '''Stela 29''' bears a Long Count (8.12.14.8.15) date equivalent to AD 292, the earliest surviving Long Count date from the Maya lowlands. The stela is also the earliest monument to bear the Tikal emblem glyph. It bears a sculpture of the king facing to the right, holding the head of an underworld jaguar god, one of the patron deities of the city. The stela was deliberately smashed during the 6th century or some time later, the upper portion was dragged away and dumped in a rubbish tip close to Temple III, to be uncovered by archeologists in 1959. '''Stela 30''' is the first surviving monument to be erected after the Hiatus. Its style and iconography is similar to that of Caracol, one of the more important of Tikal's enemies. Stela 31, with the sculpted image of Siyaj Chan K'awiil II '''Stela 31''' is the accession monument of Siyaj Chan K'awiil II, also bearing two portraits of his father, Yax Nuun Ayiin, as a youth dressed as a Teotihuacan warrior. He carries a spearthrower in one hand and bears a shield decorated with the face of Tlaloc, the Teotihuacan war god. In ancient times the sculpture was broken and the upper portion was moved to the summit of Temple 33 and ritually buried. Stela 31 has been described as the greatest Early Classic sculpture to survive at Tikal. A long hieroglyphic text is carved onto the back of the monument, the longest to survive from the Early Classic, which describes the arrival of Siyah K'ak' at El Peru and Tikal in January 378. It was also the first stela at Tikal to be carved on all four faces. '''Stela 32''' is a fragmented monument with a foreign Teotihuacan-style sculpture apparently depicting the lord of that city with the attributes of the central Mexican storm god Tlaloc, including his goggle eyes and tasselled headdress. '''Stela 39''' is a broken monument that was erected in the Lost World complex. The upper portion of the stela is missing but the lower portion shows the lower body and legs of Chak Tok Ich'aak, holding a flint axe in his left hand. He is trampling the figure of a bound, richly dressed captive. The monument is dated to AD 376. The text on the back of the monument describes a bloodletting ritual to celebrate a Katun-ending. The stela also names Chak Tok Ich'aak I's father as K'inich Muwaan Jol. '''Stela 40''' bears a portrait of Kan Chitam and dates to AD 468. '''Stela 43''' is paired with Altar 35. It is a plain monument at the base of the stairway of Temple IV. === Oqbra === A ceramic censer representing an elderly deity, found in Burial 10. '''Burial 1''' is a tomb in the Lost World complex. A fine ceramic bowl was recovered from the tomb, with the handle formed from three-dimensional head and neck of a bird emerging from the two-dimensional body painted on the lid. '''Burial 10''' is the tomb of Yax Nuun Ayiin. It is located beneath Structure 34 in the North Acropolis. The tomb contained a rich array of offerings, including ceramic vessels and food, and nine youths were sacrificed to accompany the dead king. A dog was also entombed with the deceased king. Pots in the tomb were stuccoed and painted and many demonstrated a blend of Maya and Teotihuacan styles. Among the offerings was an incense-burner in the shape of an elderly underworld god, sitting on a stool made of human bones and holding a severed head in his hands. The tomb was sealed with a corbel vault, then the pyramid was built on top. '''Burial 48''' is generally accepted as the tomb of Sihyaj Chan Kʼawiil II. It is located beneath Temple 33 in the North Acropolis. The chamber of the tomb was cut from the bedrock and contained the remains of the king himself together with those of two adolescents who had been sacrificed in order to accompany the deceased ruler. The walls of the tomb were covered with white stucco painted with hieroglyphs that included the Long Count date equivalent to 20 March 457, probably the date of either the death or interment of the king. The king's skeleton was missing its skull, its femurs and one of its hands while the skeletons of the sacrificial victims were intact. '''Burial 85''' dates to the Late Preclassic and was enclosed by a platform, with a primitive corbel vault. The tomb contained a single male skeleton, which lacked a skull and its thighbones. The dynastic founder of Tikal, Yax Ehb' Xook, has been linked to this tomb, which lies deep in the heart of the North Acropolis. The deceased had probably died in battle with his body being mutilated by his enemies before being recovered and interred by his followers. The bones were wrapped carefully in textiles to form an upright bundle. The missing head was replaced by a small greenstone mask with shell-inlaid teeth and eyes and bearing a three-pointed royal headband. This head wears an emblem of rulership on its forehead and is a rare Preclassic lowland Maya portrait of a king. Among the contents of the tomb were a stingray spine, a spondylus shell and twenty-six ceramic vessels. '''Burial 116''' is the tomb of Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. It is a large vaulted chamber deep within the pyramid, below the level of the Great Plaza. The tomb contained rich offerings of jadeite, ceramics, shell and works of art. The body of the king was covered with large quantities of jade ornaments including an enormous necklace with especially large beads, as depicted in sculpted portraits of the king. One of the outstanding pieces recovered from the tomb was an ornate jade mosaic vessel with the lid bearing a sculpted portrait of the king himself. '''Burial 195''' was flooded with mud in antiquity. This flood had covered wooden objects that had completely rotted away by the time the tomb was excavated, leaving hollows in the dried mud. Archeologists filled these hollows with stucco and thus excavated four effigies of the god K'awiil, the wooden originals long gone. '''Burial 196''' is a Late Classic royal tomb that contained a jade mosaic vessel topped with the head of the Maize God. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Siti arkeoloġiċi]] [[Kategorija:Siti ta' Wirt Dinji]] [[Kategorija:Parks Nazzjonali]] d5c79s67t3690st5hci6re65zfmvtp7 279083 279082 2022-08-14T14:31:05Z Trigcly 17859 added [[Category:Maja]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] wikitext text/x-wiki [[Stampa:Tikal Temple1 2006 08 11.JPG|daqsminuri|It-Tempju I ta' Tikal huwa għoli 47 metru (154 pied).]] '''Tikal''' (/tiˈkɑːl/; ''Tik’al'' bl-ortografija moderna tal-[[Maja]]) huwa l-fdal ta' belt antika, li x'aktarx kienet tissejjaħ '''Yax Mutal''', u li tinsab f'foresta tropikali fil-[[Gwatemala]]. Huwa wieħed mill-ikbar siti [[Arkeoloġija|arkeoloġiċi]] u ċentri urbani taċ-ċivilizzazzjoni tal-Maja pre-Kolumbjana. Jinsab fir-reġjun arkeoloġiku tal-Baċir ta' Petén fit-territorju attwali tat-Tramuntana tal-Gwatemala. Is-sit jinsab fid-dipartiment ta' El Petén u huwa parti mill-Park Nazzjonali ta' Tikal. Fl-1979 sar [[Sit ta' Wirt Dinji]] tal-[[UNESCO]].<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/64/|titlu=Tikal National Park|kunjom=Centre|isem=UNESCO World Heritage|sit=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2022-08-14}}</ref> Tikal kien il-[[belt kapitali]] ta' stat ħakkiem li sar wieħed mill-iżjed renji setgħana tal-Maja tal-qedem. Għalkemm l-arkitettura [[Monument|monumentali]] tas-sit tmur lura saħansitra tas-seklu 4 [[Ante Christum natum|Q.K]]., Tikal laħaq il-quċċata tiegħu matul il-Perjodu Klassiku, għall-ħabta tal-200 sad-900. Matul dak iż-żmien, il-belt iddominat il-biċċa l-kbira tar-reġjun tal-Maja [[Politika|politikament]], ekonomikament u militarment, filwaqt li interaġixxiet ma' żoni fil-Mesoamerka kollha, bħall-metropoli l-kbira ta' [[Teotihuacan]] fil-Wied tal-Messiku daqstant 'il bogħod. Hemm evidenza li Tikal inħakem minn Teotihuacan fis-seklu 4 W.K. Wara t-tmiem tal-Perjodu Klassiku Aħħari, ma nbena l-ebda monument maġġuri f'Tikal u hemm evidenza li l-palazzi tal-elit ingħataw in-nar. Dan l-avvenimenti mexew id f'id ma' tnaqqis gradwali fil-popolazzjoni, u laħqu l-qofol tagħhom fl-abbandun tas-sit sal-aħħar tas-seklu 10. Tikal hija l-iżjed belt mifhuma minn kwalunkwe waħda mill-bliet tal-Maja l-kbar fl-artijiet baxxi, b'lista twila ta' mexxejja dinastiċi, bl-iskoperta tal-oqbra ta' bosta mill-mexxejja fuq din il-lista u bl-investigazzjoni tal-monumenti, tat-tempji u tal-palazzi tagħhom. == Etimoloġija == [[Stampa:Tikalemblem.jpg|daqsminuri|Glifiċi emblematiċi ta' isem Tikal]] L-isem ''Tikal'' jaf oriġina minn ''ti ak'al'' fil-lingwa tal-Maja tal-[[Yucatan]]; jingħad li huwa isem relattivament modern li jfisser "f'ġibjun". Milli jidher l-isem ingħata lil wieħed mill-ġibjuni antiki tas-sit mill-kaċċaturi u mill-vjaġġaturi fir-reġjun. Interpretazzjoni oħra tal-isem hi li jfisser "il-post tal-vuċijiet" fil-lingwa tal-Maja ta' Itza. Madankollu, Tikal mhuwiex l-isem antik tas-sit iżda pjuttost l-isem li ġie adottat ftit wara l-iskoperta tas-sit fis-snin 40 tas-seklu 19. Il-kitbiet ġeroglifiċi fil-fdalijiet jirreferu għall-belt antika bħala ''Yax Mutal'' jew ''Yax Mutul'', li tfisser "l-ewwel Mutal". Tikal jaf bdiet tissejjaħ hekk minħabba li Dos Pilas beda juża l-istess glifiċi emblematiċi; il-mexxejja tal-belt x'aktarx li riedu jiddistingwu bejn il-bliet b'dan il-mod. Ir-renju kollu kien jissejjaħ sempliċement ''Mutul'', li huwa l-interpretazzjoni tal-glifiċi emblematiċi tal-"qatta' xagħar" fir-ritratt fuq il-lemin. It-tifsira preċiża għadha mhux ċerta. == Ġeografija == [[Stampa:Mayamap.png|daqsminuri|280x280px|Mappa taż-żona tal-Maja fir-reġjun Mesoamerikan. Kemm Tikal kif ukoll Calakmul jinsabu qrib iċ-ċentru taż-żona.]] The closest large modern settlements are Flores and Santa Elena, approximately 64 kilometers (40 mi) by road to the southwest. Tikal is approximately 303 kilometers (188 mi) north of Guatemala City. It is 19 kilometers (12 mi) south of the contemporary Maya city of Uaxactun and 30 kilometers (19 mi) northwest of Yaxha. The city was located 100 kilometers (62 mi) southeast of its great Classic Period rival, Calakmul, and 85 kilometers (53 mi) northwest of Calakmul's ally Caracol, now in Belize. The city has been completely mapped and covered an area greater than 16 square kilometers (6.2 sq mi) that included about 3,000 structures. The topography of the site consists of a series of parallel limestone ridges rising above swampy lowlands. The major architecture of the site is clustered upon areas of higher ground and linked by raised causeways spanning the swamps. The area around Tikal has been declared as the Tikal National Park and the preserved area covers 570 square kilometers (220 sq mi). It was created on 26 May 1955 under the auspices of the Instituto de Antropología e Historia and was the first protected area in Guatemala. The ruins lie among the tropical rainforests of northern Guatemala that formed the cradle of lowland Maya civilization. The city itself was located among abundant fertile upland soils, and may have dominated a natural east–west trade route across the Yucatan Peninsula. Conspicuous trees at the Tikal park include gigantic kapok (''Ceiba pentandra'') the sacred tree of the Maya; tropical cedar (''Cedrela odorata''), and Honduras mahogany (''Swietenia macrophylla''). Regarding the fauna, agoutis, white-nosed coatis, gray foxes, Geoffroy's spider monkeys, howler monkeys, harpy eagles, falcons, ocellated turkeys, guans, toucans, green parrots and leafcutter ants can be seen there regularly. Jaguars, ocelots, and cougars are also said to roam in the park. Tikal had no water other than what was collected from rainwater and stored in ten reservoirs. Archeologists working in Tikal during the 20th century refurbished one of these ancient reservoirs to store water for their own use. The average annual rainfall at Tikal is 1,945 millimeters (76.6 in). However, the arrival of rain was often unpredictable, and long periods of drought could occur before the crops ripened, which severely threatened the inhabitants of the city. == Popolazzjoni == Population estimates for Tikal vary from 10,000 to as high as 90,000 inhabitants. The population of Tikal began a continuous curve of growth starting in the Preclassic Period (approximately 2000 BC – AD 200), with a peak in the Late Classic with the population growing rapidly from AD 700 through to 830, followed by a sharp decline. For the 120 square kilometers (46 sq mi) area falling within the earthwork defenses of the hinterland, the peak population is estimated at 517 per square kilometer (1340 per square mile). In an area within a 12 kilometers (7.5 mi) radius of the site core, peak population is estimated at 120,000; population density is estimated at 265 per square kilometer (689 per square mile). In a region within a 25 kilometers (16 mi) radius of the site core and including some satellite sites, peak population is estimated at 425,000 with a density of 216 per square kilometer (515 per square mile). These population figures are even more impressive because of the extensive swamplands that were unsuitable for habitation or agriculture. However, some archeologists, such as David Webster, believe these figures to be far too high. == Sit ta' Wirt Dinji == == Storja == === Preklassika === There are traces of early agriculture at the site dating as far back as 1000 BC, in the Middle Preclassic. A cache of Mamon ceramics dating from about 700-400 BC were found in a sealed chultun, a subterranean bottle-shaped chamber. Major construction at Tikal was already taking place in the Late Preclassic period, first appearing around 400–300 BC, including the building of major pyramids and platforms, although the city was still dwarfed by sites further north such as El Mirador and Nakbe. At this time, Tikal participated in the widespread Chikanel culture that dominated the Central and Northern Maya areas at this time – a region that included the entire Yucatan Peninsula including northern and eastern Guatemala and all of Belize. Two temples dating to Late Chikanel times had masonry-walled superstructures that may have been corbel-vaulted, although this has not been proven. One of these had elaborate paintings on the outer walls showing human figures against a scrollwork background, painted in yellow, black, pink and red. In the 1st century AD rich burials first appeared and Tikal underwent a political and cultural florescence as its giant northern neighbors declined. At the end of the Late Preclassic, the Izapan style art and architecture from the Pacific Coast began to influence Tikal, as demonstrated by a broken sculpture from the acropolis and early murals at the city. === Klassika bikrija === Dynastic rulership among the lowland Maya is most deeply rooted at Tikal. According to later hieroglyphic records, the dynasty was founded by Yax Ehb Xook, perhaps in the 1st century AD. At the beginning of the Early Classic, power in the Maya region was concentrated at Tikal and Calakmul, in the core of the Maya heartland. Tikal may have benefited from the collapse of the large Preclassic states such as El Mirador. In the Early Classic Tikal rapidly developed into the most dynamic city in the Maya region, stimulating the development of other nearby Maya cities. The site, however, was often at war and inscriptions tell of alliances and conflict with other Maya states, including Uaxactun, Caracol, Naranjo and Calakmul. The site was defeated at the end of the Early Classic by Caracol, which rose to take Tikal's place as the paramount center in the southern Maya lowlands. The earlier part of the Early Classic saw hostilities between Tikal and its neighbor Uaxactun, with Uaxactun recording the capture of prisoners from Tikal. There appears to have been a breakdown in the male succession by AD 317, when Lady Unen Bahlam conducted a katun-ending ceremony, apparently as queen of the city. ==== Tikal u Teotihuacan ==== The great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico appears to have decisively intervened in Tikal politics. As early as 200 AD Teotihuacan had embassies in Tikal. The fourteenth king of Tikal was Chak Tok Ich'aak (Great Jaguar Paw). Chak Tok Ich'aak built a palace that was preserved and developed by later rulers until it became the core of the Central Acropolis. Little is known about Chak Tok Ich'aak except that he was killed on 14 January 378 AD.^{[''contradictory'']} On the same day, Siyah K’ak' (Fire Is Born) arrived from the west, having passed through El Peru, a site to the west of Tikal, on 8 January. On Stela 31 he is named as "Lord of the West". Siyah K’ak' was probably a foreign general serving a figure represented by a non-Maya hieroglyph of a spearthrower combined with an owl, a glyph that is well known from the great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the distant Valley of Mexico. Spearthrower Owl may even have been the ruler of Teotihuacan. These recorded events strongly suggest that Siyah K’ak' led a Teotihuacan invasion that defeated the native Tikal king, who was captured and immediately executed. Siyah K'ak' appears to have been aided by a powerful political faction at Tikal itself; roughly at the time of the conquest, a group of Teotihuacan natives were apparently residing near the Lost World complex. He also exerted control over other cities in the area, including Uaxactun, where he became king, but did not take the throne of Tikal for himself. Within a year, the son of Spearthrower Owl by the name of Yax Nuun Ayiin I (First Crocodile) had been installed as the fifteenth king of Tikal while he was still a boy, being enthroned on 13 September 379. He reigned for 47 years as king of Tikal, and remained a vassal of Siyah K'ak' for as long as the latter lived. It seems likely that Yax Nuun Ayiin I took a wife from the preexisting, defeated, Tikal dynasty and thus legitimized the right to rule of his son, Siyaj Chan K'awiil II. Río Azul, a small site 100 kilometers (62 mi) northeast of Tikal, was conquered by the latter during the reign of Yax Nuun Ayiin I. The site became an outpost of Tikal, shielding it from hostile cities further north, and also became a trade link to the Caribbean. Although the new rulers of Tikal were foreign, their descendants were rapidly Mayanized. Tikal became the key ally and trading partner of Teotihuacan in the Maya lowlands. After being conquered by Teotihuacan, Tikal rapidly dominated the northern and eastern Peten. Uaxactun, together with smaller towns in the region, were absorbed into Tikal's kingdom. Other sites, such as Bejucal and Motul de San José near Lake Petén Itzá became vassals of their more powerful neighbor to the north. By the middle of the 5th century Tikal had a core territory of at least 25 kilometers (16 mi) in every direction. Around the 5th century an impressive system of fortifications consisting of ditches and earthworks was built along the northern periphery of Tikal's hinterland, joining up with the natural defenses provided by large areas of swampland lying to the east and west of the city. Additional fortifications were probably also built to the south. These defenses protected Tikal's core population and agricultural resources, encircling an area of approximately 120 square kilometers (46 sq mi). Recent research suggests that the earthworks served as a water collection system rather than a defensive purpose. ==== Tikal u Copán ==== In the 5th century the power of the city reached as far south as Copán, whose founder K'inich Yax K'uk' Mo' was clearly connected with Tikal. Copán itself was not in an ethnically Maya region and the founding of the Copán dynasty probably involved the direct intervention of Tikal. K'inich Yax K'uk' Mo' arrived in Copán in December 426 and bone analysis of his remains shows that he passed his childhood and youth at Tikal. An individual known as Ajaw K'uk' Mo' (lord K'uk' Mo') is referred to in an early text at Tikal and may well be the same person. His tomb had Teotihuacan characteristics and he was depicted in later portraits dressed in the warrior garb of Teotihuacan. Hieroglyphic texts refer to him as "Lord of the West", much like Siyah K’ak'. At the same time, in late 426, Copán founded the nearby site of Quiriguá, possibly sponsored by Tikal itself. The founding of these two centers may have been part of an effort to impose Tikal's authority upon the southeastern portion of the Maya region. The interaction between these sites and Tikal was intense over the next three centuries. A long-running rivalry between Tikal and Calakmul began in the 6th century, with each of the two cities forming its own network of mutually hostile alliances arrayed against each other in what has been likened to a long-running war between two Maya superpowers. The kings of these two capitals adopted the title ''kaloomte''', a term that has not been precisely translated but that implies something akin to "high king". The early 6th century saw another queen ruling the city, known only as the "Lady of Tikal", who was very likely a daughter of Chak Tok Ich'aak II. She seems never to have ruled in her own right, rather being partnered with male co-rulers. The first of these was Kaloomte' B'alam, who seems to have had a long career as a general at Tikal before becoming co-ruler and 19th in the dynastic sequence. The Lady of Tikal herself seems not have been counted in the dynastic numbering. It appears she was later paired with lord "Bird Claw", who is presumed to be the otherwise unknown 20th ruler. === Klassika Aħħarija === ==== L-aqwa żmien ta' Tikal ==== In the mid 6th century, Caracol seems to have allied with Calakmul and defeated Tikal, closing the Early Classic. The "Tikal hiatus" refers to a period between the late 6th to late 7th century where there was a lapse in the writing of inscriptions and large-scale construction at Tikal. In the latter half of the 6th century AD, a serious crisis befell the city, with no new stelae being erected and with widespread deliberate mutilation of public sculpture. This hiatus in activity at Tikal was long unexplained until later epigraphic decipherments identified that the period was prompted by Tikal's comprehensive defeat at the hands of Calakmul and the Caracol polity in AD 562, a defeat that seems to have resulted in the capture and sacrifice of the king of Tikal. The badly eroded Altar 21 at Caracol described how Tikal suffered this disastrous defeat in a major war in April 562. It seems that Caracol was an ally of Calakmul in the wider conflict between that city and Tikal, with the defeat of Tikal having a lasting impact upon the city. Tikal was not sacked but its power and influence were broken. After its great victory, Caracol grew rapidly and some of Tikal's population may have been forcibly relocated there. During the hiatus period, at least one ruler of Tikal took refuge with Janaab' Pakal of Palenque, another of Calakmul's victims. Calakmul itself thrived during Tikal's long hiatus period. The beginning of the Tikal hiatus has served as a marker by which archeologists commonly subdivide the Classic period of Mesoamerican chronology into the Early and Late Classic. ==== Tikal u Dos Pilas ==== In 629 Tikal founded Dos Pilas, some 110 kilometers (68 mi) to the southwest, as a military outpost in order to control trade along the course of the Pasión River. B'alaj Chan K'awiil was installed on the throne of the new outpost at the age of four, in 635. When he was older, for many years he served as a loyal vassal fighting for his brother, the king of Tikal. Roughly twenty years later, Dos Pilas was attacked by Calakmul and was soundly defeated. B'alaj Chan K'awiil was captured by the king of Calakmul but, instead of being sacrificed, he was re-instated on his throne as a vassal of his former enemy. He attacked Tikal in 657, forcing Nuun Ujol Chaak, then king of Tikal, to temporarily abandon the city. The first two rulers of Dos Pilas continued to use the Mutal emblem glyph of Tikal, and they probably felt that they had a legitimate claim to the throne of Tikal itself. For some reason, B'alaj Chan K'awiil was not installed as the new ruler of Tikal; instead he stayed at Dos Pilas. Tikal counterattacked against Dos Pilas in 672, driving B'alaj Chan K'awiil into an exile that lasted five years. Calakmul tried to encircle Tikal within an area dominated by its allies, such as El Peru, Dos Pilas, and Caracol. In 682, Jasaw Chan K'awiil I erected the first dated monument at Tikal in 120 years and claimed the title of ''kaloomte''', so ending the hiatus. He initiated a program of new construction and turned the tables on Calakmul when, in 695, he captured the enemy noble and threw the enemy state into a long decline from which it never fully recovered. After this, Calakmul never again erected a monument celebrating a military victory. ==== Tikal wara Teotihuacan ==== By the 7th century, there was no active Teotihuacan presence at any Maya site and the center of Teotihuacan had been razed by 700. Even after this, formal war attire illustrated on monuments was Teotihuacan style. Jasaw Chan K'awiil I and his heir Yik'in Chan K'awiil continued hostilities against Calakmul and its allies and imposed firm regional control over the area around Tikal, extending as far as the territory around Lake Petén Itzá. These two rulers were responsible for much of the impressive architecture visible today. In 738, Quiriguá, a vassal of Copán, Tikal's key ally in the south, switched allegiance to Calakmul, defeated Copán and gained its own independence. It appears that this was a conscious effort on the part of Calakmul to bring about the collapse of Tikal's southern allies. This upset the balance of power in the southern Maya area and lead to a steady decline in the fortunes of Copán. In the 8th century, the rulers of Tikal collected monuments from across the city and erected them in front of the North Acropolis. By the late 8th century and early 9th century, activity at Tikal slowed. Impressive architecture was still built but few hieroglyphic inscriptions refer to later rulers. === Klassika Terminali === By the 9th century, the crisis of the Classic Maya collapse was sweeping across the region, with populations plummeting and city after city falling into silence. Increasingly endemic warfare in the Maya region caused Tikal's supporting population to heavily concentrate close to the city itself, accelerating the use of intensive agriculture and the corresponding environmental decline. Construction continued at the beginning of the century, with the erection of Temple 3, the last of the city's major pyramids, and the erection of monuments to mark the 19th K'atun in 810. The beginning of the 10th Bak'tun in 830 passed uncelebrated, and marks the beginning of a 60-year hiatus, probably resulting from the collapse of central control in the city. During this hiatus, satellite sites traditionally under Tikal's control began to erect their own monuments featuring local rulers and using the Mutal emblem glyph, with Tikal apparently lacking the authority or the power to crush these bids for independence. In 849, Jewel K'awiil is mentioned on a stela at Seibal as visiting that city as the Divine Lord of Tikal but he is not recorded elsewhere and Tikal's once-great power was little more than a memory. The sites of Ixlu and Jimbal had by now inherited the once exclusive Mutal emblem glyph. As Tikal and its hinterland reached peak population, the area suffered deforestation, erosion and nutrient loss followed by a rapid decline in population levels. Recent analysis also indicates that the city's freshwater sources became highly contaminated with mercury, phosphate and cyanobacteria leading to the accumulation of toxins. Tikal and its immediate surroundings seem to have lost most of their population between 830 and 950 and central authority seems to have collapsed rapidly. There is not much evidence from Tikal that the city was directly affected by the endemic warfare that afflicted parts of the Maya region during the Terminal Classic, although an influx of refugees from the Petexbatún region may have exacerbated problems resulting from the already stretched environmental resources. The site core seen from the south, with Temple I at center, the North Acropolis to the left and Central Acropolis to the right In the latter half of the 9th century there was an attempt to revive royal power at the much-diminished city of Tikal, as evidenced by a stela erected in the Great Plaza by Jasaw Chan K'awiil II in 869. This was the last monument erected at Tikal before the city finally fell into silence. The former satellites of Tikal, such as Jimbal and Uaxactun, did not last much longer, erecting their final monuments in 889. By the end of the 9th century the vast majority of Tikal's population had deserted the city, its royal palaces were occupied by squatters and simple thatched dwellings were being erected in the city's ceremonial plazas. The squatters blocked some doorways in the rooms they reoccupied in the monumental structures of the site and left rubbish that included a mixture of domestic refuse and non-utilitarian items such as musical instruments. These inhabitants reused the earlier monuments for their own ritual activities, far removed from those of the royal dynasty that had erected them. Some monuments were vandalized and some were moved to new locations. Before its final abandonment all respect for the old rulers had disappeared, with the tombs of the North Acropolis being explored for jade and the easier-to-find tombs were looted. After 950, Tikal was all but deserted, although a remnant population may have survived in perishable huts interspersed among the ruins. Even these final inhabitants abandoned the city in the 10th or 11th centuries and the rainforest claimed the ruins for the next thousand years. Some of Tikal's population may have migrated to the Peten Lakes region, which remained heavily populated in spite of a plunge in population levels in the first half of the 9th century. The most likely cause of collapse at Tikal is overpopulation and agrarian failure. The fall of Tikal was a blow to the heart of Classic Maya civilization, the city having been at the forefront of courtly life, art and architecture for over a thousand years, with an ancient ruling dynasty. However, new research regarding paleoenvironmental proxies from the Tikal reservoir system suggests that a meteorological drought may have led to the abandonment of Tikal, fouling some reservoirs near the temple and palace with algae blooms, while other reservoirs remained drinkable. Buildings were painted with mercury-bearing cinnabar, which were washed off by rain and polluted some reservoirs. Works of Kohler and colleagues showed that this city reached an unsustainable level of inequalities at the end.^{[''clarification needed'']} === Moderna === Archeologist Edwin M. Shook, field director of the Tikal Project; Shook was also instrumental in having Tikal established as Guatemala's first National Park. In 1525, the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés passed within a few kilometers of the ruins of Tikal but did not mention them in his letters. After Spanish friar Andrés de Avendaño became lost in the Petén forests in early 1696 he described a ruin that may well have been Tikal. As is often the case with huge ancient ruins, knowledge of the site was never completely lost in the region. It seems that local people never forgot about Tikal and they guided Guatemalan expeditions to the ruins in the 1850s. Some second- or third-hand accounts of Tikal appeared in print starting in the 17th century, continuing through the writings of John Lloyd Stephens in the early 19th century (Stephens and his illustrator Frederick Catherwood heard rumors of a lost city, with white building tops towering above the jungle, during their 1839–40 travels in the region). Because of the site's remoteness from modern towns, however, no explorers visited Tikal until Modesto Méndez and Ambrosio Tut, respectively the commissioner and the governor of Petén, visited it in 1848. Artist Eusebio Lara accompanied them and their account was published in Germany in 1853. Several other expeditions came to further investigate, map, and photograph Tikal in the 19th century (including Alfred P. Maudslay in 1881-82) and the early 20th century. Pioneering archeologists started to clear, map and record the ruins in the 1880s. In 1951, a small airstrip was built at the ruins, which previously could only be reached by several days' travel through the jungle on foot or mule. In 1956 the Tikal project began to map the city on a scale not previously seen in the Maya area. From 1956 through 1970, major archeological excavations were carried out by the University of Pennsylvania Tikal Project. They mapped much of the site and excavated and restored many of the structures. Excavations directed by Edwin M. Shook and later by William Coe of the university investigated the North Acropolis and the Central Plaza from 1957 to 1969. The Tikal Project recorded over 200 monuments at the site. In 1979, the Guatemalan government began a further archeological project at Tikal, which continued through to 1984. Filmmaker George Lucas used Tikal as a filming location for the fictional moon Yavin 4 in the first ''Star Wars'' film, ''Episode IV: A New Hope'', which premiered in 1977. Temple I at Tikal was featured on the reverse of the 50 centavo banknote. Eon Productions used the site for the James Bond film ''Moonraker''. Tikal is now a major tourist attraction surrounded by its own national park. A site museum has been built at Tikal; it was completed in 1964. == Deskrizzjoni tas-sit == Tikal has been partially restored by the University of Pennsylvania and the government of Guatemala. It was one of the largest of the Classic period Maya cities and was one of the largest cities in the Americas. The architecture of the ancient city is built from limestone and includes the remains of temples that tower over 70 meters (230 ft) high, large royal palaces, in addition to a number of smaller pyramids, palaces, residences, administrative buildings, platforms and inscribed stone monuments. There is even a building which seemed to have been a jail, originally with wooden bars across the windows and doors. There are also seven courts for playing the Mesoamerican ballgame, including a set of 3 in the Seven Temples Plaza, a unique feature in Mesoamerica. The limestone used for construction was local and quarried on-site. The depressions formed by the extraction of stone for building were plastered to waterproof them and were used as reservoirs, together with some waterproofed natural depressions. The main plazas were surfaced with stucco and laid at a gradient that channelled rainfall into a system of canals that fed the reservoirs. The residential area of Tikal covers an estimated 60 square kilometers (23 sq mi), much of which has not yet been cleared, mapped, or excavated. The 16 square kilometers (6.2 sq mi) area around the site core has been intensively mapped; it may have enclosed an area of some 125 square kilometers (48 sq mi) (see below). A huge set of earthworks discovered by Dennis E. Puleston and Donald Callender in the 1960s rings Tikal with a 6-meter (20 ft) wide trench behind a rampart. Recently, a project exploring the defensive earthworks has shown that the scale of the earthworks is highly variable and that in many places it is inconsequential as a defensive feature. In addition, some parts of the earthwork were integrated into a canal system. The earthwork of Tikal varies significantly in coverage from what was originally proposed and it is much more complex and multifaceted than originally thought. === Toroq === By the Late Classic, a network of ''sacbeob'' (causeways) linked various parts of the city, running for several kilometers through its urban core. These linked the Great Plaza with Temple 4 (located about 750 meters (2,460 feet) to the west) and the Temple of the Inscriptions (about 1 kilometer (0.62 mi) to the southeast). These broad causeways were built of packed and plastered limestone and have been named after early explorers and archeologists; the Maler, Maudslay, Tozzer and Méndez causeways. They assisted the passage of everyday traffic during the rain season and also served as dams. The '''Maler Causeway''' runs north from behind Temple I to Group H. A large bas-relief is carved onto limestone bedrock upon the course of the causeway just south of Group H. It depicts two bound captives and dates to the Late Classic. The '''Maudsley Causeway''' runs 0.8 kilometers (0.50 mi) northeast from Temple IV to Group H. The '''Mendez Causeway''' runs southeast from the East Plaza to Temple VI, a distance of about 1.3 kilometers (0.81 mi). The '''Tozzer Causeway''' runs west from the Great Plaza to Temple IV. === Gruppi arkitettoniċi === The '''Great Plaza''' lies at the core of the site; it is flanked on the east and west sides by two great temple-pyramids. On the north side it is bordered by the North Acropolis and on the south by the Central Acropolis. The '''Central Acropolis''' is a palace complex just south of the Great Plaza. The '''North Acropolis''', together with the Great Plaza immediately to the south, is one of the most studied architectural groups in the Maya area; the Tikal Project excavated a massive trench across the complex, thoroughly investigating its construction history. It is a complex group with construction beginning in the Preclassic Period, around 350 BC. It developed into a funerary complex for the ruling dynasty of the Classic Period, with each additional royal burial adding new temples on top of the older structures. After AD 400 a row of tall pyramids was added to the earlier Northern Platform, which measured 100 by 80 meters (330 by 260 ft), gradually hiding it from view. Eight temple pyramids were built in the 6th century AD, each of them had an elaborate roofcomb and a stairway flanked by masks of the gods. By the 9th century AD, 43 stelae and 30 altars had been erected in the North Acropolis; 18 of these monuments were carved with hieroglyphic texts and royal portraits. The North Acropolis continued to receive burials into the Postclassic Period. The '''South Acropolis''' is found next to Temple V. It was built upon a large basal platform that covers an area of more than 20,000 square meters (220,000 sq ft). The '''Plaza of the Seven Temples''' is to the west of the South Acropolis. It is bordered on the east side by a row of nearly identical temples, by palaces on the south and west sides and by an unusual triple ballcourt on the north side. The '''Mundo Perdido''' is to the west of the Plaza of the Seven Temples. It is the largest ceremonial complex dating from the Preclassic period at Tikal. The complex was organized as a large E-Group consisting of a pyramid aligned with a platform to the east that supported three temples. The Mundo Perdido complex was rebuilt many times over the course of its history. By AD 250–300 its architectural style was influenced by the great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico, including the use of the ''talud-tablero'' form. During the Early Classic period (c. 250–600) the Mundo Perdido became one of the twin foci of the city, the other being the North Acropolis. From AD 250 to 378 it may have served as the royal necropolis. The Mundo Perdido complex was given its name by the archeologists of the University of Pennsylvania; it is centered upon the Lost World Pyramid and a small platform to the west of it. To the south of Mundo Perdido, recent 2021 excavations have revealed a one-third size replication of La Ciudadela, or The Citadel, in Teotihuacan. This area may have been used as a diplomatic headquarters and as an effort to further stamp Teotihuacan culture upon the residents of Tikal. '''Group G''' lies just south of the Mendez Causeway. The complex dates to the Late Classic and consists of palace-type structures and is one of the largest groups of its type at Tikal. It has two stories but most of the rooms are on the lower floor, a total of 29 vaulted chambers. The remains of two further chambers belong to the upper story. One of the entrances to the group was framed by a gigantic mask. '''Group H''' is centered on a large plaza to the north of the Great Plaza. It is bordered by temples dating to the Late Classic. There are nine '''Twin-Pyramid Complexes''' at Tikal, one of which was completely dismantled in ancient times and some others were partly destroyed. They vary in size but consist of two pyramids facing each other on an east–west axis. These pyramids are flat-topped and have stairways on all four sides. A row of plain stelae is placed immediately to the west of the eastern pyramid and to the north of the pyramids. Lying roughly equidistant from them, there is usually a sculpted stela and altar pair. On the south side of these complexes there is a long vaulted building containing a single room with nine doorways. The entire complex was built at once and these complexes were built at 20-year (or ''k'atun'') intervals during the Late Classic. The first twin pyramid complex was built in the early 6th century in the East Plaza. It was once thought that these complexes were unique to Tikal but rare examples have now been found at other sites, such as Yaxha and Ixlu, and they may reflect the extent of Tikal's political dominance in the Late Classic. '''Group Q''' is a twin-pyramid complex, and is one of the largest at Tikal. It was built by Yax Nuun Ayiin II in 771 in order to mark the end of the 17th K'atun. Most of it has been restored and its monuments have been re-erected. '''Group R''' is another twin-pyramid complex, dated to 790. It is close to the Maler Causeway. === Strutturi === There are thousands of ancient structures at Tikal and only a fraction of these have been excavated, after decades of archeological work. The most prominent surviving buildings include six very large pyramids, labelled Temples I – VI, each of which support a temple structure on their summits. Some of these pyramids are over 60 meters (200 feet) high. They were numbered sequentially during the early survey of the site. It is estimated that each of these major temples could have been built in as little as two years. '''Temple I''' (also known as the ''Temple of Ah Cacao'' or ''Temple of the Great Jaguar'') is a funerary pyramid dedicated to Jasaw Chan K'awil, who was entombed in the structure in AD 734, the pyramid was completed around 740–750. The temple rises 47 meters (154 ft) high. The massive roofcomb that topped the temple was originally decorated with a giant sculpture of the enthroned king, although little of this decoration survives. The tomb of the king was discovered by Aubrey Trik of the University of Pennsylvania in 1962. Among items recovered from the Late Classic tomb were a large collection of inscribed human and animal bone tubes and strips with sophisticated scenes depicting deities and people, finely carved and rubbed with vermilion, as well as jade and shell ornaments and ceramic vessels filled with offerings of food and drink. The shrine at the summit of the pyramid has three chambers, each behind the next, with the doorways spanned by wooden lintels fashioned from multiple beams. The outermost lintel is plain but the two inner lintels were carved, some of the beams were removed in the 19th century and their location is unknown, while others were taken to museums in Europe. '''Temple II''' (also known as the ''Temple of the Mask'') it was built around AD 700 and stands 38 meters (125 ft) high. Like other major temples at Tikal, the summit shrine had three consecutive chambers with the doorways spanned by wooden lintels, only the middle of which was carved. The temple was dedicated to the wife of Jasaw Chan K'awil, although no tomb was found. The queen's portrait was carved into the lintel spanning the doorway of the summit shrine. One of the beams from this lintel is now in the American Museum of Natural History in New York City. '''Temple III''' (also known as the ''Temple of the Jaguar Priest'') was the last of the great pyramids to be built at Tikal. It stood 55 meters (180 ft) tall and contained an elaborately sculpted but damaged roof lintel, possibly showing Dark Sun engaged in a ritual dance around AD 810. The temple shrine possesses two chambers. '''Temple IV''' is the tallest temple-pyramid at Tikal, measuring 70 meters (230 ft) from the plaza floor level to the top of its roof comb. Temple IV marks the reign of Yik’in Chan Kawil (Ruler B, the son of Ruler A or Jasaw Chan K'awiil I) and two carved wooden lintels over the doorway that leads into the temple on the pyramid's summit record a long count date (9.15.10.0.0) that corresponds to CE 741 (Sharer 1994:169). Temple IV is the largest pyramid built anywhere in the Maya region in the 8th century, and as it currently stands is the tallest pre-Columbian structure in the Americas although the Pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacan may originally have been taller, as may have been one of the structures at El Mirador. '''Temple V''' stands south of the Central Acropolis and is the mortuary pyramid of an as yet unidentified ruler. The temple stands 57 meters (187 ft) high, making it the second tallest structure at Tikal – only Temple IV is taller. The temple has been dated to about AD 700, in the Late Classic period, via radiocarbon analysis and the dating of ceramics associated with the structure places its construction during the reign of Nun Bak Chak in the second half of the 7th century. '''Temple VI''' is also known as the ''Temple of the Inscriptions'' and was dedicated in AD 766. It is notable for its 12-meter (39 ft) high roof-comb. Panels of hieroglyphs cover the back and sides of the roof-comb. The temple faces onto a plaza to the west and its front is unrestored. '''Temple 33''' was a funerary pyramid erected over the tomb of Siyaj Chan K'awiil I (known as Burial 48) in the North Acropolis. It started life in the Early Classic as a wide basal platform decorated with large stucco masks that flanked the stairway. Later in the Early Classic a new superstructure was added, with its own masks and decorated panels. During the Hiatus a third stage was built over the earlier constructions, the stairway was demolished and another royal burial, of an unidentified ruler, was set into the structure (Burial 23). While the new pyramid was being built another high ranking tomb (Burial 24) was inserted into the rubble core of the building. The pyramid was then completed, standing 33 meters (108 ft) tall. The final version of Temple 33 was completely dismantled by archeologists in 1965 in order to arrive at the earlier stages of construction. '''Structure 34''' is a pyramid in the North Acropolis that was built by Siyaj Chan K'awiil II over the tomb of his father, Yax Nuun Ayiin I. The pyramid was topped by a three chambered shrine, the rooms situated one behind the other. Detail of Teotihuacan-related imagery decorating the sloping ''talud'' sections of the ''talud-tablero'' sides of Structure 5D-43. '''Structure 5D-43''' is an unusual radial temple in the East Plaza, built over a pre-existing twin pyramid complex. It is built into the end of the East Plaza Ballcourt and possessed four entry doorways and three stairways, the fourth (south) side was too close to the Central Acropolis for a stairway on that side. The building has a ''talud-tablero'' platform profile, modified from the original style found at Teotihuacan. In fact, it has been suggested that the style of the building has closer affinities with El Tajin and Xochicalco than with Teotihuacan itself. The vertical ''tablero'' panels are set between sloping ''talud'' panels and are decorated with paired disc symbols. Large flower symbols are set into the sloping ''talud'' panels, related to the Venus and star symbols used at Teotihuacan. The roof of the structure was decorated with friezes although only fragments now remain, showing a monstrous face, perhaps that of a jaguar, with another head emerging from the mouth. The second head possesses a bifurcated tongue but is probably not that of a snake. The temple, and its associated ballcourt, probably date to the reign of Nuun Ujol Chaak or that of his son Jasaw Chan K'awiil I, in the later part of the 7th century. '''Structure 5C-49''' possesses a clear Teotihuacan-linked architectural style; it has balustrades, an architectural feature that is very rare in the Maya region, and a ''talud-tablero'' façade; it dates to the 4th century AD. It is located near to the Lost World pyramid. '''Structure 5C-53''' is a small Teotihuacan-style platform that dates to about AD 600. It had stairways on all four sides and did not possess a superstructure. The '''Lost World Pyramid''' (Structure 5C-54) is the largest structure in the Mundo Perdido complex. It lies in the southwest portion of Tikal's central core, south of Temple III and west of Temple V. It was decorated with stucco masks of the sun god and dates to the Late Preclassic; this pyramid is part of an enclosed complex of structures that remained intact and un-impacted by later building activity at Tikal. By the end of the Late Preclassic this pyramid was one of the largest structures in the Maya region. It attained its final form during the reign of Chak Tok Ich'aak in the 4th century AD, in the Early Classic, standing more than 30 meters (98 ft) high with stairways on all four sides and a flat top that possibly supported a superstructure built from perishable materials. Although the plaza later suffered significant alteration, the organization of a group of temples on the east side of this complex adheres to the layout that defines the so-called E-Groups, identified as solar observatories. '''Structure 5D-96''' is the central temple on the east side of the Plaza of the Seven Temples. It has been restored and its rear outer wall is decorated with skull-and-crossbones motifs. '''Group 6C-16''' is an elite residential complex that has been thoroughly excavated. It lies a few hundred m south of the Lost World Complex and the excavations have revealed elaborate stucco masks, ballplayer murals, relief sculptures and buildings with Teotihuacan characteristics. The '''Great Plaza Ballcourt''' is a small ballcourt that lies between Temple I and the Central Acropolis. The '''Bat Palace''' is also known as the Palace of Windows and lies to the west of Temple III. It has two storeys, with a double range of chambers on the lower storey and a single range in the upper storey, which has been restored. The palace has ancient graffiti and possesses low windows. '''Complex N''' lies to the west of the Bat Palace and Temple III. The complex dates to AD 711. In 2018, 60,000 uncharted structures were revealed by archeologists with help of Lidar. Thanks to the new findings, some archeologists believe that 7-11 million Maya people inhabited in the northern Guatemala during the late classical period from 650 to 800 A.D. Lidar digitally removed the tree canopy to reveal ancient remains and showed that Maya cities like Tikal were bigger than previously thought. The project was mapped near the Maya Biosphere Reserve in the Petén region of Guatemala. === Altars[edit] === '''Altar 5''' is carved with two nobles, one of whom is probably Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. They are performing a ritual using the bones of an important woman. Altar 5 was found in Complex N, which lies to the west of Temple III. '''Altar 8''' is sculpted with a bound captive. It was found within Complex P in Group H and is now in the Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología in Guatemala City. '''Altar 9''' is associated with Stela 21 and bears the sculpture of a bound captive. It is located in front of Temple VI. '''Altar 10''' is carved with a captive tied to a scaffold. It is in the northern enclosure of Group Q, a twin-pyramid complex and has suffered from erosion. '''Altar 35''' is a plain monument associated with Stela 43. The stela-altar pair is centrally located at the base of the stairway of Temple IV. === Lintels === The elaborately carved wooden Lintel 3 from Temple IV. It celebrates a military victory by Yik'in Chan K'awiil in 743. At Tikal, beams of sapodilla wood were placed as lintels spanning the inner doorways of temples. These are the most elaborately carved wooden lintels to have survived anywhere in the Maya region. '''Lintel 3''' from Temple IV was taken to Basel in Switzerland in the 19th century. It was in almost perfect condition and depicts Yik'in Chan K'awiil seated on a palanquin. === Steli === Stelae are carved stone shafts, often sculpted with figures and hieroglyphs. A selection of the most notable stelae at Tikal follows: '''Stela 1''' dates to the 5th century and depicts the king Siyaj Chan K'awiil II in a standing position. '''Stela 4''' is dated to AD 396, during the reign of Yax Nuun Ayiin after the intrusion of Teotihuacan in the Maya area. The stela displays a mix of Maya and Teotihuacan qualities, and deities from both cultures. It has a portrait of the king with the Underworld Jaguar God under one arm and the Mexican Tlaloc under the other. His helmet is a simplified version of the Teotihuacan War Serpent. Unusually for Maya sculpture, but typically for Teotihuacan, Yax Nuun Ayiin is depicted with a frontal face, rather than in profile. '''Stela 5''' was dedicated in 744 by Yik'in Chan K'awiil. '''Stela 6''' is a badly damaged monument dating to 514 and bears the name of the "Lady of Tikal" who celebrated the end of the 4th K'atun in that year. '''Stela 10''' is twinned with Stela 12 but is badly damaged. It described the accession of Kaloomte' B'alam in the early 6th century and earlier events in his career, including the capture of a prisoner depicted on the monument. '''Stela 11''' was the last monument ever erected at Tikal; it was dedicated in 869 by Jasaw Chan K'awiil II. '''Stela 12''' is linked to the queen known as the "Lady of Tikal" and king Kaloomte' B'alam. The queen is described as performing the year-ending rituals but the monument was dedicated in honor of the king. '''Stela 16''' was dedicated in 711, during the reign of Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. The sculpture, including a portrait of the king and a hieroglyphic text, are limited to the front face of the monument. It was found in Complex N, west of Temple III. '''Stela 18''' was one of two stelae erected by Yax Nuun Ayiin I to celebrate the ''k'atun''-ending of AD 396. It was re-erected at the base of Temple 34, his funerary shrine. '''Stela 19''' was dedicated in 790 by Yax Nuun Ayiin II. '''Stela 20''' was found in Complex P, in Group H, and was moved to the Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología in Guatemala City. '''Stela 21''' was dedicated in 736 by Yik'in Chan K'awiil. Only the bottom of the stela is intact, the rest having been mutilated in ancient times. The surviving sculpture is of fine quality, consisting of the feet of a figure and of accompanying hieroglyphic text. The stela is associated with Altar 9 and is located in front of Temple VI. '''Stela 22''' was dedicated in 771 by Yax Nuun Ayiin II in the northern enclosure of Group Q, a twin-pyramid complex. The face of the figure on the stela has been mutilated. '''Stela 23''' was broken in antiquity and was re-erected in a residential complex. The defaced portrait on the monument is that of the so-called "Lady of Tikal", a daughter of Chak Tok Ich'aak II who became queen at the age of six but never ruled in her own right, being paired with male co-rulers. It dates to the early 6th century. '''Stela 24''' was erected at the foot of Temple 3 in 810, accompanied by Altar 7. Both were broken into fragments in ancient times, although the name of Dark Sun survives on three fragments. '''Stela 26''' was found in the summit shrine of Temple 34, underneath a broken masonry altar. The monument had originally been erected at the base of the temple during the Early Classic period and was later broken, probably at the beginning of the Late Classic. Its remains were then interred within the temple shrine. '''Stela 29''' bears a Long Count (8.12.14.8.15) date equivalent to AD 292, the earliest surviving Long Count date from the Maya lowlands. The stela is also the earliest monument to bear the Tikal emblem glyph. It bears a sculpture of the king facing to the right, holding the head of an underworld jaguar god, one of the patron deities of the city. The stela was deliberately smashed during the 6th century or some time later, the upper portion was dragged away and dumped in a rubbish tip close to Temple III, to be uncovered by archeologists in 1959. '''Stela 30''' is the first surviving monument to be erected after the Hiatus. Its style and iconography is similar to that of Caracol, one of the more important of Tikal's enemies. Stela 31, with the sculpted image of Siyaj Chan K'awiil II '''Stela 31''' is the accession monument of Siyaj Chan K'awiil II, also bearing two portraits of his father, Yax Nuun Ayiin, as a youth dressed as a Teotihuacan warrior. He carries a spearthrower in one hand and bears a shield decorated with the face of Tlaloc, the Teotihuacan war god. In ancient times the sculpture was broken and the upper portion was moved to the summit of Temple 33 and ritually buried. Stela 31 has been described as the greatest Early Classic sculpture to survive at Tikal. A long hieroglyphic text is carved onto the back of the monument, the longest to survive from the Early Classic, which describes the arrival of Siyah K'ak' at El Peru and Tikal in January 378. It was also the first stela at Tikal to be carved on all four faces. '''Stela 32''' is a fragmented monument with a foreign Teotihuacan-style sculpture apparently depicting the lord of that city with the attributes of the central Mexican storm god Tlaloc, including his goggle eyes and tasselled headdress. '''Stela 39''' is a broken monument that was erected in the Lost World complex. The upper portion of the stela is missing but the lower portion shows the lower body and legs of Chak Tok Ich'aak, holding a flint axe in his left hand. He is trampling the figure of a bound, richly dressed captive. The monument is dated to AD 376. The text on the back of the monument describes a bloodletting ritual to celebrate a Katun-ending. The stela also names Chak Tok Ich'aak I's father as K'inich Muwaan Jol. '''Stela 40''' bears a portrait of Kan Chitam and dates to AD 468. '''Stela 43''' is paired with Altar 35. It is a plain monument at the base of the stairway of Temple IV. === Oqbra === A ceramic censer representing an elderly deity, found in Burial 10. '''Burial 1''' is a tomb in the Lost World complex. A fine ceramic bowl was recovered from the tomb, with the handle formed from three-dimensional head and neck of a bird emerging from the two-dimensional body painted on the lid. '''Burial 10''' is the tomb of Yax Nuun Ayiin. It is located beneath Structure 34 in the North Acropolis. The tomb contained a rich array of offerings, including ceramic vessels and food, and nine youths were sacrificed to accompany the dead king. A dog was also entombed with the deceased king. Pots in the tomb were stuccoed and painted and many demonstrated a blend of Maya and Teotihuacan styles. Among the offerings was an incense-burner in the shape of an elderly underworld god, sitting on a stool made of human bones and holding a severed head in his hands. The tomb was sealed with a corbel vault, then the pyramid was built on top. '''Burial 48''' is generally accepted as the tomb of Sihyaj Chan Kʼawiil II. It is located beneath Temple 33 in the North Acropolis. The chamber of the tomb was cut from the bedrock and contained the remains of the king himself together with those of two adolescents who had been sacrificed in order to accompany the deceased ruler. The walls of the tomb were covered with white stucco painted with hieroglyphs that included the Long Count date equivalent to 20 March 457, probably the date of either the death or interment of the king. The king's skeleton was missing its skull, its femurs and one of its hands while the skeletons of the sacrificial victims were intact. '''Burial 85''' dates to the Late Preclassic and was enclosed by a platform, with a primitive corbel vault. The tomb contained a single male skeleton, which lacked a skull and its thighbones. The dynastic founder of Tikal, Yax Ehb' Xook, has been linked to this tomb, which lies deep in the heart of the North Acropolis. The deceased had probably died in battle with his body being mutilated by his enemies before being recovered and interred by his followers. The bones were wrapped carefully in textiles to form an upright bundle. The missing head was replaced by a small greenstone mask with shell-inlaid teeth and eyes and bearing a three-pointed royal headband. This head wears an emblem of rulership on its forehead and is a rare Preclassic lowland Maya portrait of a king. Among the contents of the tomb were a stingray spine, a spondylus shell and twenty-six ceramic vessels. '''Burial 116''' is the tomb of Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. It is a large vaulted chamber deep within the pyramid, below the level of the Great Plaza. The tomb contained rich offerings of jadeite, ceramics, shell and works of art. The body of the king was covered with large quantities of jade ornaments including an enormous necklace with especially large beads, as depicted in sculpted portraits of the king. One of the outstanding pieces recovered from the tomb was an ornate jade mosaic vessel with the lid bearing a sculpted portrait of the king himself. '''Burial 195''' was flooded with mud in antiquity. This flood had covered wooden objects that had completely rotted away by the time the tomb was excavated, leaving hollows in the dried mud. Archeologists filled these hollows with stucco and thus excavated four effigies of the god K'awiil, the wooden originals long gone. '''Burial 196''' is a Late Classic royal tomb that contained a jade mosaic vessel topped with the head of the Maize God. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Siti arkeoloġiċi]] [[Kategorija:Siti ta' Wirt Dinji]] [[Kategorija:Parks Nazzjonali]] [[Kategorija:Maja]] 46ljdwgrnwaki4zhjhvvvipdmv3k4tw 279084 279083 2022-08-14T14:31:24Z Trigcly 17859 added [[Category:Gwatemala]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] wikitext text/x-wiki [[Stampa:Tikal Temple1 2006 08 11.JPG|daqsminuri|It-Tempju I ta' Tikal huwa għoli 47 metru (154 pied).]] '''Tikal''' (/tiˈkɑːl/; ''Tik’al'' bl-ortografija moderna tal-[[Maja]]) huwa l-fdal ta' belt antika, li x'aktarx kienet tissejjaħ '''Yax Mutal''', u li tinsab f'foresta tropikali fil-[[Gwatemala]]. Huwa wieħed mill-ikbar siti [[Arkeoloġija|arkeoloġiċi]] u ċentri urbani taċ-ċivilizzazzjoni tal-Maja pre-Kolumbjana. Jinsab fir-reġjun arkeoloġiku tal-Baċir ta' Petén fit-territorju attwali tat-Tramuntana tal-Gwatemala. Is-sit jinsab fid-dipartiment ta' El Petén u huwa parti mill-Park Nazzjonali ta' Tikal. Fl-1979 sar [[Sit ta' Wirt Dinji]] tal-[[UNESCO]].<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/64/|titlu=Tikal National Park|kunjom=Centre|isem=UNESCO World Heritage|sit=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2022-08-14}}</ref> Tikal kien il-[[belt kapitali]] ta' stat ħakkiem li sar wieħed mill-iżjed renji setgħana tal-Maja tal-qedem. Għalkemm l-arkitettura [[Monument|monumentali]] tas-sit tmur lura saħansitra tas-seklu 4 [[Ante Christum natum|Q.K]]., Tikal laħaq il-quċċata tiegħu matul il-Perjodu Klassiku, għall-ħabta tal-200 sad-900. Matul dak iż-żmien, il-belt iddominat il-biċċa l-kbira tar-reġjun tal-Maja [[Politika|politikament]], ekonomikament u militarment, filwaqt li interaġixxiet ma' żoni fil-Mesoamerka kollha, bħall-metropoli l-kbira ta' [[Teotihuacan]] fil-Wied tal-Messiku daqstant 'il bogħod. Hemm evidenza li Tikal inħakem minn Teotihuacan fis-seklu 4 W.K. Wara t-tmiem tal-Perjodu Klassiku Aħħari, ma nbena l-ebda monument maġġuri f'Tikal u hemm evidenza li l-palazzi tal-elit ingħataw in-nar. Dan l-avvenimenti mexew id f'id ma' tnaqqis gradwali fil-popolazzjoni, u laħqu l-qofol tagħhom fl-abbandun tas-sit sal-aħħar tas-seklu 10. Tikal hija l-iżjed belt mifhuma minn kwalunkwe waħda mill-bliet tal-Maja l-kbar fl-artijiet baxxi, b'lista twila ta' mexxejja dinastiċi, bl-iskoperta tal-oqbra ta' bosta mill-mexxejja fuq din il-lista u bl-investigazzjoni tal-monumenti, tat-tempji u tal-palazzi tagħhom. == Etimoloġija == [[Stampa:Tikalemblem.jpg|daqsminuri|Glifiċi emblematiċi ta' isem Tikal]] L-isem ''Tikal'' jaf oriġina minn ''ti ak'al'' fil-lingwa tal-Maja tal-[[Yucatan]]; jingħad li huwa isem relattivament modern li jfisser "f'ġibjun". Milli jidher l-isem ingħata lil wieħed mill-ġibjuni antiki tas-sit mill-kaċċaturi u mill-vjaġġaturi fir-reġjun. Interpretazzjoni oħra tal-isem hi li jfisser "il-post tal-vuċijiet" fil-lingwa tal-Maja ta' Itza. Madankollu, Tikal mhuwiex l-isem antik tas-sit iżda pjuttost l-isem li ġie adottat ftit wara l-iskoperta tas-sit fis-snin 40 tas-seklu 19. Il-kitbiet ġeroglifiċi fil-fdalijiet jirreferu għall-belt antika bħala ''Yax Mutal'' jew ''Yax Mutul'', li tfisser "l-ewwel Mutal". Tikal jaf bdiet tissejjaħ hekk minħabba li Dos Pilas beda juża l-istess glifiċi emblematiċi; il-mexxejja tal-belt x'aktarx li riedu jiddistingwu bejn il-bliet b'dan il-mod. Ir-renju kollu kien jissejjaħ sempliċement ''Mutul'', li huwa l-interpretazzjoni tal-glifiċi emblematiċi tal-"qatta' xagħar" fir-ritratt fuq il-lemin. It-tifsira preċiża għadha mhux ċerta. == Ġeografija == [[Stampa:Mayamap.png|daqsminuri|280x280px|Mappa taż-żona tal-Maja fir-reġjun Mesoamerikan. Kemm Tikal kif ukoll Calakmul jinsabu qrib iċ-ċentru taż-żona.]] The closest large modern settlements are Flores and Santa Elena, approximately 64 kilometers (40 mi) by road to the southwest. Tikal is approximately 303 kilometers (188 mi) north of Guatemala City. It is 19 kilometers (12 mi) south of the contemporary Maya city of Uaxactun and 30 kilometers (19 mi) northwest of Yaxha. The city was located 100 kilometers (62 mi) southeast of its great Classic Period rival, Calakmul, and 85 kilometers (53 mi) northwest of Calakmul's ally Caracol, now in Belize. The city has been completely mapped and covered an area greater than 16 square kilometers (6.2 sq mi) that included about 3,000 structures. The topography of the site consists of a series of parallel limestone ridges rising above swampy lowlands. The major architecture of the site is clustered upon areas of higher ground and linked by raised causeways spanning the swamps. The area around Tikal has been declared as the Tikal National Park and the preserved area covers 570 square kilometers (220 sq mi). It was created on 26 May 1955 under the auspices of the Instituto de Antropología e Historia and was the first protected area in Guatemala. The ruins lie among the tropical rainforests of northern Guatemala that formed the cradle of lowland Maya civilization. The city itself was located among abundant fertile upland soils, and may have dominated a natural east–west trade route across the Yucatan Peninsula. Conspicuous trees at the Tikal park include gigantic kapok (''Ceiba pentandra'') the sacred tree of the Maya; tropical cedar (''Cedrela odorata''), and Honduras mahogany (''Swietenia macrophylla''). Regarding the fauna, agoutis, white-nosed coatis, gray foxes, Geoffroy's spider monkeys, howler monkeys, harpy eagles, falcons, ocellated turkeys, guans, toucans, green parrots and leafcutter ants can be seen there regularly. Jaguars, ocelots, and cougars are also said to roam in the park. Tikal had no water other than what was collected from rainwater and stored in ten reservoirs. Archeologists working in Tikal during the 20th century refurbished one of these ancient reservoirs to store water for their own use. The average annual rainfall at Tikal is 1,945 millimeters (76.6 in). However, the arrival of rain was often unpredictable, and long periods of drought could occur before the crops ripened, which severely threatened the inhabitants of the city. == Popolazzjoni == Population estimates for Tikal vary from 10,000 to as high as 90,000 inhabitants. The population of Tikal began a continuous curve of growth starting in the Preclassic Period (approximately 2000 BC – AD 200), with a peak in the Late Classic with the population growing rapidly from AD 700 through to 830, followed by a sharp decline. For the 120 square kilometers (46 sq mi) area falling within the earthwork defenses of the hinterland, the peak population is estimated at 517 per square kilometer (1340 per square mile). In an area within a 12 kilometers (7.5 mi) radius of the site core, peak population is estimated at 120,000; population density is estimated at 265 per square kilometer (689 per square mile). In a region within a 25 kilometers (16 mi) radius of the site core and including some satellite sites, peak population is estimated at 425,000 with a density of 216 per square kilometer (515 per square mile). These population figures are even more impressive because of the extensive swamplands that were unsuitable for habitation or agriculture. However, some archeologists, such as David Webster, believe these figures to be far too high. == Sit ta' Wirt Dinji == == Storja == === Preklassika === There are traces of early agriculture at the site dating as far back as 1000 BC, in the Middle Preclassic. A cache of Mamon ceramics dating from about 700-400 BC were found in a sealed chultun, a subterranean bottle-shaped chamber. Major construction at Tikal was already taking place in the Late Preclassic period, first appearing around 400–300 BC, including the building of major pyramids and platforms, although the city was still dwarfed by sites further north such as El Mirador and Nakbe. At this time, Tikal participated in the widespread Chikanel culture that dominated the Central and Northern Maya areas at this time – a region that included the entire Yucatan Peninsula including northern and eastern Guatemala and all of Belize. Two temples dating to Late Chikanel times had masonry-walled superstructures that may have been corbel-vaulted, although this has not been proven. One of these had elaborate paintings on the outer walls showing human figures against a scrollwork background, painted in yellow, black, pink and red. In the 1st century AD rich burials first appeared and Tikal underwent a political and cultural florescence as its giant northern neighbors declined. At the end of the Late Preclassic, the Izapan style art and architecture from the Pacific Coast began to influence Tikal, as demonstrated by a broken sculpture from the acropolis and early murals at the city. === Klassika bikrija === Dynastic rulership among the lowland Maya is most deeply rooted at Tikal. According to later hieroglyphic records, the dynasty was founded by Yax Ehb Xook, perhaps in the 1st century AD. At the beginning of the Early Classic, power in the Maya region was concentrated at Tikal and Calakmul, in the core of the Maya heartland. Tikal may have benefited from the collapse of the large Preclassic states such as El Mirador. In the Early Classic Tikal rapidly developed into the most dynamic city in the Maya region, stimulating the development of other nearby Maya cities. The site, however, was often at war and inscriptions tell of alliances and conflict with other Maya states, including Uaxactun, Caracol, Naranjo and Calakmul. The site was defeated at the end of the Early Classic by Caracol, which rose to take Tikal's place as the paramount center in the southern Maya lowlands. The earlier part of the Early Classic saw hostilities between Tikal and its neighbor Uaxactun, with Uaxactun recording the capture of prisoners from Tikal. There appears to have been a breakdown in the male succession by AD 317, when Lady Unen Bahlam conducted a katun-ending ceremony, apparently as queen of the city. ==== Tikal u Teotihuacan ==== The great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico appears to have decisively intervened in Tikal politics. As early as 200 AD Teotihuacan had embassies in Tikal. The fourteenth king of Tikal was Chak Tok Ich'aak (Great Jaguar Paw). Chak Tok Ich'aak built a palace that was preserved and developed by later rulers until it became the core of the Central Acropolis. Little is known about Chak Tok Ich'aak except that he was killed on 14 January 378 AD.^{[''contradictory'']} On the same day, Siyah K’ak' (Fire Is Born) arrived from the west, having passed through El Peru, a site to the west of Tikal, on 8 January. On Stela 31 he is named as "Lord of the West". Siyah K’ak' was probably a foreign general serving a figure represented by a non-Maya hieroglyph of a spearthrower combined with an owl, a glyph that is well known from the great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the distant Valley of Mexico. Spearthrower Owl may even have been the ruler of Teotihuacan. These recorded events strongly suggest that Siyah K’ak' led a Teotihuacan invasion that defeated the native Tikal king, who was captured and immediately executed. Siyah K'ak' appears to have been aided by a powerful political faction at Tikal itself; roughly at the time of the conquest, a group of Teotihuacan natives were apparently residing near the Lost World complex. He also exerted control over other cities in the area, including Uaxactun, where he became king, but did not take the throne of Tikal for himself. Within a year, the son of Spearthrower Owl by the name of Yax Nuun Ayiin I (First Crocodile) had been installed as the fifteenth king of Tikal while he was still a boy, being enthroned on 13 September 379. He reigned for 47 years as king of Tikal, and remained a vassal of Siyah K'ak' for as long as the latter lived. It seems likely that Yax Nuun Ayiin I took a wife from the preexisting, defeated, Tikal dynasty and thus legitimized the right to rule of his son, Siyaj Chan K'awiil II. Río Azul, a small site 100 kilometers (62 mi) northeast of Tikal, was conquered by the latter during the reign of Yax Nuun Ayiin I. The site became an outpost of Tikal, shielding it from hostile cities further north, and also became a trade link to the Caribbean. Although the new rulers of Tikal were foreign, their descendants were rapidly Mayanized. Tikal became the key ally and trading partner of Teotihuacan in the Maya lowlands. After being conquered by Teotihuacan, Tikal rapidly dominated the northern and eastern Peten. Uaxactun, together with smaller towns in the region, were absorbed into Tikal's kingdom. Other sites, such as Bejucal and Motul de San José near Lake Petén Itzá became vassals of their more powerful neighbor to the north. By the middle of the 5th century Tikal had a core territory of at least 25 kilometers (16 mi) in every direction. Around the 5th century an impressive system of fortifications consisting of ditches and earthworks was built along the northern periphery of Tikal's hinterland, joining up with the natural defenses provided by large areas of swampland lying to the east and west of the city. Additional fortifications were probably also built to the south. These defenses protected Tikal's core population and agricultural resources, encircling an area of approximately 120 square kilometers (46 sq mi). Recent research suggests that the earthworks served as a water collection system rather than a defensive purpose. ==== Tikal u Copán ==== In the 5th century the power of the city reached as far south as Copán, whose founder K'inich Yax K'uk' Mo' was clearly connected with Tikal. Copán itself was not in an ethnically Maya region and the founding of the Copán dynasty probably involved the direct intervention of Tikal. K'inich Yax K'uk' Mo' arrived in Copán in December 426 and bone analysis of his remains shows that he passed his childhood and youth at Tikal. An individual known as Ajaw K'uk' Mo' (lord K'uk' Mo') is referred to in an early text at Tikal and may well be the same person. His tomb had Teotihuacan characteristics and he was depicted in later portraits dressed in the warrior garb of Teotihuacan. Hieroglyphic texts refer to him as "Lord of the West", much like Siyah K’ak'. At the same time, in late 426, Copán founded the nearby site of Quiriguá, possibly sponsored by Tikal itself. The founding of these two centers may have been part of an effort to impose Tikal's authority upon the southeastern portion of the Maya region. The interaction between these sites and Tikal was intense over the next three centuries. A long-running rivalry between Tikal and Calakmul began in the 6th century, with each of the two cities forming its own network of mutually hostile alliances arrayed against each other in what has been likened to a long-running war between two Maya superpowers. The kings of these two capitals adopted the title ''kaloomte''', a term that has not been precisely translated but that implies something akin to "high king". The early 6th century saw another queen ruling the city, known only as the "Lady of Tikal", who was very likely a daughter of Chak Tok Ich'aak II. She seems never to have ruled in her own right, rather being partnered with male co-rulers. The first of these was Kaloomte' B'alam, who seems to have had a long career as a general at Tikal before becoming co-ruler and 19th in the dynastic sequence. The Lady of Tikal herself seems not have been counted in the dynastic numbering. It appears she was later paired with lord "Bird Claw", who is presumed to be the otherwise unknown 20th ruler. === Klassika Aħħarija === ==== L-aqwa żmien ta' Tikal ==== In the mid 6th century, Caracol seems to have allied with Calakmul and defeated Tikal, closing the Early Classic. The "Tikal hiatus" refers to a period between the late 6th to late 7th century where there was a lapse in the writing of inscriptions and large-scale construction at Tikal. In the latter half of the 6th century AD, a serious crisis befell the city, with no new stelae being erected and with widespread deliberate mutilation of public sculpture. This hiatus in activity at Tikal was long unexplained until later epigraphic decipherments identified that the period was prompted by Tikal's comprehensive defeat at the hands of Calakmul and the Caracol polity in AD 562, a defeat that seems to have resulted in the capture and sacrifice of the king of Tikal. The badly eroded Altar 21 at Caracol described how Tikal suffered this disastrous defeat in a major war in April 562. It seems that Caracol was an ally of Calakmul in the wider conflict between that city and Tikal, with the defeat of Tikal having a lasting impact upon the city. Tikal was not sacked but its power and influence were broken. After its great victory, Caracol grew rapidly and some of Tikal's population may have been forcibly relocated there. During the hiatus period, at least one ruler of Tikal took refuge with Janaab' Pakal of Palenque, another of Calakmul's victims. Calakmul itself thrived during Tikal's long hiatus period. The beginning of the Tikal hiatus has served as a marker by which archeologists commonly subdivide the Classic period of Mesoamerican chronology into the Early and Late Classic. ==== Tikal u Dos Pilas ==== In 629 Tikal founded Dos Pilas, some 110 kilometers (68 mi) to the southwest, as a military outpost in order to control trade along the course of the Pasión River. B'alaj Chan K'awiil was installed on the throne of the new outpost at the age of four, in 635. When he was older, for many years he served as a loyal vassal fighting for his brother, the king of Tikal. Roughly twenty years later, Dos Pilas was attacked by Calakmul and was soundly defeated. B'alaj Chan K'awiil was captured by the king of Calakmul but, instead of being sacrificed, he was re-instated on his throne as a vassal of his former enemy. He attacked Tikal in 657, forcing Nuun Ujol Chaak, then king of Tikal, to temporarily abandon the city. The first two rulers of Dos Pilas continued to use the Mutal emblem glyph of Tikal, and they probably felt that they had a legitimate claim to the throne of Tikal itself. For some reason, B'alaj Chan K'awiil was not installed as the new ruler of Tikal; instead he stayed at Dos Pilas. Tikal counterattacked against Dos Pilas in 672, driving B'alaj Chan K'awiil into an exile that lasted five years. Calakmul tried to encircle Tikal within an area dominated by its allies, such as El Peru, Dos Pilas, and Caracol. In 682, Jasaw Chan K'awiil I erected the first dated monument at Tikal in 120 years and claimed the title of ''kaloomte''', so ending the hiatus. He initiated a program of new construction and turned the tables on Calakmul when, in 695, he captured the enemy noble and threw the enemy state into a long decline from which it never fully recovered. After this, Calakmul never again erected a monument celebrating a military victory. ==== Tikal wara Teotihuacan ==== By the 7th century, there was no active Teotihuacan presence at any Maya site and the center of Teotihuacan had been razed by 700. Even after this, formal war attire illustrated on monuments was Teotihuacan style. Jasaw Chan K'awiil I and his heir Yik'in Chan K'awiil continued hostilities against Calakmul and its allies and imposed firm regional control over the area around Tikal, extending as far as the territory around Lake Petén Itzá. These two rulers were responsible for much of the impressive architecture visible today. In 738, Quiriguá, a vassal of Copán, Tikal's key ally in the south, switched allegiance to Calakmul, defeated Copán and gained its own independence. It appears that this was a conscious effort on the part of Calakmul to bring about the collapse of Tikal's southern allies. This upset the balance of power in the southern Maya area and lead to a steady decline in the fortunes of Copán. In the 8th century, the rulers of Tikal collected monuments from across the city and erected them in front of the North Acropolis. By the late 8th century and early 9th century, activity at Tikal slowed. Impressive architecture was still built but few hieroglyphic inscriptions refer to later rulers. === Klassika Terminali === By the 9th century, the crisis of the Classic Maya collapse was sweeping across the region, with populations plummeting and city after city falling into silence. Increasingly endemic warfare in the Maya region caused Tikal's supporting population to heavily concentrate close to the city itself, accelerating the use of intensive agriculture and the corresponding environmental decline. Construction continued at the beginning of the century, with the erection of Temple 3, the last of the city's major pyramids, and the erection of monuments to mark the 19th K'atun in 810. The beginning of the 10th Bak'tun in 830 passed uncelebrated, and marks the beginning of a 60-year hiatus, probably resulting from the collapse of central control in the city. During this hiatus, satellite sites traditionally under Tikal's control began to erect their own monuments featuring local rulers and using the Mutal emblem glyph, with Tikal apparently lacking the authority or the power to crush these bids for independence. In 849, Jewel K'awiil is mentioned on a stela at Seibal as visiting that city as the Divine Lord of Tikal but he is not recorded elsewhere and Tikal's once-great power was little more than a memory. The sites of Ixlu and Jimbal had by now inherited the once exclusive Mutal emblem glyph. As Tikal and its hinterland reached peak population, the area suffered deforestation, erosion and nutrient loss followed by a rapid decline in population levels. Recent analysis also indicates that the city's freshwater sources became highly contaminated with mercury, phosphate and cyanobacteria leading to the accumulation of toxins. Tikal and its immediate surroundings seem to have lost most of their population between 830 and 950 and central authority seems to have collapsed rapidly. There is not much evidence from Tikal that the city was directly affected by the endemic warfare that afflicted parts of the Maya region during the Terminal Classic, although an influx of refugees from the Petexbatún region may have exacerbated problems resulting from the already stretched environmental resources. The site core seen from the south, with Temple I at center, the North Acropolis to the left and Central Acropolis to the right In the latter half of the 9th century there was an attempt to revive royal power at the much-diminished city of Tikal, as evidenced by a stela erected in the Great Plaza by Jasaw Chan K'awiil II in 869. This was the last monument erected at Tikal before the city finally fell into silence. The former satellites of Tikal, such as Jimbal and Uaxactun, did not last much longer, erecting their final monuments in 889. By the end of the 9th century the vast majority of Tikal's population had deserted the city, its royal palaces were occupied by squatters and simple thatched dwellings were being erected in the city's ceremonial plazas. The squatters blocked some doorways in the rooms they reoccupied in the monumental structures of the site and left rubbish that included a mixture of domestic refuse and non-utilitarian items such as musical instruments. These inhabitants reused the earlier monuments for their own ritual activities, far removed from those of the royal dynasty that had erected them. Some monuments were vandalized and some were moved to new locations. Before its final abandonment all respect for the old rulers had disappeared, with the tombs of the North Acropolis being explored for jade and the easier-to-find tombs were looted. After 950, Tikal was all but deserted, although a remnant population may have survived in perishable huts interspersed among the ruins. Even these final inhabitants abandoned the city in the 10th or 11th centuries and the rainforest claimed the ruins for the next thousand years. Some of Tikal's population may have migrated to the Peten Lakes region, which remained heavily populated in spite of a plunge in population levels in the first half of the 9th century. The most likely cause of collapse at Tikal is overpopulation and agrarian failure. The fall of Tikal was a blow to the heart of Classic Maya civilization, the city having been at the forefront of courtly life, art and architecture for over a thousand years, with an ancient ruling dynasty. However, new research regarding paleoenvironmental proxies from the Tikal reservoir system suggests that a meteorological drought may have led to the abandonment of Tikal, fouling some reservoirs near the temple and palace with algae blooms, while other reservoirs remained drinkable. Buildings were painted with mercury-bearing cinnabar, which were washed off by rain and polluted some reservoirs. Works of Kohler and colleagues showed that this city reached an unsustainable level of inequalities at the end.^{[''clarification needed'']} === Moderna === Archeologist Edwin M. Shook, field director of the Tikal Project; Shook was also instrumental in having Tikal established as Guatemala's first National Park. In 1525, the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés passed within a few kilometers of the ruins of Tikal but did not mention them in his letters. After Spanish friar Andrés de Avendaño became lost in the Petén forests in early 1696 he described a ruin that may well have been Tikal. As is often the case with huge ancient ruins, knowledge of the site was never completely lost in the region. It seems that local people never forgot about Tikal and they guided Guatemalan expeditions to the ruins in the 1850s. Some second- or third-hand accounts of Tikal appeared in print starting in the 17th century, continuing through the writings of John Lloyd Stephens in the early 19th century (Stephens and his illustrator Frederick Catherwood heard rumors of a lost city, with white building tops towering above the jungle, during their 1839–40 travels in the region). Because of the site's remoteness from modern towns, however, no explorers visited Tikal until Modesto Méndez and Ambrosio Tut, respectively the commissioner and the governor of Petén, visited it in 1848. Artist Eusebio Lara accompanied them and their account was published in Germany in 1853. Several other expeditions came to further investigate, map, and photograph Tikal in the 19th century (including Alfred P. Maudslay in 1881-82) and the early 20th century. Pioneering archeologists started to clear, map and record the ruins in the 1880s. In 1951, a small airstrip was built at the ruins, which previously could only be reached by several days' travel through the jungle on foot or mule. In 1956 the Tikal project began to map the city on a scale not previously seen in the Maya area. From 1956 through 1970, major archeological excavations were carried out by the University of Pennsylvania Tikal Project. They mapped much of the site and excavated and restored many of the structures. Excavations directed by Edwin M. Shook and later by William Coe of the university investigated the North Acropolis and the Central Plaza from 1957 to 1969. The Tikal Project recorded over 200 monuments at the site. In 1979, the Guatemalan government began a further archeological project at Tikal, which continued through to 1984. Filmmaker George Lucas used Tikal as a filming location for the fictional moon Yavin 4 in the first ''Star Wars'' film, ''Episode IV: A New Hope'', which premiered in 1977. Temple I at Tikal was featured on the reverse of the 50 centavo banknote. Eon Productions used the site for the James Bond film ''Moonraker''. Tikal is now a major tourist attraction surrounded by its own national park. A site museum has been built at Tikal; it was completed in 1964. == Deskrizzjoni tas-sit == Tikal has been partially restored by the University of Pennsylvania and the government of Guatemala. It was one of the largest of the Classic period Maya cities and was one of the largest cities in the Americas. The architecture of the ancient city is built from limestone and includes the remains of temples that tower over 70 meters (230 ft) high, large royal palaces, in addition to a number of smaller pyramids, palaces, residences, administrative buildings, platforms and inscribed stone monuments. There is even a building which seemed to have been a jail, originally with wooden bars across the windows and doors. There are also seven courts for playing the Mesoamerican ballgame, including a set of 3 in the Seven Temples Plaza, a unique feature in Mesoamerica. The limestone used for construction was local and quarried on-site. The depressions formed by the extraction of stone for building were plastered to waterproof them and were used as reservoirs, together with some waterproofed natural depressions. The main plazas were surfaced with stucco and laid at a gradient that channelled rainfall into a system of canals that fed the reservoirs. The residential area of Tikal covers an estimated 60 square kilometers (23 sq mi), much of which has not yet been cleared, mapped, or excavated. The 16 square kilometers (6.2 sq mi) area around the site core has been intensively mapped; it may have enclosed an area of some 125 square kilometers (48 sq mi) (see below). A huge set of earthworks discovered by Dennis E. Puleston and Donald Callender in the 1960s rings Tikal with a 6-meter (20 ft) wide trench behind a rampart. Recently, a project exploring the defensive earthworks has shown that the scale of the earthworks is highly variable and that in many places it is inconsequential as a defensive feature. In addition, some parts of the earthwork were integrated into a canal system. The earthwork of Tikal varies significantly in coverage from what was originally proposed and it is much more complex and multifaceted than originally thought. === Toroq === By the Late Classic, a network of ''sacbeob'' (causeways) linked various parts of the city, running for several kilometers through its urban core. These linked the Great Plaza with Temple 4 (located about 750 meters (2,460 feet) to the west) and the Temple of the Inscriptions (about 1 kilometer (0.62 mi) to the southeast). These broad causeways were built of packed and plastered limestone and have been named after early explorers and archeologists; the Maler, Maudslay, Tozzer and Méndez causeways. They assisted the passage of everyday traffic during the rain season and also served as dams. The '''Maler Causeway''' runs north from behind Temple I to Group H. A large bas-relief is carved onto limestone bedrock upon the course of the causeway just south of Group H. It depicts two bound captives and dates to the Late Classic. The '''Maudsley Causeway''' runs 0.8 kilometers (0.50 mi) northeast from Temple IV to Group H. The '''Mendez Causeway''' runs southeast from the East Plaza to Temple VI, a distance of about 1.3 kilometers (0.81 mi). The '''Tozzer Causeway''' runs west from the Great Plaza to Temple IV. === Gruppi arkitettoniċi === The '''Great Plaza''' lies at the core of the site; it is flanked on the east and west sides by two great temple-pyramids. On the north side it is bordered by the North Acropolis and on the south by the Central Acropolis. The '''Central Acropolis''' is a palace complex just south of the Great Plaza. The '''North Acropolis''', together with the Great Plaza immediately to the south, is one of the most studied architectural groups in the Maya area; the Tikal Project excavated a massive trench across the complex, thoroughly investigating its construction history. It is a complex group with construction beginning in the Preclassic Period, around 350 BC. It developed into a funerary complex for the ruling dynasty of the Classic Period, with each additional royal burial adding new temples on top of the older structures. After AD 400 a row of tall pyramids was added to the earlier Northern Platform, which measured 100 by 80 meters (330 by 260 ft), gradually hiding it from view. Eight temple pyramids were built in the 6th century AD, each of them had an elaborate roofcomb and a stairway flanked by masks of the gods. By the 9th century AD, 43 stelae and 30 altars had been erected in the North Acropolis; 18 of these monuments were carved with hieroglyphic texts and royal portraits. The North Acropolis continued to receive burials into the Postclassic Period. The '''South Acropolis''' is found next to Temple V. It was built upon a large basal platform that covers an area of more than 20,000 square meters (220,000 sq ft). The '''Plaza of the Seven Temples''' is to the west of the South Acropolis. It is bordered on the east side by a row of nearly identical temples, by palaces on the south and west sides and by an unusual triple ballcourt on the north side. The '''Mundo Perdido''' is to the west of the Plaza of the Seven Temples. It is the largest ceremonial complex dating from the Preclassic period at Tikal. The complex was organized as a large E-Group consisting of a pyramid aligned with a platform to the east that supported three temples. The Mundo Perdido complex was rebuilt many times over the course of its history. By AD 250–300 its architectural style was influenced by the great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico, including the use of the ''talud-tablero'' form. During the Early Classic period (c. 250–600) the Mundo Perdido became one of the twin foci of the city, the other being the North Acropolis. From AD 250 to 378 it may have served as the royal necropolis. The Mundo Perdido complex was given its name by the archeologists of the University of Pennsylvania; it is centered upon the Lost World Pyramid and a small platform to the west of it. To the south of Mundo Perdido, recent 2021 excavations have revealed a one-third size replication of La Ciudadela, or The Citadel, in Teotihuacan. This area may have been used as a diplomatic headquarters and as an effort to further stamp Teotihuacan culture upon the residents of Tikal. '''Group G''' lies just south of the Mendez Causeway. The complex dates to the Late Classic and consists of palace-type structures and is one of the largest groups of its type at Tikal. It has two stories but most of the rooms are on the lower floor, a total of 29 vaulted chambers. The remains of two further chambers belong to the upper story. One of the entrances to the group was framed by a gigantic mask. '''Group H''' is centered on a large plaza to the north of the Great Plaza. It is bordered by temples dating to the Late Classic. There are nine '''Twin-Pyramid Complexes''' at Tikal, one of which was completely dismantled in ancient times and some others were partly destroyed. They vary in size but consist of two pyramids facing each other on an east–west axis. These pyramids are flat-topped and have stairways on all four sides. A row of plain stelae is placed immediately to the west of the eastern pyramid and to the north of the pyramids. Lying roughly equidistant from them, there is usually a sculpted stela and altar pair. On the south side of these complexes there is a long vaulted building containing a single room with nine doorways. The entire complex was built at once and these complexes were built at 20-year (or ''k'atun'') intervals during the Late Classic. The first twin pyramid complex was built in the early 6th century in the East Plaza. It was once thought that these complexes were unique to Tikal but rare examples have now been found at other sites, such as Yaxha and Ixlu, and they may reflect the extent of Tikal's political dominance in the Late Classic. '''Group Q''' is a twin-pyramid complex, and is one of the largest at Tikal. It was built by Yax Nuun Ayiin II in 771 in order to mark the end of the 17th K'atun. Most of it has been restored and its monuments have been re-erected. '''Group R''' is another twin-pyramid complex, dated to 790. It is close to the Maler Causeway. === Strutturi === There are thousands of ancient structures at Tikal and only a fraction of these have been excavated, after decades of archeological work. The most prominent surviving buildings include six very large pyramids, labelled Temples I – VI, each of which support a temple structure on their summits. Some of these pyramids are over 60 meters (200 feet) high. They were numbered sequentially during the early survey of the site. It is estimated that each of these major temples could have been built in as little as two years. '''Temple I''' (also known as the ''Temple of Ah Cacao'' or ''Temple of the Great Jaguar'') is a funerary pyramid dedicated to Jasaw Chan K'awil, who was entombed in the structure in AD 734, the pyramid was completed around 740–750. The temple rises 47 meters (154 ft) high. The massive roofcomb that topped the temple was originally decorated with a giant sculpture of the enthroned king, although little of this decoration survives. The tomb of the king was discovered by Aubrey Trik of the University of Pennsylvania in 1962. Among items recovered from the Late Classic tomb were a large collection of inscribed human and animal bone tubes and strips with sophisticated scenes depicting deities and people, finely carved and rubbed with vermilion, as well as jade and shell ornaments and ceramic vessels filled with offerings of food and drink. The shrine at the summit of the pyramid has three chambers, each behind the next, with the doorways spanned by wooden lintels fashioned from multiple beams. The outermost lintel is plain but the two inner lintels were carved, some of the beams were removed in the 19th century and their location is unknown, while others were taken to museums in Europe. '''Temple II''' (also known as the ''Temple of the Mask'') it was built around AD 700 and stands 38 meters (125 ft) high. Like other major temples at Tikal, the summit shrine had three consecutive chambers with the doorways spanned by wooden lintels, only the middle of which was carved. The temple was dedicated to the wife of Jasaw Chan K'awil, although no tomb was found. The queen's portrait was carved into the lintel spanning the doorway of the summit shrine. One of the beams from this lintel is now in the American Museum of Natural History in New York City. '''Temple III''' (also known as the ''Temple of the Jaguar Priest'') was the last of the great pyramids to be built at Tikal. It stood 55 meters (180 ft) tall and contained an elaborately sculpted but damaged roof lintel, possibly showing Dark Sun engaged in a ritual dance around AD 810. The temple shrine possesses two chambers. '''Temple IV''' is the tallest temple-pyramid at Tikal, measuring 70 meters (230 ft) from the plaza floor level to the top of its roof comb. Temple IV marks the reign of Yik’in Chan Kawil (Ruler B, the son of Ruler A or Jasaw Chan K'awiil I) and two carved wooden lintels over the doorway that leads into the temple on the pyramid's summit record a long count date (9.15.10.0.0) that corresponds to CE 741 (Sharer 1994:169). Temple IV is the largest pyramid built anywhere in the Maya region in the 8th century, and as it currently stands is the tallest pre-Columbian structure in the Americas although the Pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacan may originally have been taller, as may have been one of the structures at El Mirador. '''Temple V''' stands south of the Central Acropolis and is the mortuary pyramid of an as yet unidentified ruler. The temple stands 57 meters (187 ft) high, making it the second tallest structure at Tikal – only Temple IV is taller. The temple has been dated to about AD 700, in the Late Classic period, via radiocarbon analysis and the dating of ceramics associated with the structure places its construction during the reign of Nun Bak Chak in the second half of the 7th century. '''Temple VI''' is also known as the ''Temple of the Inscriptions'' and was dedicated in AD 766. It is notable for its 12-meter (39 ft) high roof-comb. Panels of hieroglyphs cover the back and sides of the roof-comb. The temple faces onto a plaza to the west and its front is unrestored. '''Temple 33''' was a funerary pyramid erected over the tomb of Siyaj Chan K'awiil I (known as Burial 48) in the North Acropolis. It started life in the Early Classic as a wide basal platform decorated with large stucco masks that flanked the stairway. Later in the Early Classic a new superstructure was added, with its own masks and decorated panels. During the Hiatus a third stage was built over the earlier constructions, the stairway was demolished and another royal burial, of an unidentified ruler, was set into the structure (Burial 23). While the new pyramid was being built another high ranking tomb (Burial 24) was inserted into the rubble core of the building. The pyramid was then completed, standing 33 meters (108 ft) tall. The final version of Temple 33 was completely dismantled by archeologists in 1965 in order to arrive at the earlier stages of construction. '''Structure 34''' is a pyramid in the North Acropolis that was built by Siyaj Chan K'awiil II over the tomb of his father, Yax Nuun Ayiin I. The pyramid was topped by a three chambered shrine, the rooms situated one behind the other. Detail of Teotihuacan-related imagery decorating the sloping ''talud'' sections of the ''talud-tablero'' sides of Structure 5D-43. '''Structure 5D-43''' is an unusual radial temple in the East Plaza, built over a pre-existing twin pyramid complex. It is built into the end of the East Plaza Ballcourt and possessed four entry doorways and three stairways, the fourth (south) side was too close to the Central Acropolis for a stairway on that side. The building has a ''talud-tablero'' platform profile, modified from the original style found at Teotihuacan. In fact, it has been suggested that the style of the building has closer affinities with El Tajin and Xochicalco than with Teotihuacan itself. The vertical ''tablero'' panels are set between sloping ''talud'' panels and are decorated with paired disc symbols. Large flower symbols are set into the sloping ''talud'' panels, related to the Venus and star symbols used at Teotihuacan. The roof of the structure was decorated with friezes although only fragments now remain, showing a monstrous face, perhaps that of a jaguar, with another head emerging from the mouth. The second head possesses a bifurcated tongue but is probably not that of a snake. The temple, and its associated ballcourt, probably date to the reign of Nuun Ujol Chaak or that of his son Jasaw Chan K'awiil I, in the later part of the 7th century. '''Structure 5C-49''' possesses a clear Teotihuacan-linked architectural style; it has balustrades, an architectural feature that is very rare in the Maya region, and a ''talud-tablero'' façade; it dates to the 4th century AD. It is located near to the Lost World pyramid. '''Structure 5C-53''' is a small Teotihuacan-style platform that dates to about AD 600. It had stairways on all four sides and did not possess a superstructure. The '''Lost World Pyramid''' (Structure 5C-54) is the largest structure in the Mundo Perdido complex. It lies in the southwest portion of Tikal's central core, south of Temple III and west of Temple V. It was decorated with stucco masks of the sun god and dates to the Late Preclassic; this pyramid is part of an enclosed complex of structures that remained intact and un-impacted by later building activity at Tikal. By the end of the Late Preclassic this pyramid was one of the largest structures in the Maya region. It attained its final form during the reign of Chak Tok Ich'aak in the 4th century AD, in the Early Classic, standing more than 30 meters (98 ft) high with stairways on all four sides and a flat top that possibly supported a superstructure built from perishable materials. Although the plaza later suffered significant alteration, the organization of a group of temples on the east side of this complex adheres to the layout that defines the so-called E-Groups, identified as solar observatories. '''Structure 5D-96''' is the central temple on the east side of the Plaza of the Seven Temples. It has been restored and its rear outer wall is decorated with skull-and-crossbones motifs. '''Group 6C-16''' is an elite residential complex that has been thoroughly excavated. It lies a few hundred m south of the Lost World Complex and the excavations have revealed elaborate stucco masks, ballplayer murals, relief sculptures and buildings with Teotihuacan characteristics. The '''Great Plaza Ballcourt''' is a small ballcourt that lies between Temple I and the Central Acropolis. The '''Bat Palace''' is also known as the Palace of Windows and lies to the west of Temple III. It has two storeys, with a double range of chambers on the lower storey and a single range in the upper storey, which has been restored. The palace has ancient graffiti and possesses low windows. '''Complex N''' lies to the west of the Bat Palace and Temple III. The complex dates to AD 711. In 2018, 60,000 uncharted structures were revealed by archeologists with help of Lidar. Thanks to the new findings, some archeologists believe that 7-11 million Maya people inhabited in the northern Guatemala during the late classical period from 650 to 800 A.D. Lidar digitally removed the tree canopy to reveal ancient remains and showed that Maya cities like Tikal were bigger than previously thought. The project was mapped near the Maya Biosphere Reserve in the Petén region of Guatemala. === Altars[edit] === '''Altar 5''' is carved with two nobles, one of whom is probably Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. They are performing a ritual using the bones of an important woman. Altar 5 was found in Complex N, which lies to the west of Temple III. '''Altar 8''' is sculpted with a bound captive. It was found within Complex P in Group H and is now in the Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología in Guatemala City. '''Altar 9''' is associated with Stela 21 and bears the sculpture of a bound captive. It is located in front of Temple VI. '''Altar 10''' is carved with a captive tied to a scaffold. It is in the northern enclosure of Group Q, a twin-pyramid complex and has suffered from erosion. '''Altar 35''' is a plain monument associated with Stela 43. The stela-altar pair is centrally located at the base of the stairway of Temple IV. === Lintels === The elaborately carved wooden Lintel 3 from Temple IV. It celebrates a military victory by Yik'in Chan K'awiil in 743. At Tikal, beams of sapodilla wood were placed as lintels spanning the inner doorways of temples. These are the most elaborately carved wooden lintels to have survived anywhere in the Maya region. '''Lintel 3''' from Temple IV was taken to Basel in Switzerland in the 19th century. It was in almost perfect condition and depicts Yik'in Chan K'awiil seated on a palanquin. === Steli === Stelae are carved stone shafts, often sculpted with figures and hieroglyphs. A selection of the most notable stelae at Tikal follows: '''Stela 1''' dates to the 5th century and depicts the king Siyaj Chan K'awiil II in a standing position. '''Stela 4''' is dated to AD 396, during the reign of Yax Nuun Ayiin after the intrusion of Teotihuacan in the Maya area. The stela displays a mix of Maya and Teotihuacan qualities, and deities from both cultures. It has a portrait of the king with the Underworld Jaguar God under one arm and the Mexican Tlaloc under the other. His helmet is a simplified version of the Teotihuacan War Serpent. Unusually for Maya sculpture, but typically for Teotihuacan, Yax Nuun Ayiin is depicted with a frontal face, rather than in profile. '''Stela 5''' was dedicated in 744 by Yik'in Chan K'awiil. '''Stela 6''' is a badly damaged monument dating to 514 and bears the name of the "Lady of Tikal" who celebrated the end of the 4th K'atun in that year. '''Stela 10''' is twinned with Stela 12 but is badly damaged. It described the accession of Kaloomte' B'alam in the early 6th century and earlier events in his career, including the capture of a prisoner depicted on the monument. '''Stela 11''' was the last monument ever erected at Tikal; it was dedicated in 869 by Jasaw Chan K'awiil II. '''Stela 12''' is linked to the queen known as the "Lady of Tikal" and king Kaloomte' B'alam. The queen is described as performing the year-ending rituals but the monument was dedicated in honor of the king. '''Stela 16''' was dedicated in 711, during the reign of Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. The sculpture, including a portrait of the king and a hieroglyphic text, are limited to the front face of the monument. It was found in Complex N, west of Temple III. '''Stela 18''' was one of two stelae erected by Yax Nuun Ayiin I to celebrate the ''k'atun''-ending of AD 396. It was re-erected at the base of Temple 34, his funerary shrine. '''Stela 19''' was dedicated in 790 by Yax Nuun Ayiin II. '''Stela 20''' was found in Complex P, in Group H, and was moved to the Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología in Guatemala City. '''Stela 21''' was dedicated in 736 by Yik'in Chan K'awiil. Only the bottom of the stela is intact, the rest having been mutilated in ancient times. The surviving sculpture is of fine quality, consisting of the feet of a figure and of accompanying hieroglyphic text. The stela is associated with Altar 9 and is located in front of Temple VI. '''Stela 22''' was dedicated in 771 by Yax Nuun Ayiin II in the northern enclosure of Group Q, a twin-pyramid complex. The face of the figure on the stela has been mutilated. '''Stela 23''' was broken in antiquity and was re-erected in a residential complex. The defaced portrait on the monument is that of the so-called "Lady of Tikal", a daughter of Chak Tok Ich'aak II who became queen at the age of six but never ruled in her own right, being paired with male co-rulers. It dates to the early 6th century. '''Stela 24''' was erected at the foot of Temple 3 in 810, accompanied by Altar 7. Both were broken into fragments in ancient times, although the name of Dark Sun survives on three fragments. '''Stela 26''' was found in the summit shrine of Temple 34, underneath a broken masonry altar. The monument had originally been erected at the base of the temple during the Early Classic period and was later broken, probably at the beginning of the Late Classic. Its remains were then interred within the temple shrine. '''Stela 29''' bears a Long Count (8.12.14.8.15) date equivalent to AD 292, the earliest surviving Long Count date from the Maya lowlands. The stela is also the earliest monument to bear the Tikal emblem glyph. It bears a sculpture of the king facing to the right, holding the head of an underworld jaguar god, one of the patron deities of the city. The stela was deliberately smashed during the 6th century or some time later, the upper portion was dragged away and dumped in a rubbish tip close to Temple III, to be uncovered by archeologists in 1959. '''Stela 30''' is the first surviving monument to be erected after the Hiatus. Its style and iconography is similar to that of Caracol, one of the more important of Tikal's enemies. Stela 31, with the sculpted image of Siyaj Chan K'awiil II '''Stela 31''' is the accession monument of Siyaj Chan K'awiil II, also bearing two portraits of his father, Yax Nuun Ayiin, as a youth dressed as a Teotihuacan warrior. He carries a spearthrower in one hand and bears a shield decorated with the face of Tlaloc, the Teotihuacan war god. In ancient times the sculpture was broken and the upper portion was moved to the summit of Temple 33 and ritually buried. Stela 31 has been described as the greatest Early Classic sculpture to survive at Tikal. A long hieroglyphic text is carved onto the back of the monument, the longest to survive from the Early Classic, which describes the arrival of Siyah K'ak' at El Peru and Tikal in January 378. It was also the first stela at Tikal to be carved on all four faces. '''Stela 32''' is a fragmented monument with a foreign Teotihuacan-style sculpture apparently depicting the lord of that city with the attributes of the central Mexican storm god Tlaloc, including his goggle eyes and tasselled headdress. '''Stela 39''' is a broken monument that was erected in the Lost World complex. The upper portion of the stela is missing but the lower portion shows the lower body and legs of Chak Tok Ich'aak, holding a flint axe in his left hand. He is trampling the figure of a bound, richly dressed captive. The monument is dated to AD 376. The text on the back of the monument describes a bloodletting ritual to celebrate a Katun-ending. The stela also names Chak Tok Ich'aak I's father as K'inich Muwaan Jol. '''Stela 40''' bears a portrait of Kan Chitam and dates to AD 468. '''Stela 43''' is paired with Altar 35. It is a plain monument at the base of the stairway of Temple IV. === Oqbra === A ceramic censer representing an elderly deity, found in Burial 10. '''Burial 1''' is a tomb in the Lost World complex. A fine ceramic bowl was recovered from the tomb, with the handle formed from three-dimensional head and neck of a bird emerging from the two-dimensional body painted on the lid. '''Burial 10''' is the tomb of Yax Nuun Ayiin. It is located beneath Structure 34 in the North Acropolis. The tomb contained a rich array of offerings, including ceramic vessels and food, and nine youths were sacrificed to accompany the dead king. A dog was also entombed with the deceased king. Pots in the tomb were stuccoed and painted and many demonstrated a blend of Maya and Teotihuacan styles. Among the offerings was an incense-burner in the shape of an elderly underworld god, sitting on a stool made of human bones and holding a severed head in his hands. The tomb was sealed with a corbel vault, then the pyramid was built on top. '''Burial 48''' is generally accepted as the tomb of Sihyaj Chan Kʼawiil II. It is located beneath Temple 33 in the North Acropolis. The chamber of the tomb was cut from the bedrock and contained the remains of the king himself together with those of two adolescents who had been sacrificed in order to accompany the deceased ruler. The walls of the tomb were covered with white stucco painted with hieroglyphs that included the Long Count date equivalent to 20 March 457, probably the date of either the death or interment of the king. The king's skeleton was missing its skull, its femurs and one of its hands while the skeletons of the sacrificial victims were intact. '''Burial 85''' dates to the Late Preclassic and was enclosed by a platform, with a primitive corbel vault. The tomb contained a single male skeleton, which lacked a skull and its thighbones. The dynastic founder of Tikal, Yax Ehb' Xook, has been linked to this tomb, which lies deep in the heart of the North Acropolis. The deceased had probably died in battle with his body being mutilated by his enemies before being recovered and interred by his followers. The bones were wrapped carefully in textiles to form an upright bundle. The missing head was replaced by a small greenstone mask with shell-inlaid teeth and eyes and bearing a three-pointed royal headband. This head wears an emblem of rulership on its forehead and is a rare Preclassic lowland Maya portrait of a king. Among the contents of the tomb were a stingray spine, a spondylus shell and twenty-six ceramic vessels. '''Burial 116''' is the tomb of Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. It is a large vaulted chamber deep within the pyramid, below the level of the Great Plaza. The tomb contained rich offerings of jadeite, ceramics, shell and works of art. The body of the king was covered with large quantities of jade ornaments including an enormous necklace with especially large beads, as depicted in sculpted portraits of the king. One of the outstanding pieces recovered from the tomb was an ornate jade mosaic vessel with the lid bearing a sculpted portrait of the king himself. '''Burial 195''' was flooded with mud in antiquity. This flood had covered wooden objects that had completely rotted away by the time the tomb was excavated, leaving hollows in the dried mud. Archeologists filled these hollows with stucco and thus excavated four effigies of the god K'awiil, the wooden originals long gone. '''Burial 196''' is a Late Classic royal tomb that contained a jade mosaic vessel topped with the head of the Maize God. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Siti arkeoloġiċi]] [[Kategorija:Siti ta' Wirt Dinji]] [[Kategorija:Parks Nazzjonali]] [[Kategorija:Maja]] [[Kategorija:Gwatemala]] 5vlb4w2uv0hllm8evlanw93temjjmj1 279090 279084 2022-08-14T15:40:53Z Trigcly 17859 żieda kontenut u biblijografija wikitext text/x-wiki [[Stampa:Tikal Temple1 2006 08 11.JPG|daqsminuri|It-Tempju I ta' Tikal huwa għoli 47 metru (154 pied).]] '''Tikal''' (/tiˈkɑːl/; ''Tik’al'' bl-ortografija moderna tal-[[Maja]]) hija l-fdal ta' belt antika, li x'aktarx kienet tissejjaħ '''Yax Mutal'''<ref>Tokovinine, Alexandre (2008). "Lords of Tikal: Narratives and Identities". ''Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology''. Harvard University: 4.</ref>, u li tinsab f'foresta tropikali fil-[[Gwatemala]].<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.cyark.org/projects/tikal/overview|titlu=CyArk|sit=CyArk|data-aċċess=2022-08-14}}</ref> Hija wieħed mill-ikbar siti [[Arkeoloġija|arkeoloġiċi]] u ċentri urbani taċ-ċivilizzazzjoni tal-Maja pre-Kolumbjana. Tinsab fir-reġjun arkeoloġiku tal-Baċir ta' Petén fit-territorju attwali tat-Tramuntana tal-Gwatemala. Is-sit jinsab fid-dipartiment ta' El Petén u huwa parti mill-Park Nazzjonali ta' Tikal. Fl-1979 sar [[Sit ta' Wirt Dinji]] tal-[[UNESCO]].<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/64/|titlu=Tikal National Park|kunjom=Centre|isem=UNESCO World Heritage|sit=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2022-08-14}}</ref> Tikal kienet il-[[belt kapitali]] ta' stat ħakkiem li sar wieħed mill-iżjed renji setgħana tal-Maja tal-qedem.<ref>Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 1. Hammond 2000, p. 233.</ref> Għalkemm l-arkitettura [[Monument|monumentali]] tas-sit tmur lura saħansitra tas-seklu 4 [[Ante Christum natum|Q.K]]., Tikal laħqet il-quċċata tagħha matul il-Perjodu Klassiku, għall-ħabta tal-200 sad-900. Matul dak iż-żmien, il-belt iddominat il-biċċa l-kbira tar-reġjun tal-Maja [[Politika|politikament]], ekonomikament u militarment, filwaqt li interaġixxiet ma' żoni fil-Mesoamerka kollha, bħall-metropoli l-kbira ta' [[Teotihuacan]] fil-Wied tal-Messiku daqstant 'il bogħod. Hemm evidenza li Tikal inħakmet minn Teotihuacan fis-seklu 4 W.K.<ref>Martin & Grube 2008, pp. 29-32.</ref> Wara t-tmiem tal-Perjodu Klassiku Aħħari, ma nbena l-ebda monument maġġuri f'Tikal u hemm evidenza li l-palazzi tal-elit ingħataw in-nar. Dan l-avvenimenti mexew id f'id ma' tnaqqis gradwali fil-popolazzjoni, u laħqu l-qofol tagħhom fl-abbandun tas-sit sal-aħħar tas-seklu 10. Tikal hija l-iżjed belt mifhuma minn kwalunkwe waħda mill-bliet tal-Maja l-kbar fl-artijiet baxxi, b'lista twila ta' mexxejja dinastiċi, bl-iskoperta tal-oqbra ta' bosta mill-mexxejja fuq din il-lista u bl-investigazzjoni tal-monumenti, tat-tempji u tal-palazzi tagħhom.<ref>Adams 2000, p. 34.</ref> == Etimoloġija == [[Stampa:Tikalemblem.jpg|daqsminuri|Glifiċi emblematiċi ta' isem Tikal]] L-isem ''Tikal'' jaf oriġina minn ''ti ak'al'' fil-lingwa tal-Maja tal-[[Yucatan]]; jingħad li huwa isem relattivament modern li jfisser "f'ġibjun". Milli jidher l-isem ingħata lil wieħed mill-ġibjuni antiki tas-sit mill-kaċċaturi u mill-vjaġġaturi fir-reġjun.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, p. 30.</ref> Interpretazzjoni oħra tal-isem hi li jfisser "il-post tal-vuċijiet" fil-lingwa tal-Maja ta' Itza. Madankollu, Tikal mhuwiex l-isem antik tas-sit iżda pjuttost l-isem li ġie adottat ftit wara l-iskoperta tas-sit fis-snin 40 tas-seklu 19.<ref>Drew 1999, p. 136.</ref> Il-kitbiet ġeroglifiċi fil-fdalijiet jirreferu għall-belt antika bħala ''Yax Mutal'' jew ''Yax Mutul'', li tfisser "l-ewwel Mutal". Tikal jaf bdiet tissejjaħ hekk minħabba li Dos Pilas beda juża l-istess glifiċi emblematiċi; il-mexxejja tal-belt x'aktarx li riedu jiddistingwu bejn il-bliet b'dan il-mod.<ref>Schele & Mathews 1999, p. 64.</ref> Ir-renju kollu kien jissejjaħ sempliċement ''Mutul'', li huwa l-interpretazzjoni tal-glifiċi emblematiċi tal-"qatta' xagħar" fir-ritratt fuq il-lemin. It-tifsira preċiża għadha mhux ċerta.<ref>Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 1.</ref> == Ġeografija == [[Stampa:Mayamap.png|daqsminuri|280x280px|Mappa taż-żona tal-Maja fir-reġjun Mesoamerikan. Kemm Tikal kif ukoll Calakmul jinsabu qrib iċ-ċentru taż-żona.]] L-eqreb insedjamenti kbar moderni huma Flores u Santa Elena, bejn wieħed u ieħor xi 64 kilometru (40 mil) bogħod bit-triq lejn il-Lbiċ.<ref>Kelly 1996, pp. 111-112.</ref> Tikal tinsab xi 303 kilometri (188 mil) fit-Tramuntana tal-[[Belt tal-Gwatemala]]. Tinsab 19-il kilometru (12-il mil) fin-Nofsinhar tal-belt tal-Maja kontemporanja ta' [[Uaxactun]] u 30 kilometru (19-il mil) fil-Majjistral ta' [[Yaxha]].<ref>Webster 2002, p. 118.</ref> Il-belt tinsab 100 kilometru (62 mil) fix-Xlokk tar-rivali l-kbira tagħha tal-Perjodu Klassiku, [[Calakmul]], u 85 kilometru (53 mil) fil-Majjistral tal-alleat ta' Calakmul, [[Caracol]], li issa tinsab fil-[[Beliże|Belize]].<ref>Webster 2002, p. 118.</ref> Il-belt ġiet immappjata għalkollox u kienet tkopri erja ikbar minn 16-il kilometru kwadru (6.2 mili kwadri) li kienet tinkludi madwar 3,000 struttura.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 104.</ref> It-topografija tas-sit tikkonsisti minn sensiela ta' rdumijiet paralleli tal-[[ġebla tal-ġir]] 'il fuq minn artijiet baxxi u mtajna. L-arkitettura maġġuri tas-sit hija raggruppata f'żoni iktar għoljin li huma kkollegati b'toroq olzati minn naħa għall-oħra tal-artijiet bassasa.<ref>Drew 1999, p. 185.</ref> Iż-żona madwar Tikal ġiet iddikjarata bħala l-Park Nazzjonali ta' Tikal u ż-żona ppreservata tkopri 570 kilometru kwadru (220 mil kwadru).<ref>Kelly 1996, p. 140.</ref> Dan il-park inħoloq fis-26 ta' Mejju 1955 taħt il-patroċinju tal-Instituto de Antropología e Historia u kien l-ewwel żona protetta fil-Gwatemala.<ref>Kelly 1996, p. 140.</ref> Il-fdalijiet jinsabu fost il-foresti tropikali tat-Tramuntana tal-Gwatemala li kienu jiffurmaw in-nieqa taċ-ċivilizzazzjoni tal-Maja fl-artijiet baxxi. Il-belt stess kienet tinsab qalb art għammiela abbundanti, u jaf iddominat rotta kummerċjali naturali mil-Lvant għall-Punent tul il-[[Peniżola]] tal-Yucatan. Fost is-siġar il-kbar tal-Park Nazzjonali ta' Tikal hemm il-kapok ġgantesk (''Ceiba pentandra'') li kienet is-siġra sagra tal-Maja; iċ-ċedru tropikali (''Cedrela odorata''), u l-kawba tal-[[Ħonduras]] (''Swietenia macrophylla''). Fir-rigward tal-fawna, wieħed jista' jara regolarment l-aguti, il-koati ta' mnieħru abjad, il-volpi griż, ix-xadin ta' Geoffroy, ix-xadin li jgħajjat, l-ajkla arpija, il-falkun, id-dundjan tal-foresti, il-gwan, it-tukan, il-pappagall aħdar u n-nemel li jaqta' l-weraq. Jingħad ukoll li l-ġagwar, l-ocelot u l-cougar jgħixu fil-park.<ref>Coe 1967, pp. 9-10. Hidinger 1996, p. 52.</ref> Tikal ma kellha l-ebda ilma għajr dak li kien jinġabar mill-ilma tax-xita u jinħażen f'għaxar ġibjuni. L-arkeologi li ħadmu f'Tikal matul is-seklu 20 sewwew wieħed minn dawn il-ġibjuni antiki biex jaħżnu l-ilma għalihom stess.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 124.</ref> Ix-xita annwali medja li tinżel f'Tikal tammonta għal 1,945 millimetru (76.6 pulzier). Madankollu, ix-xita ġieli tinżel għal għarrieda, u perjodi twal ta' nixfa setgħu jseħħu qabel ma l-għelejjel isiru, li kienet theddida serja għall-abitanti tal-belt antika.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 239.</ref> == Popolazzjoni == Population estimates for Tikal vary from 10,000 to as high as 90,000 inhabitants. The population of Tikal began a continuous curve of growth starting in the Preclassic Period (approximately 2000 BC – AD 200), with a peak in the Late Classic with the population growing rapidly from AD 700 through to 830, followed by a sharp decline. For the 120 square kilometers (46 sq mi) area falling within the earthwork defenses of the hinterland, the peak population is estimated at 517 per square kilometer (1340 per square mile). In an area within a 12 kilometers (7.5 mi) radius of the site core, peak population is estimated at 120,000; population density is estimated at 265 per square kilometer (689 per square mile). In a region within a 25 kilometers (16 mi) radius of the site core and including some satellite sites, peak population is estimated at 425,000 with a density of 216 per square kilometer (515 per square mile). These population figures are even more impressive because of the extensive swamplands that were unsuitable for habitation or agriculture. However, some archeologists, such as David Webster, believe these figures to be far too high. == Sit ta' Wirt Dinji == == Storja == === Preklassika === There are traces of early agriculture at the site dating as far back as 1000 BC, in the Middle Preclassic. A cache of Mamon ceramics dating from about 700-400 BC were found in a sealed chultun, a subterranean bottle-shaped chamber. Major construction at Tikal was already taking place in the Late Preclassic period, first appearing around 400–300 BC, including the building of major pyramids and platforms, although the city was still dwarfed by sites further north such as El Mirador and Nakbe. At this time, Tikal participated in the widespread Chikanel culture that dominated the Central and Northern Maya areas at this time – a region that included the entire Yucatan Peninsula including northern and eastern Guatemala and all of Belize. Two temples dating to Late Chikanel times had masonry-walled superstructures that may have been corbel-vaulted, although this has not been proven. One of these had elaborate paintings on the outer walls showing human figures against a scrollwork background, painted in yellow, black, pink and red. In the 1st century AD rich burials first appeared and Tikal underwent a political and cultural florescence as its giant northern neighbors declined. At the end of the Late Preclassic, the Izapan style art and architecture from the Pacific Coast began to influence Tikal, as demonstrated by a broken sculpture from the acropolis and early murals at the city. === Klassika bikrija === Dynastic rulership among the lowland Maya is most deeply rooted at Tikal. According to later hieroglyphic records, the dynasty was founded by Yax Ehb Xook, perhaps in the 1st century AD. At the beginning of the Early Classic, power in the Maya region was concentrated at Tikal and Calakmul, in the core of the Maya heartland. Tikal may have benefited from the collapse of the large Preclassic states such as El Mirador. In the Early Classic Tikal rapidly developed into the most dynamic city in the Maya region, stimulating the development of other nearby Maya cities. The site, however, was often at war and inscriptions tell of alliances and conflict with other Maya states, including Uaxactun, Caracol, Naranjo and Calakmul. The site was defeated at the end of the Early Classic by Caracol, which rose to take Tikal's place as the paramount center in the southern Maya lowlands. The earlier part of the Early Classic saw hostilities between Tikal and its neighbor Uaxactun, with Uaxactun recording the capture of prisoners from Tikal. There appears to have been a breakdown in the male succession by AD 317, when Lady Unen Bahlam conducted a katun-ending ceremony, apparently as queen of the city. ==== Tikal u Teotihuacan ==== The great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico appears to have decisively intervened in Tikal politics. As early as 200 AD Teotihuacan had embassies in Tikal. The fourteenth king of Tikal was Chak Tok Ich'aak (Great Jaguar Paw). Chak Tok Ich'aak built a palace that was preserved and developed by later rulers until it became the core of the Central Acropolis. Little is known about Chak Tok Ich'aak except that he was killed on 14 January 378 AD.^{[''contradictory'']} On the same day, Siyah K’ak' (Fire Is Born) arrived from the west, having passed through El Peru, a site to the west of Tikal, on 8 January. On Stela 31 he is named as "Lord of the West". Siyah K’ak' was probably a foreign general serving a figure represented by a non-Maya hieroglyph of a spearthrower combined with an owl, a glyph that is well known from the great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the distant Valley of Mexico. Spearthrower Owl may even have been the ruler of Teotihuacan. These recorded events strongly suggest that Siyah K’ak' led a Teotihuacan invasion that defeated the native Tikal king, who was captured and immediately executed. Siyah K'ak' appears to have been aided by a powerful political faction at Tikal itself; roughly at the time of the conquest, a group of Teotihuacan natives were apparently residing near the Lost World complex. He also exerted control over other cities in the area, including Uaxactun, where he became king, but did not take the throne of Tikal for himself. Within a year, the son of Spearthrower Owl by the name of Yax Nuun Ayiin I (First Crocodile) had been installed as the fifteenth king of Tikal while he was still a boy, being enthroned on 13 September 379. He reigned for 47 years as king of Tikal, and remained a vassal of Siyah K'ak' for as long as the latter lived. It seems likely that Yax Nuun Ayiin I took a wife from the preexisting, defeated, Tikal dynasty and thus legitimized the right to rule of his son, Siyaj Chan K'awiil II. Río Azul, a small site 100 kilometers (62 mi) northeast of Tikal, was conquered by the latter during the reign of Yax Nuun Ayiin I. The site became an outpost of Tikal, shielding it from hostile cities further north, and also became a trade link to the Caribbean. Although the new rulers of Tikal were foreign, their descendants were rapidly Mayanized. Tikal became the key ally and trading partner of Teotihuacan in the Maya lowlands. After being conquered by Teotihuacan, Tikal rapidly dominated the northern and eastern Peten. Uaxactun, together with smaller towns in the region, were absorbed into Tikal's kingdom. Other sites, such as Bejucal and Motul de San José near Lake Petén Itzá became vassals of their more powerful neighbor to the north. By the middle of the 5th century Tikal had a core territory of at least 25 kilometers (16 mi) in every direction. Around the 5th century an impressive system of fortifications consisting of ditches and earthworks was built along the northern periphery of Tikal's hinterland, joining up with the natural defenses provided by large areas of swampland lying to the east and west of the city. Additional fortifications were probably also built to the south. These defenses protected Tikal's core population and agricultural resources, encircling an area of approximately 120 square kilometers (46 sq mi). Recent research suggests that the earthworks served as a water collection system rather than a defensive purpose. ==== Tikal u Copán ==== In the 5th century the power of the city reached as far south as Copán, whose founder K'inich Yax K'uk' Mo' was clearly connected with Tikal. Copán itself was not in an ethnically Maya region and the founding of the Copán dynasty probably involved the direct intervention of Tikal. K'inich Yax K'uk' Mo' arrived in Copán in December 426 and bone analysis of his remains shows that he passed his childhood and youth at Tikal. An individual known as Ajaw K'uk' Mo' (lord K'uk' Mo') is referred to in an early text at Tikal and may well be the same person. His tomb had Teotihuacan characteristics and he was depicted in later portraits dressed in the warrior garb of Teotihuacan. Hieroglyphic texts refer to him as "Lord of the West", much like Siyah K’ak'. At the same time, in late 426, Copán founded the nearby site of Quiriguá, possibly sponsored by Tikal itself. The founding of these two centers may have been part of an effort to impose Tikal's authority upon the southeastern portion of the Maya region. The interaction between these sites and Tikal was intense over the next three centuries. A long-running rivalry between Tikal and Calakmul began in the 6th century, with each of the two cities forming its own network of mutually hostile alliances arrayed against each other in what has been likened to a long-running war between two Maya superpowers. The kings of these two capitals adopted the title ''kaloomte''', a term that has not been precisely translated but that implies something akin to "high king". The early 6th century saw another queen ruling the city, known only as the "Lady of Tikal", who was very likely a daughter of Chak Tok Ich'aak II. She seems never to have ruled in her own right, rather being partnered with male co-rulers. The first of these was Kaloomte' B'alam, who seems to have had a long career as a general at Tikal before becoming co-ruler and 19th in the dynastic sequence. The Lady of Tikal herself seems not have been counted in the dynastic numbering. It appears she was later paired with lord "Bird Claw", who is presumed to be the otherwise unknown 20th ruler. === Klassika Aħħarija === ==== L-aqwa żmien ta' Tikal ==== In the mid 6th century, Caracol seems to have allied with Calakmul and defeated Tikal, closing the Early Classic. The "Tikal hiatus" refers to a period between the late 6th to late 7th century where there was a lapse in the writing of inscriptions and large-scale construction at Tikal. In the latter half of the 6th century AD, a serious crisis befell the city, with no new stelae being erected and with widespread deliberate mutilation of public sculpture. This hiatus in activity at Tikal was long unexplained until later epigraphic decipherments identified that the period was prompted by Tikal's comprehensive defeat at the hands of Calakmul and the Caracol polity in AD 562, a defeat that seems to have resulted in the capture and sacrifice of the king of Tikal. The badly eroded Altar 21 at Caracol described how Tikal suffered this disastrous defeat in a major war in April 562. It seems that Caracol was an ally of Calakmul in the wider conflict between that city and Tikal, with the defeat of Tikal having a lasting impact upon the city. Tikal was not sacked but its power and influence were broken. After its great victory, Caracol grew rapidly and some of Tikal's population may have been forcibly relocated there. During the hiatus period, at least one ruler of Tikal took refuge with Janaab' Pakal of Palenque, another of Calakmul's victims. Calakmul itself thrived during Tikal's long hiatus period. The beginning of the Tikal hiatus has served as a marker by which archeologists commonly subdivide the Classic period of Mesoamerican chronology into the Early and Late Classic. ==== Tikal u Dos Pilas ==== In 629 Tikal founded Dos Pilas, some 110 kilometers (68 mi) to the southwest, as a military outpost in order to control trade along the course of the Pasión River. B'alaj Chan K'awiil was installed on the throne of the new outpost at the age of four, in 635. When he was older, for many years he served as a loyal vassal fighting for his brother, the king of Tikal. Roughly twenty years later, Dos Pilas was attacked by Calakmul and was soundly defeated. B'alaj Chan K'awiil was captured by the king of Calakmul but, instead of being sacrificed, he was re-instated on his throne as a vassal of his former enemy. He attacked Tikal in 657, forcing Nuun Ujol Chaak, then king of Tikal, to temporarily abandon the city. The first two rulers of Dos Pilas continued to use the Mutal emblem glyph of Tikal, and they probably felt that they had a legitimate claim to the throne of Tikal itself. For some reason, B'alaj Chan K'awiil was not installed as the new ruler of Tikal; instead he stayed at Dos Pilas. Tikal counterattacked against Dos Pilas in 672, driving B'alaj Chan K'awiil into an exile that lasted five years. Calakmul tried to encircle Tikal within an area dominated by its allies, such as El Peru, Dos Pilas, and Caracol. In 682, Jasaw Chan K'awiil I erected the first dated monument at Tikal in 120 years and claimed the title of ''kaloomte''', so ending the hiatus. He initiated a program of new construction and turned the tables on Calakmul when, in 695, he captured the enemy noble and threw the enemy state into a long decline from which it never fully recovered. After this, Calakmul never again erected a monument celebrating a military victory. ==== Tikal wara Teotihuacan ==== By the 7th century, there was no active Teotihuacan presence at any Maya site and the center of Teotihuacan had been razed by 700. Even after this, formal war attire illustrated on monuments was Teotihuacan style. Jasaw Chan K'awiil I and his heir Yik'in Chan K'awiil continued hostilities against Calakmul and its allies and imposed firm regional control over the area around Tikal, extending as far as the territory around Lake Petén Itzá. These two rulers were responsible for much of the impressive architecture visible today. In 738, Quiriguá, a vassal of Copán, Tikal's key ally in the south, switched allegiance to Calakmul, defeated Copán and gained its own independence. It appears that this was a conscious effort on the part of Calakmul to bring about the collapse of Tikal's southern allies. This upset the balance of power in the southern Maya area and lead to a steady decline in the fortunes of Copán. In the 8th century, the rulers of Tikal collected monuments from across the city and erected them in front of the North Acropolis. By the late 8th century and early 9th century, activity at Tikal slowed. Impressive architecture was still built but few hieroglyphic inscriptions refer to later rulers. === Klassika Terminali === By the 9th century, the crisis of the Classic Maya collapse was sweeping across the region, with populations plummeting and city after city falling into silence. Increasingly endemic warfare in the Maya region caused Tikal's supporting population to heavily concentrate close to the city itself, accelerating the use of intensive agriculture and the corresponding environmental decline. Construction continued at the beginning of the century, with the erection of Temple 3, the last of the city's major pyramids, and the erection of monuments to mark the 19th K'atun in 810. The beginning of the 10th Bak'tun in 830 passed uncelebrated, and marks the beginning of a 60-year hiatus, probably resulting from the collapse of central control in the city. During this hiatus, satellite sites traditionally under Tikal's control began to erect their own monuments featuring local rulers and using the Mutal emblem glyph, with Tikal apparently lacking the authority or the power to crush these bids for independence. In 849, Jewel K'awiil is mentioned on a stela at Seibal as visiting that city as the Divine Lord of Tikal but he is not recorded elsewhere and Tikal's once-great power was little more than a memory. The sites of Ixlu and Jimbal had by now inherited the once exclusive Mutal emblem glyph. As Tikal and its hinterland reached peak population, the area suffered deforestation, erosion and nutrient loss followed by a rapid decline in population levels. Recent analysis also indicates that the city's freshwater sources became highly contaminated with mercury, phosphate and cyanobacteria leading to the accumulation of toxins. Tikal and its immediate surroundings seem to have lost most of their population between 830 and 950 and central authority seems to have collapsed rapidly. There is not much evidence from Tikal that the city was directly affected by the endemic warfare that afflicted parts of the Maya region during the Terminal Classic, although an influx of refugees from the Petexbatún region may have exacerbated problems resulting from the already stretched environmental resources. The site core seen from the south, with Temple I at center, the North Acropolis to the left and Central Acropolis to the right In the latter half of the 9th century there was an attempt to revive royal power at the much-diminished city of Tikal, as evidenced by a stela erected in the Great Plaza by Jasaw Chan K'awiil II in 869. This was the last monument erected at Tikal before the city finally fell into silence. The former satellites of Tikal, such as Jimbal and Uaxactun, did not last much longer, erecting their final monuments in 889. By the end of the 9th century the vast majority of Tikal's population had deserted the city, its royal palaces were occupied by squatters and simple thatched dwellings were being erected in the city's ceremonial plazas. The squatters blocked some doorways in the rooms they reoccupied in the monumental structures of the site and left rubbish that included a mixture of domestic refuse and non-utilitarian items such as musical instruments. These inhabitants reused the earlier monuments for their own ritual activities, far removed from those of the royal dynasty that had erected them. Some monuments were vandalized and some were moved to new locations. Before its final abandonment all respect for the old rulers had disappeared, with the tombs of the North Acropolis being explored for jade and the easier-to-find tombs were looted. After 950, Tikal was all but deserted, although a remnant population may have survived in perishable huts interspersed among the ruins. Even these final inhabitants abandoned the city in the 10th or 11th centuries and the rainforest claimed the ruins for the next thousand years. Some of Tikal's population may have migrated to the Peten Lakes region, which remained heavily populated in spite of a plunge in population levels in the first half of the 9th century. The most likely cause of collapse at Tikal is overpopulation and agrarian failure. The fall of Tikal was a blow to the heart of Classic Maya civilization, the city having been at the forefront of courtly life, art and architecture for over a thousand years, with an ancient ruling dynasty. However, new research regarding paleoenvironmental proxies from the Tikal reservoir system suggests that a meteorological drought may have led to the abandonment of Tikal, fouling some reservoirs near the temple and palace with algae blooms, while other reservoirs remained drinkable. Buildings were painted with mercury-bearing cinnabar, which were washed off by rain and polluted some reservoirs. Works of Kohler and colleagues showed that this city reached an unsustainable level of inequalities at the end.^{[''clarification needed'']} === Moderna === Archeologist Edwin M. Shook, field director of the Tikal Project; Shook was also instrumental in having Tikal established as Guatemala's first National Park. In 1525, the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés passed within a few kilometers of the ruins of Tikal but did not mention them in his letters. After Spanish friar Andrés de Avendaño became lost in the Petén forests in early 1696 he described a ruin that may well have been Tikal. As is often the case with huge ancient ruins, knowledge of the site was never completely lost in the region. It seems that local people never forgot about Tikal and they guided Guatemalan expeditions to the ruins in the 1850s. Some second- or third-hand accounts of Tikal appeared in print starting in the 17th century, continuing through the writings of John Lloyd Stephens in the early 19th century (Stephens and his illustrator Frederick Catherwood heard rumors of a lost city, with white building tops towering above the jungle, during their 1839–40 travels in the region). Because of the site's remoteness from modern towns, however, no explorers visited Tikal until Modesto Méndez and Ambrosio Tut, respectively the commissioner and the governor of Petén, visited it in 1848. Artist Eusebio Lara accompanied them and their account was published in Germany in 1853. Several other expeditions came to further investigate, map, and photograph Tikal in the 19th century (including Alfred P. Maudslay in 1881-82) and the early 20th century. Pioneering archeologists started to clear, map and record the ruins in the 1880s. In 1951, a small airstrip was built at the ruins, which previously could only be reached by several days' travel through the jungle on foot or mule. In 1956 the Tikal project began to map the city on a scale not previously seen in the Maya area. From 1956 through 1970, major archeological excavations were carried out by the University of Pennsylvania Tikal Project. They mapped much of the site and excavated and restored many of the structures. Excavations directed by Edwin M. Shook and later by William Coe of the university investigated the North Acropolis and the Central Plaza from 1957 to 1969. The Tikal Project recorded over 200 monuments at the site. In 1979, the Guatemalan government began a further archeological project at Tikal, which continued through to 1984. Filmmaker George Lucas used Tikal as a filming location for the fictional moon Yavin 4 in the first ''Star Wars'' film, ''Episode IV: A New Hope'', which premiered in 1977. Temple I at Tikal was featured on the reverse of the 50 centavo banknote. Eon Productions used the site for the James Bond film ''Moonraker''. Tikal is now a major tourist attraction surrounded by its own national park. A site museum has been built at Tikal; it was completed in 1964. == Deskrizzjoni tas-sit == Tikal has been partially restored by the University of Pennsylvania and the government of Guatemala. It was one of the largest of the Classic period Maya cities and was one of the largest cities in the Americas. The architecture of the ancient city is built from limestone and includes the remains of temples that tower over 70 meters (230 ft) high, large royal palaces, in addition to a number of smaller pyramids, palaces, residences, administrative buildings, platforms and inscribed stone monuments. There is even a building which seemed to have been a jail, originally with wooden bars across the windows and doors. There are also seven courts for playing the Mesoamerican ballgame, including a set of 3 in the Seven Temples Plaza, a unique feature in Mesoamerica. The limestone used for construction was local and quarried on-site. The depressions formed by the extraction of stone for building were plastered to waterproof them and were used as reservoirs, together with some waterproofed natural depressions. The main plazas were surfaced with stucco and laid at a gradient that channelled rainfall into a system of canals that fed the reservoirs. The residential area of Tikal covers an estimated 60 square kilometers (23 sq mi), much of which has not yet been cleared, mapped, or excavated. The 16 square kilometers (6.2 sq mi) area around the site core has been intensively mapped; it may have enclosed an area of some 125 square kilometers (48 sq mi) (see below). A huge set of earthworks discovered by Dennis E. Puleston and Donald Callender in the 1960s rings Tikal with a 6-meter (20 ft) wide trench behind a rampart. Recently, a project exploring the defensive earthworks has shown that the scale of the earthworks is highly variable and that in many places it is inconsequential as a defensive feature. In addition, some parts of the earthwork were integrated into a canal system. The earthwork of Tikal varies significantly in coverage from what was originally proposed and it is much more complex and multifaceted than originally thought. === Toroq === By the Late Classic, a network of ''sacbeob'' (causeways) linked various parts of the city, running for several kilometers through its urban core. These linked the Great Plaza with Temple 4 (located about 750 meters (2,460 feet) to the west) and the Temple of the Inscriptions (about 1 kilometer (0.62 mi) to the southeast). These broad causeways were built of packed and plastered limestone and have been named after early explorers and archeologists; the Maler, Maudslay, Tozzer and Méndez causeways. They assisted the passage of everyday traffic during the rain season and also served as dams. The '''Maler Causeway''' runs north from behind Temple I to Group H. A large bas-relief is carved onto limestone bedrock upon the course of the causeway just south of Group H. It depicts two bound captives and dates to the Late Classic. The '''Maudsley Causeway''' runs 0.8 kilometers (0.50 mi) northeast from Temple IV to Group H. The '''Mendez Causeway''' runs southeast from the East Plaza to Temple VI, a distance of about 1.3 kilometers (0.81 mi). The '''Tozzer Causeway''' runs west from the Great Plaza to Temple IV. === Gruppi arkitettoniċi === The '''Great Plaza''' lies at the core of the site; it is flanked on the east and west sides by two great temple-pyramids. On the north side it is bordered by the North Acropolis and on the south by the Central Acropolis. The '''Central Acropolis''' is a palace complex just south of the Great Plaza. The '''North Acropolis''', together with the Great Plaza immediately to the south, is one of the most studied architectural groups in the Maya area; the Tikal Project excavated a massive trench across the complex, thoroughly investigating its construction history. It is a complex group with construction beginning in the Preclassic Period, around 350 BC. It developed into a funerary complex for the ruling dynasty of the Classic Period, with each additional royal burial adding new temples on top of the older structures. After AD 400 a row of tall pyramids was added to the earlier Northern Platform, which measured 100 by 80 meters (330 by 260 ft), gradually hiding it from view. Eight temple pyramids were built in the 6th century AD, each of them had an elaborate roofcomb and a stairway flanked by masks of the gods. By the 9th century AD, 43 stelae and 30 altars had been erected in the North Acropolis; 18 of these monuments were carved with hieroglyphic texts and royal portraits. The North Acropolis continued to receive burials into the Postclassic Period. The '''South Acropolis''' is found next to Temple V. It was built upon a large basal platform that covers an area of more than 20,000 square meters (220,000 sq ft). The '''Plaza of the Seven Temples''' is to the west of the South Acropolis. It is bordered on the east side by a row of nearly identical temples, by palaces on the south and west sides and by an unusual triple ballcourt on the north side. The '''Mundo Perdido''' is to the west of the Plaza of the Seven Temples. It is the largest ceremonial complex dating from the Preclassic period at Tikal. The complex was organized as a large E-Group consisting of a pyramid aligned with a platform to the east that supported three temples. The Mundo Perdido complex was rebuilt many times over the course of its history. By AD 250–300 its architectural style was influenced by the great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico, including the use of the ''talud-tablero'' form. During the Early Classic period (c. 250–600) the Mundo Perdido became one of the twin foci of the city, the other being the North Acropolis. From AD 250 to 378 it may have served as the royal necropolis. The Mundo Perdido complex was given its name by the archeologists of the University of Pennsylvania; it is centered upon the Lost World Pyramid and a small platform to the west of it. To the south of Mundo Perdido, recent 2021 excavations have revealed a one-third size replication of La Ciudadela, or The Citadel, in Teotihuacan. This area may have been used as a diplomatic headquarters and as an effort to further stamp Teotihuacan culture upon the residents of Tikal. '''Group G''' lies just south of the Mendez Causeway. The complex dates to the Late Classic and consists of palace-type structures and is one of the largest groups of its type at Tikal. It has two stories but most of the rooms are on the lower floor, a total of 29 vaulted chambers. The remains of two further chambers belong to the upper story. One of the entrances to the group was framed by a gigantic mask. '''Group H''' is centered on a large plaza to the north of the Great Plaza. It is bordered by temples dating to the Late Classic. There are nine '''Twin-Pyramid Complexes''' at Tikal, one of which was completely dismantled in ancient times and some others were partly destroyed. They vary in size but consist of two pyramids facing each other on an east–west axis. These pyramids are flat-topped and have stairways on all four sides. A row of plain stelae is placed immediately to the west of the eastern pyramid and to the north of the pyramids. Lying roughly equidistant from them, there is usually a sculpted stela and altar pair. On the south side of these complexes there is a long vaulted building containing a single room with nine doorways. The entire complex was built at once and these complexes were built at 20-year (or ''k'atun'') intervals during the Late Classic. The first twin pyramid complex was built in the early 6th century in the East Plaza. It was once thought that these complexes were unique to Tikal but rare examples have now been found at other sites, such as Yaxha and Ixlu, and they may reflect the extent of Tikal's political dominance in the Late Classic. '''Group Q''' is a twin-pyramid complex, and is one of the largest at Tikal. It was built by Yax Nuun Ayiin II in 771 in order to mark the end of the 17th K'atun. Most of it has been restored and its monuments have been re-erected. '''Group R''' is another twin-pyramid complex, dated to 790. It is close to the Maler Causeway. === Strutturi === There are thousands of ancient structures at Tikal and only a fraction of these have been excavated, after decades of archeological work. The most prominent surviving buildings include six very large pyramids, labelled Temples I – VI, each of which support a temple structure on their summits. Some of these pyramids are over 60 meters (200 feet) high. They were numbered sequentially during the early survey of the site. It is estimated that each of these major temples could have been built in as little as two years. '''Temple I''' (also known as the ''Temple of Ah Cacao'' or ''Temple of the Great Jaguar'') is a funerary pyramid dedicated to Jasaw Chan K'awil, who was entombed in the structure in AD 734, the pyramid was completed around 740–750. The temple rises 47 meters (154 ft) high. The massive roofcomb that topped the temple was originally decorated with a giant sculpture of the enthroned king, although little of this decoration survives. The tomb of the king was discovered by Aubrey Trik of the University of Pennsylvania in 1962. Among items recovered from the Late Classic tomb were a large collection of inscribed human and animal bone tubes and strips with sophisticated scenes depicting deities and people, finely carved and rubbed with vermilion, as well as jade and shell ornaments and ceramic vessels filled with offerings of food and drink. The shrine at the summit of the pyramid has three chambers, each behind the next, with the doorways spanned by wooden lintels fashioned from multiple beams. The outermost lintel is plain but the two inner lintels were carved, some of the beams were removed in the 19th century and their location is unknown, while others were taken to museums in Europe. '''Temple II''' (also known as the ''Temple of the Mask'') it was built around AD 700 and stands 38 meters (125 ft) high. Like other major temples at Tikal, the summit shrine had three consecutive chambers with the doorways spanned by wooden lintels, only the middle of which was carved. The temple was dedicated to the wife of Jasaw Chan K'awil, although no tomb was found. The queen's portrait was carved into the lintel spanning the doorway of the summit shrine. One of the beams from this lintel is now in the American Museum of Natural History in New York City. '''Temple III''' (also known as the ''Temple of the Jaguar Priest'') was the last of the great pyramids to be built at Tikal. It stood 55 meters (180 ft) tall and contained an elaborately sculpted but damaged roof lintel, possibly showing Dark Sun engaged in a ritual dance around AD 810. The temple shrine possesses two chambers. '''Temple IV''' is the tallest temple-pyramid at Tikal, measuring 70 meters (230 ft) from the plaza floor level to the top of its roof comb. Temple IV marks the reign of Yik’in Chan Kawil (Ruler B, the son of Ruler A or Jasaw Chan K'awiil I) and two carved wooden lintels over the doorway that leads into the temple on the pyramid's summit record a long count date (9.15.10.0.0) that corresponds to CE 741 (Sharer 1994:169). Temple IV is the largest pyramid built anywhere in the Maya region in the 8th century, and as it currently stands is the tallest pre-Columbian structure in the Americas although the Pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacan may originally have been taller, as may have been one of the structures at El Mirador. '''Temple V''' stands south of the Central Acropolis and is the mortuary pyramid of an as yet unidentified ruler. The temple stands 57 meters (187 ft) high, making it the second tallest structure at Tikal – only Temple IV is taller. The temple has been dated to about AD 700, in the Late Classic period, via radiocarbon analysis and the dating of ceramics associated with the structure places its construction during the reign of Nun Bak Chak in the second half of the 7th century. '''Temple VI''' is also known as the ''Temple of the Inscriptions'' and was dedicated in AD 766. It is notable for its 12-meter (39 ft) high roof-comb. Panels of hieroglyphs cover the back and sides of the roof-comb. The temple faces onto a plaza to the west and its front is unrestored. '''Temple 33''' was a funerary pyramid erected over the tomb of Siyaj Chan K'awiil I (known as Burial 48) in the North Acropolis. It started life in the Early Classic as a wide basal platform decorated with large stucco masks that flanked the stairway. Later in the Early Classic a new superstructure was added, with its own masks and decorated panels. During the Hiatus a third stage was built over the earlier constructions, the stairway was demolished and another royal burial, of an unidentified ruler, was set into the structure (Burial 23). While the new pyramid was being built another high ranking tomb (Burial 24) was inserted into the rubble core of the building. The pyramid was then completed, standing 33 meters (108 ft) tall. The final version of Temple 33 was completely dismantled by archeologists in 1965 in order to arrive at the earlier stages of construction. '''Structure 34''' is a pyramid in the North Acropolis that was built by Siyaj Chan K'awiil II over the tomb of his father, Yax Nuun Ayiin I. The pyramid was topped by a three chambered shrine, the rooms situated one behind the other. Detail of Teotihuacan-related imagery decorating the sloping ''talud'' sections of the ''talud-tablero'' sides of Structure 5D-43. '''Structure 5D-43''' is an unusual radial temple in the East Plaza, built over a pre-existing twin pyramid complex. It is built into the end of the East Plaza Ballcourt and possessed four entry doorways and three stairways, the fourth (south) side was too close to the Central Acropolis for a stairway on that side. The building has a ''talud-tablero'' platform profile, modified from the original style found at Teotihuacan. In fact, it has been suggested that the style of the building has closer affinities with El Tajin and Xochicalco than with Teotihuacan itself. The vertical ''tablero'' panels are set between sloping ''talud'' panels and are decorated with paired disc symbols. Large flower symbols are set into the sloping ''talud'' panels, related to the Venus and star symbols used at Teotihuacan. The roof of the structure was decorated with friezes although only fragments now remain, showing a monstrous face, perhaps that of a jaguar, with another head emerging from the mouth. The second head possesses a bifurcated tongue but is probably not that of a snake. The temple, and its associated ballcourt, probably date to the reign of Nuun Ujol Chaak or that of his son Jasaw Chan K'awiil I, in the later part of the 7th century. '''Structure 5C-49''' possesses a clear Teotihuacan-linked architectural style; it has balustrades, an architectural feature that is very rare in the Maya region, and a ''talud-tablero'' façade; it dates to the 4th century AD. It is located near to the Lost World pyramid. '''Structure 5C-53''' is a small Teotihuacan-style platform that dates to about AD 600. It had stairways on all four sides and did not possess a superstructure. The '''Lost World Pyramid''' (Structure 5C-54) is the largest structure in the Mundo Perdido complex. It lies in the southwest portion of Tikal's central core, south of Temple III and west of Temple V. It was decorated with stucco masks of the sun god and dates to the Late Preclassic; this pyramid is part of an enclosed complex of structures that remained intact and un-impacted by later building activity at Tikal. By the end of the Late Preclassic this pyramid was one of the largest structures in the Maya region. It attained its final form during the reign of Chak Tok Ich'aak in the 4th century AD, in the Early Classic, standing more than 30 meters (98 ft) high with stairways on all four sides and a flat top that possibly supported a superstructure built from perishable materials. Although the plaza later suffered significant alteration, the organization of a group of temples on the east side of this complex adheres to the layout that defines the so-called E-Groups, identified as solar observatories. '''Structure 5D-96''' is the central temple on the east side of the Plaza of the Seven Temples. It has been restored and its rear outer wall is decorated with skull-and-crossbones motifs. '''Group 6C-16''' is an elite residential complex that has been thoroughly excavated. It lies a few hundred m south of the Lost World Complex and the excavations have revealed elaborate stucco masks, ballplayer murals, relief sculptures and buildings with Teotihuacan characteristics. The '''Great Plaza Ballcourt''' is a small ballcourt that lies between Temple I and the Central Acropolis. The '''Bat Palace''' is also known as the Palace of Windows and lies to the west of Temple III. It has two storeys, with a double range of chambers on the lower storey and a single range in the upper storey, which has been restored. The palace has ancient graffiti and possesses low windows. '''Complex N''' lies to the west of the Bat Palace and Temple III. The complex dates to AD 711. In 2018, 60,000 uncharted structures were revealed by archeologists with help of Lidar. Thanks to the new findings, some archeologists believe that 7-11 million Maya people inhabited in the northern Guatemala during the late classical period from 650 to 800 A.D. Lidar digitally removed the tree canopy to reveal ancient remains and showed that Maya cities like Tikal were bigger than previously thought. The project was mapped near the Maya Biosphere Reserve in the Petén region of Guatemala. === Altars[edit] === '''Altar 5''' is carved with two nobles, one of whom is probably Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. They are performing a ritual using the bones of an important woman. Altar 5 was found in Complex N, which lies to the west of Temple III. '''Altar 8''' is sculpted with a bound captive. It was found within Complex P in Group H and is now in the Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología in Guatemala City. '''Altar 9''' is associated with Stela 21 and bears the sculpture of a bound captive. It is located in front of Temple VI. '''Altar 10''' is carved with a captive tied to a scaffold. It is in the northern enclosure of Group Q, a twin-pyramid complex and has suffered from erosion. '''Altar 35''' is a plain monument associated with Stela 43. The stela-altar pair is centrally located at the base of the stairway of Temple IV. === Lintels === The elaborately carved wooden Lintel 3 from Temple IV. It celebrates a military victory by Yik'in Chan K'awiil in 743. At Tikal, beams of sapodilla wood were placed as lintels spanning the inner doorways of temples. These are the most elaborately carved wooden lintels to have survived anywhere in the Maya region. '''Lintel 3''' from Temple IV was taken to Basel in Switzerland in the 19th century. It was in almost perfect condition and depicts Yik'in Chan K'awiil seated on a palanquin. === Steli === Stelae are carved stone shafts, often sculpted with figures and hieroglyphs. A selection of the most notable stelae at Tikal follows: '''Stela 1''' dates to the 5th century and depicts the king Siyaj Chan K'awiil II in a standing position. '''Stela 4''' is dated to AD 396, during the reign of Yax Nuun Ayiin after the intrusion of Teotihuacan in the Maya area. The stela displays a mix of Maya and Teotihuacan qualities, and deities from both cultures. It has a portrait of the king with the Underworld Jaguar God under one arm and the Mexican Tlaloc under the other. His helmet is a simplified version of the Teotihuacan War Serpent. Unusually for Maya sculpture, but typically for Teotihuacan, Yax Nuun Ayiin is depicted with a frontal face, rather than in profile. '''Stela 5''' was dedicated in 744 by Yik'in Chan K'awiil. '''Stela 6''' is a badly damaged monument dating to 514 and bears the name of the "Lady of Tikal" who celebrated the end of the 4th K'atun in that year. '''Stela 10''' is twinned with Stela 12 but is badly damaged. It described the accession of Kaloomte' B'alam in the early 6th century and earlier events in his career, including the capture of a prisoner depicted on the monument. '''Stela 11''' was the last monument ever erected at Tikal; it was dedicated in 869 by Jasaw Chan K'awiil II. '''Stela 12''' is linked to the queen known as the "Lady of Tikal" and king Kaloomte' B'alam. The queen is described as performing the year-ending rituals but the monument was dedicated in honor of the king. '''Stela 16''' was dedicated in 711, during the reign of Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. The sculpture, including a portrait of the king and a hieroglyphic text, are limited to the front face of the monument. It was found in Complex N, west of Temple III. '''Stela 18''' was one of two stelae erected by Yax Nuun Ayiin I to celebrate the ''k'atun''-ending of AD 396. It was re-erected at the base of Temple 34, his funerary shrine. '''Stela 19''' was dedicated in 790 by Yax Nuun Ayiin II. '''Stela 20''' was found in Complex P, in Group H, and was moved to the Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología in Guatemala City. '''Stela 21''' was dedicated in 736 by Yik'in Chan K'awiil. Only the bottom of the stela is intact, the rest having been mutilated in ancient times. The surviving sculpture is of fine quality, consisting of the feet of a figure and of accompanying hieroglyphic text. The stela is associated with Altar 9 and is located in front of Temple VI. '''Stela 22''' was dedicated in 771 by Yax Nuun Ayiin II in the northern enclosure of Group Q, a twin-pyramid complex. The face of the figure on the stela has been mutilated. '''Stela 23''' was broken in antiquity and was re-erected in a residential complex. The defaced portrait on the monument is that of the so-called "Lady of Tikal", a daughter of Chak Tok Ich'aak II who became queen at the age of six but never ruled in her own right, being paired with male co-rulers. It dates to the early 6th century. '''Stela 24''' was erected at the foot of Temple 3 in 810, accompanied by Altar 7. Both were broken into fragments in ancient times, although the name of Dark Sun survives on three fragments. '''Stela 26''' was found in the summit shrine of Temple 34, underneath a broken masonry altar. The monument had originally been erected at the base of the temple during the Early Classic period and was later broken, probably at the beginning of the Late Classic. Its remains were then interred within the temple shrine. '''Stela 29''' bears a Long Count (8.12.14.8.15) date equivalent to AD 292, the earliest surviving Long Count date from the Maya lowlands. The stela is also the earliest monument to bear the Tikal emblem glyph. It bears a sculpture of the king facing to the right, holding the head of an underworld jaguar god, one of the patron deities of the city. The stela was deliberately smashed during the 6th century or some time later, the upper portion was dragged away and dumped in a rubbish tip close to Temple III, to be uncovered by archeologists in 1959. '''Stela 30''' is the first surviving monument to be erected after the Hiatus. Its style and iconography is similar to that of Caracol, one of the more important of Tikal's enemies. Stela 31, with the sculpted image of Siyaj Chan K'awiil II '''Stela 31''' is the accession monument of Siyaj Chan K'awiil II, also bearing two portraits of his father, Yax Nuun Ayiin, as a youth dressed as a Teotihuacan warrior. He carries a spearthrower in one hand and bears a shield decorated with the face of Tlaloc, the Teotihuacan war god. In ancient times the sculpture was broken and the upper portion was moved to the summit of Temple 33 and ritually buried. Stela 31 has been described as the greatest Early Classic sculpture to survive at Tikal. A long hieroglyphic text is carved onto the back of the monument, the longest to survive from the Early Classic, which describes the arrival of Siyah K'ak' at El Peru and Tikal in January 378. It was also the first stela at Tikal to be carved on all four faces. '''Stela 32''' is a fragmented monument with a foreign Teotihuacan-style sculpture apparently depicting the lord of that city with the attributes of the central Mexican storm god Tlaloc, including his goggle eyes and tasselled headdress. '''Stela 39''' is a broken monument that was erected in the Lost World complex. The upper portion of the stela is missing but the lower portion shows the lower body and legs of Chak Tok Ich'aak, holding a flint axe in his left hand. He is trampling the figure of a bound, richly dressed captive. The monument is dated to AD 376. The text on the back of the monument describes a bloodletting ritual to celebrate a Katun-ending. The stela also names Chak Tok Ich'aak I's father as K'inich Muwaan Jol. '''Stela 40''' bears a portrait of Kan Chitam and dates to AD 468. '''Stela 43''' is paired with Altar 35. It is a plain monument at the base of the stairway of Temple IV. === Oqbra === A ceramic censer representing an elderly deity, found in Burial 10. '''Burial 1''' is a tomb in the Lost World complex. A fine ceramic bowl was recovered from the tomb, with the handle formed from three-dimensional head and neck of a bird emerging from the two-dimensional body painted on the lid. '''Burial 10''' is the tomb of Yax Nuun Ayiin. It is located beneath Structure 34 in the North Acropolis. The tomb contained a rich array of offerings, including ceramic vessels and food, and nine youths were sacrificed to accompany the dead king. A dog was also entombed with the deceased king. Pots in the tomb were stuccoed and painted and many demonstrated a blend of Maya and Teotihuacan styles. Among the offerings was an incense-burner in the shape of an elderly underworld god, sitting on a stool made of human bones and holding a severed head in his hands. The tomb was sealed with a corbel vault, then the pyramid was built on top. '''Burial 48''' is generally accepted as the tomb of Sihyaj Chan Kʼawiil II. It is located beneath Temple 33 in the North Acropolis. The chamber of the tomb was cut from the bedrock and contained the remains of the king himself together with those of two adolescents who had been sacrificed in order to accompany the deceased ruler. The walls of the tomb were covered with white stucco painted with hieroglyphs that included the Long Count date equivalent to 20 March 457, probably the date of either the death or interment of the king. The king's skeleton was missing its skull, its femurs and one of its hands while the skeletons of the sacrificial victims were intact. '''Burial 85''' dates to the Late Preclassic and was enclosed by a platform, with a primitive corbel vault. The tomb contained a single male skeleton, which lacked a skull and its thighbones. The dynastic founder of Tikal, Yax Ehb' Xook, has been linked to this tomb, which lies deep in the heart of the North Acropolis. The deceased had probably died in battle with his body being mutilated by his enemies before being recovered and interred by his followers. The bones were wrapped carefully in textiles to form an upright bundle. The missing head was replaced by a small greenstone mask with shell-inlaid teeth and eyes and bearing a three-pointed royal headband. This head wears an emblem of rulership on its forehead and is a rare Preclassic lowland Maya portrait of a king. Among the contents of the tomb were a stingray spine, a spondylus shell and twenty-six ceramic vessels. '''Burial 116''' is the tomb of Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. It is a large vaulted chamber deep within the pyramid, below the level of the Great Plaza. The tomb contained rich offerings of jadeite, ceramics, shell and works of art. The body of the king was covered with large quantities of jade ornaments including an enormous necklace with especially large beads, as depicted in sculpted portraits of the king. 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OCLC 48753878. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Siti arkeoloġiċi]] [[Kategorija:Siti ta' Wirt Dinji]] [[Kategorija:Parks Nazzjonali]] [[Kategorija:Maja]] [[Kategorija:Gwatemala]] 2prk3b9ozu1kk9jb8hp02mupfobz76k 279091 279090 2022-08-14T16:22:05Z Trigcly 17859 /* Popolazzjoni */ żieda kontenut wikitext text/x-wiki [[Stampa:Tikal Temple1 2006 08 11.JPG|daqsminuri|It-Tempju I ta' Tikal huwa għoli 47 metru (154 pied).]] '''Tikal''' (/tiˈkɑːl/; ''Tik’al'' bl-ortografija moderna tal-[[Maja]]) hija l-fdal ta' belt antika, li x'aktarx kienet tissejjaħ '''Yax Mutal'''<ref>Tokovinine, Alexandre (2008). "Lords of Tikal: Narratives and Identities". ''Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology''. Harvard University: 4.</ref>, u li tinsab f'foresta tropikali fil-[[Gwatemala]].<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.cyark.org/projects/tikal/overview|titlu=CyArk|sit=CyArk|data-aċċess=2022-08-14}}</ref> Hija wieħed mill-ikbar siti [[Arkeoloġija|arkeoloġiċi]] u ċentri urbani taċ-ċivilizzazzjoni tal-Maja pre-Kolumbjana. Tinsab fir-reġjun arkeoloġiku tal-Baċir ta' Petén fit-territorju attwali tat-Tramuntana tal-Gwatemala. Is-sit jinsab fid-dipartiment ta' El Petén u huwa parti mill-Park Nazzjonali ta' Tikal. Fl-1979 sar [[Sit ta' Wirt Dinji]] tal-[[UNESCO]].<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/64/|titlu=Tikal National Park|kunjom=Centre|isem=UNESCO World Heritage|sit=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2022-08-14}}</ref> Tikal kienet il-[[belt kapitali]] ta' stat ħakkiem li sar wieħed mill-iżjed renji setgħana tal-Maja tal-qedem.<ref>Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 1. Hammond 2000, p. 233.</ref> Għalkemm l-arkitettura [[Monument|monumentali]] tas-sit tmur lura saħansitra tas-seklu 4 [[Ante Christum natum|Q.K]]., Tikal laħqet il-quċċata tagħha matul il-Perjodu Klassiku, għall-ħabta tal-200 sad-900. Matul dak iż-żmien, il-belt iddominat il-biċċa l-kbira tar-reġjun tal-Maja [[Politika|politikament]], ekonomikament u militarment, filwaqt li interaġixxiet ma' żoni fil-Mesoamerka kollha, bħall-metropoli l-kbira ta' [[Teotihuacan]] fil-Wied tal-Messiku daqstant 'il bogħod. Hemm evidenza li Tikal inħakmet minn Teotihuacan fis-seklu 4 W.K.<ref>Martin & Grube 2008, pp. 29-32.</ref> Wara t-tmiem tal-Perjodu Klassiku Aħħari, ma nbena l-ebda monument maġġuri f'Tikal u hemm evidenza li l-palazzi tal-elit ingħataw in-nar. Dan l-avvenimenti mexew id f'id ma' tnaqqis gradwali fil-popolazzjoni, u laħqu l-qofol tagħhom fl-abbandun tas-sit sal-aħħar tas-seklu 10. Tikal hija l-iżjed belt mifhuma minn kwalunkwe waħda mill-bliet tal-Maja l-kbar fl-artijiet baxxi, b'lista twila ta' mexxejja dinastiċi, bl-iskoperta tal-oqbra ta' bosta mill-mexxejja fuq din il-lista u bl-investigazzjoni tal-monumenti, tat-tempji u tal-palazzi tagħhom.<ref>Adams 2000, p. 34.</ref> == Etimoloġija == [[Stampa:Tikalemblem.jpg|daqsminuri|Glifiċi emblematiċi ta' isem Tikal]] L-isem ''Tikal'' jaf oriġina minn ''ti ak'al'' fil-lingwa tal-Maja tal-[[Yucatan]]; jingħad li huwa isem relattivament modern li jfisser "f'ġibjun". Milli jidher l-isem ingħata lil wieħed mill-ġibjuni antiki tas-sit mill-kaċċaturi u mill-vjaġġaturi fir-reġjun.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, p. 30.</ref> Interpretazzjoni oħra tal-isem hi li jfisser "il-post tal-vuċijiet" fil-lingwa tal-Maja ta' Itza. Madankollu, Tikal mhuwiex l-isem antik tas-sit iżda pjuttost l-isem li ġie adottat ftit wara l-iskoperta tas-sit fis-snin 40 tas-seklu 19.<ref>Drew 1999, p. 136.</ref> Il-kitbiet ġeroglifiċi fil-fdalijiet jirreferu għall-belt antika bħala ''Yax Mutal'' jew ''Yax Mutul'', li tfisser "l-ewwel Mutal". Tikal jaf bdiet tissejjaħ hekk minħabba li Dos Pilas beda juża l-istess glifiċi emblematiċi; il-mexxejja tal-belt x'aktarx li riedu jiddistingwu bejn il-bliet b'dan il-mod.<ref>Schele & Mathews 1999, p. 64.</ref> Ir-renju kollu kien jissejjaħ sempliċement ''Mutul'', li huwa l-interpretazzjoni tal-glifiċi emblematiċi tal-"qatta' xagħar" fir-ritratt fuq il-lemin. It-tifsira preċiża għadha mhux ċerta.<ref>Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 1.</ref> == Ġeografija == [[Stampa:Mayamap.png|daqsminuri|280x280px|Mappa taż-żona tal-Maja fir-reġjun Mesoamerikan. Kemm Tikal kif ukoll Calakmul jinsabu qrib iċ-ċentru taż-żona.]] L-eqreb insedjamenti kbar moderni huma Flores u Santa Elena, bejn wieħed u ieħor xi 64 kilometru (40 mil) bogħod bit-triq lejn il-Lbiċ.<ref>Kelly 1996, pp. 111-112.</ref> Tikal tinsab xi 303 kilometri (188 mil) fit-Tramuntana tal-[[Belt tal-Gwatemala]]. Tinsab 19-il kilometru (12-il mil) fin-Nofsinhar tal-belt tal-Maja kontemporanja ta' [[Uaxactun]] u 30 kilometru (19-il mil) fil-Majjistral ta' [[Yaxha]].<ref>Webster 2002, p. 118.</ref> Il-belt tinsab 100 kilometru (62 mil) fix-Xlokk tar-rivali l-kbira tagħha tal-Perjodu Klassiku, [[Calakmul]], u 85 kilometru (53 mil) fil-Majjistral tal-alleat ta' Calakmul, [[Caracol]], li issa tinsab fil-[[Beliże|Belize]].<ref>Webster 2002, p. 118.</ref> Il-belt ġiet immappjata għalkollox u kienet tkopri erja ikbar minn 16-il kilometru kwadru (6.2 mili kwadri) li kienet tinkludi madwar 3,000 struttura.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 104.</ref> It-topografija tas-sit tikkonsisti minn sensiela ta' rdumijiet paralleli tal-[[ġebla tal-ġir]] 'il fuq minn artijiet baxxi u mtajna. L-arkitettura maġġuri tas-sit hija raggruppata f'żoni iktar għoljin li huma kkollegati b'toroq olzati minn naħa għall-oħra tal-artijiet bassasa.<ref>Drew 1999, p. 185.</ref> Iż-żona madwar Tikal ġiet iddikjarata bħala l-Park Nazzjonali ta' Tikal u ż-żona ppreservata tkopri 570 kilometru kwadru (220 mil kwadru).<ref>Kelly 1996, p. 140.</ref> Dan il-park inħoloq fis-26 ta' Mejju 1955 taħt il-patroċinju tal-Instituto de Antropología e Historia u kien l-ewwel żona protetta fil-Gwatemala.<ref>Kelly 1996, p. 140.</ref> Il-fdalijiet jinsabu fost il-foresti tropikali tat-Tramuntana tal-Gwatemala li kienu jiffurmaw in-nieqa taċ-ċivilizzazzjoni tal-Maja fl-artijiet baxxi. Il-belt stess kienet tinsab qalb art għammiela abbundanti, u jaf iddominat rotta kummerċjali naturali mil-Lvant għall-Punent tul il-[[Peniżola]] tal-Yucatan. Fost is-siġar il-kbar tal-Park Nazzjonali ta' Tikal hemm il-kapok ġgantesk (''Ceiba pentandra'') li kienet is-siġra sagra tal-Maja; iċ-ċedru tropikali (''Cedrela odorata''), u l-kawba tal-[[Ħonduras]] (''Swietenia macrophylla''). Fir-rigward tal-fawna, wieħed jista' jara regolarment l-aguti, il-koati ta' mnieħru abjad, il-volpi griż, ix-xadin ta' Geoffroy, ix-xadin li jgħajjat, l-ajkla arpija, il-falkun, id-dundjan tal-foresti, il-gwan, it-tukan, il-pappagall aħdar u n-nemel li jaqta' l-weraq. Jingħad ukoll li l-ġagwar, l-ocelot u l-cougar jgħixu fil-park.<ref>Coe 1967, pp. 9-10. Hidinger 1996, p. 52.</ref> Tikal ma kellha l-ebda ilma għajr dak li kien jinġabar mill-ilma tax-xita u jinħażen f'għaxar ġibjuni. L-arkeologi li ħadmu f'Tikal matul is-seklu 20 sewwew wieħed minn dawn il-ġibjuni antiki biex jaħżnu l-ilma għalihom stess.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 124.</ref> Ix-xita annwali medja li tinżel f'Tikal tammonta għal 1,945 millimetru (76.6 pulzier). Madankollu, ix-xita ġieli tinżel għal għarrieda, u perjodi twal ta' nixfa setgħu jseħħu qabel ma l-għelejjel isiru, li kienet theddida serja għall-abitanti tal-belt antika.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 239.</ref> == Popolazzjoni == L-istimi tal-popolazzjoni ta' Tikal ivarjaw minn 10,000 sa saħansitra 90,000 abitant. Il-popolazzjoni ta' Tikal bdiet kurva kontinwa ta' tkabbir mill-bidu tal-Perjodu Preklassiku (bejn wieħed u ieħor fl-2000 Q.K. – 200 W.K.), bl-eqqel livell fil-Perjodu Klassiku Aħħari, fejn il-popolazzjoni kibret b'mod rapidu mis-700 W.K. sat-830, u mbagħad kien hemm deklin qawwi. Għaż-żona ta' 120 kilometru kwadru (46 mil kwadru) fi ħdan id-difiżi bit-tajn tal-periferija, l-ogħla popolazzjoni hija stmata li kienet 517-il persuna għal kull kilometru kwadru (1,340 persuna għal kull mil kwadru). F'żona fi ħdan raġġ ta' 12-il kilometru (7.5 mili) tal-qalba tas-sit, l-ogħla popolazzjoni hija stmata li kienet tlaħħaq il-120,000 ruħ; id-densità tal-popolazzjoni hija stmata li kienet 265 persuna għal kull kilometru kwadru (689 persuna għal kull mil kwadru). F'reġjun fi ħdan raġġ ta' 25 kilometru (16-il mil) mill-qalba tas-sit u inkluż xi siti anċillari, l-ogħla popolazzjoni hija stmata li kienet tlaħħaq l-425,000 ruħ b'densità ta' 216-il persuna għal kull kilometru kwadru (515-il persuna għal kull mil kwadru). Dawn iċ-ċifri rigward il-popolazzjoni huma ferm iktar impressjonanti minħabba l-artijiet bassasa estensiva li ma kinux adattati għall-abitazzjoni jew għall-agrikoltura. Madankollu, xi arkeologi, bħal [[David Webster]], jemmnu li dawn iċ-ċifri huma wisq għoljin.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 264.</ref> == Sit ta' Wirt Dinji == == Storja == === Preklassika === There are traces of early agriculture at the site dating as far back as 1000 BC, in the Middle Preclassic. A cache of Mamon ceramics dating from about 700-400 BC were found in a sealed chultun, a subterranean bottle-shaped chamber. Major construction at Tikal was already taking place in the Late Preclassic period, first appearing around 400–300 BC, including the building of major pyramids and platforms, although the city was still dwarfed by sites further north such as El Mirador and Nakbe. At this time, Tikal participated in the widespread Chikanel culture that dominated the Central and Northern Maya areas at this time – a region that included the entire Yucatan Peninsula including northern and eastern Guatemala and all of Belize. Two temples dating to Late Chikanel times had masonry-walled superstructures that may have been corbel-vaulted, although this has not been proven. One of these had elaborate paintings on the outer walls showing human figures against a scrollwork background, painted in yellow, black, pink and red. In the 1st century AD rich burials first appeared and Tikal underwent a political and cultural florescence as its giant northern neighbors declined. At the end of the Late Preclassic, the Izapan style art and architecture from the Pacific Coast began to influence Tikal, as demonstrated by a broken sculpture from the acropolis and early murals at the city. === Klassika bikrija === Dynastic rulership among the lowland Maya is most deeply rooted at Tikal. According to later hieroglyphic records, the dynasty was founded by Yax Ehb Xook, perhaps in the 1st century AD. At the beginning of the Early Classic, power in the Maya region was concentrated at Tikal and Calakmul, in the core of the Maya heartland. Tikal may have benefited from the collapse of the large Preclassic states such as El Mirador. In the Early Classic Tikal rapidly developed into the most dynamic city in the Maya region, stimulating the development of other nearby Maya cities. The site, however, was often at war and inscriptions tell of alliances and conflict with other Maya states, including Uaxactun, Caracol, Naranjo and Calakmul. The site was defeated at the end of the Early Classic by Caracol, which rose to take Tikal's place as the paramount center in the southern Maya lowlands. The earlier part of the Early Classic saw hostilities between Tikal and its neighbor Uaxactun, with Uaxactun recording the capture of prisoners from Tikal. There appears to have been a breakdown in the male succession by AD 317, when Lady Unen Bahlam conducted a katun-ending ceremony, apparently as queen of the city. ==== Tikal u Teotihuacan ==== The great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico appears to have decisively intervened in Tikal politics. As early as 200 AD Teotihuacan had embassies in Tikal. The fourteenth king of Tikal was Chak Tok Ich'aak (Great Jaguar Paw). Chak Tok Ich'aak built a palace that was preserved and developed by later rulers until it became the core of the Central Acropolis. Little is known about Chak Tok Ich'aak except that he was killed on 14 January 378 AD.^{[''contradictory'']} On the same day, Siyah K’ak' (Fire Is Born) arrived from the west, having passed through El Peru, a site to the west of Tikal, on 8 January. On Stela 31 he is named as "Lord of the West". Siyah K’ak' was probably a foreign general serving a figure represented by a non-Maya hieroglyph of a spearthrower combined with an owl, a glyph that is well known from the great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the distant Valley of Mexico. Spearthrower Owl may even have been the ruler of Teotihuacan. These recorded events strongly suggest that Siyah K’ak' led a Teotihuacan invasion that defeated the native Tikal king, who was captured and immediately executed. Siyah K'ak' appears to have been aided by a powerful political faction at Tikal itself; roughly at the time of the conquest, a group of Teotihuacan natives were apparently residing near the Lost World complex. He also exerted control over other cities in the area, including Uaxactun, where he became king, but did not take the throne of Tikal for himself. Within a year, the son of Spearthrower Owl by the name of Yax Nuun Ayiin I (First Crocodile) had been installed as the fifteenth king of Tikal while he was still a boy, being enthroned on 13 September 379. He reigned for 47 years as king of Tikal, and remained a vassal of Siyah K'ak' for as long as the latter lived. It seems likely that Yax Nuun Ayiin I took a wife from the preexisting, defeated, Tikal dynasty and thus legitimized the right to rule of his son, Siyaj Chan K'awiil II. Río Azul, a small site 100 kilometers (62 mi) northeast of Tikal, was conquered by the latter during the reign of Yax Nuun Ayiin I. The site became an outpost of Tikal, shielding it from hostile cities further north, and also became a trade link to the Caribbean. Although the new rulers of Tikal were foreign, their descendants were rapidly Mayanized. Tikal became the key ally and trading partner of Teotihuacan in the Maya lowlands. After being conquered by Teotihuacan, Tikal rapidly dominated the northern and eastern Peten. Uaxactun, together with smaller towns in the region, were absorbed into Tikal's kingdom. Other sites, such as Bejucal and Motul de San José near Lake Petén Itzá became vassals of their more powerful neighbor to the north. By the middle of the 5th century Tikal had a core territory of at least 25 kilometers (16 mi) in every direction. Around the 5th century an impressive system of fortifications consisting of ditches and earthworks was built along the northern periphery of Tikal's hinterland, joining up with the natural defenses provided by large areas of swampland lying to the east and west of the city. Additional fortifications were probably also built to the south. These defenses protected Tikal's core population and agricultural resources, encircling an area of approximately 120 square kilometers (46 sq mi). Recent research suggests that the earthworks served as a water collection system rather than a defensive purpose. ==== Tikal u Copán ==== In the 5th century the power of the city reached as far south as Copán, whose founder K'inich Yax K'uk' Mo' was clearly connected with Tikal. Copán itself was not in an ethnically Maya region and the founding of the Copán dynasty probably involved the direct intervention of Tikal. K'inich Yax K'uk' Mo' arrived in Copán in December 426 and bone analysis of his remains shows that he passed his childhood and youth at Tikal. An individual known as Ajaw K'uk' Mo' (lord K'uk' Mo') is referred to in an early text at Tikal and may well be the same person. His tomb had Teotihuacan characteristics and he was depicted in later portraits dressed in the warrior garb of Teotihuacan. Hieroglyphic texts refer to him as "Lord of the West", much like Siyah K’ak'. At the same time, in late 426, Copán founded the nearby site of Quiriguá, possibly sponsored by Tikal itself. The founding of these two centers may have been part of an effort to impose Tikal's authority upon the southeastern portion of the Maya region. The interaction between these sites and Tikal was intense over the next three centuries. A long-running rivalry between Tikal and Calakmul began in the 6th century, with each of the two cities forming its own network of mutually hostile alliances arrayed against each other in what has been likened to a long-running war between two Maya superpowers. The kings of these two capitals adopted the title ''kaloomte''', a term that has not been precisely translated but that implies something akin to "high king". The early 6th century saw another queen ruling the city, known only as the "Lady of Tikal", who was very likely a daughter of Chak Tok Ich'aak II. She seems never to have ruled in her own right, rather being partnered with male co-rulers. The first of these was Kaloomte' B'alam, who seems to have had a long career as a general at Tikal before becoming co-ruler and 19th in the dynastic sequence. The Lady of Tikal herself seems not have been counted in the dynastic numbering. It appears she was later paired with lord "Bird Claw", who is presumed to be the otherwise unknown 20th ruler. === Klassika Aħħarija === ==== L-aqwa żmien ta' Tikal ==== In the mid 6th century, Caracol seems to have allied with Calakmul and defeated Tikal, closing the Early Classic. The "Tikal hiatus" refers to a period between the late 6th to late 7th century where there was a lapse in the writing of inscriptions and large-scale construction at Tikal. In the latter half of the 6th century AD, a serious crisis befell the city, with no new stelae being erected and with widespread deliberate mutilation of public sculpture. This hiatus in activity at Tikal was long unexplained until later epigraphic decipherments identified that the period was prompted by Tikal's comprehensive defeat at the hands of Calakmul and the Caracol polity in AD 562, a defeat that seems to have resulted in the capture and sacrifice of the king of Tikal. The badly eroded Altar 21 at Caracol described how Tikal suffered this disastrous defeat in a major war in April 562. It seems that Caracol was an ally of Calakmul in the wider conflict between that city and Tikal, with the defeat of Tikal having a lasting impact upon the city. Tikal was not sacked but its power and influence were broken. After its great victory, Caracol grew rapidly and some of Tikal's population may have been forcibly relocated there. During the hiatus period, at least one ruler of Tikal took refuge with Janaab' Pakal of Palenque, another of Calakmul's victims. Calakmul itself thrived during Tikal's long hiatus period. The beginning of the Tikal hiatus has served as a marker by which archeologists commonly subdivide the Classic period of Mesoamerican chronology into the Early and Late Classic. ==== Tikal u Dos Pilas ==== In 629 Tikal founded Dos Pilas, some 110 kilometers (68 mi) to the southwest, as a military outpost in order to control trade along the course of the Pasión River. B'alaj Chan K'awiil was installed on the throne of the new outpost at the age of four, in 635. When he was older, for many years he served as a loyal vassal fighting for his brother, the king of Tikal. Roughly twenty years later, Dos Pilas was attacked by Calakmul and was soundly defeated. B'alaj Chan K'awiil was captured by the king of Calakmul but, instead of being sacrificed, he was re-instated on his throne as a vassal of his former enemy. He attacked Tikal in 657, forcing Nuun Ujol Chaak, then king of Tikal, to temporarily abandon the city. The first two rulers of Dos Pilas continued to use the Mutal emblem glyph of Tikal, and they probably felt that they had a legitimate claim to the throne of Tikal itself. For some reason, B'alaj Chan K'awiil was not installed as the new ruler of Tikal; instead he stayed at Dos Pilas. Tikal counterattacked against Dos Pilas in 672, driving B'alaj Chan K'awiil into an exile that lasted five years. Calakmul tried to encircle Tikal within an area dominated by its allies, such as El Peru, Dos Pilas, and Caracol. In 682, Jasaw Chan K'awiil I erected the first dated monument at Tikal in 120 years and claimed the title of ''kaloomte''', so ending the hiatus. He initiated a program of new construction and turned the tables on Calakmul when, in 695, he captured the enemy noble and threw the enemy state into a long decline from which it never fully recovered. After this, Calakmul never again erected a monument celebrating a military victory. ==== Tikal wara Teotihuacan ==== By the 7th century, there was no active Teotihuacan presence at any Maya site and the center of Teotihuacan had been razed by 700. Even after this, formal war attire illustrated on monuments was Teotihuacan style. Jasaw Chan K'awiil I and his heir Yik'in Chan K'awiil continued hostilities against Calakmul and its allies and imposed firm regional control over the area around Tikal, extending as far as the territory around Lake Petén Itzá. These two rulers were responsible for much of the impressive architecture visible today. In 738, Quiriguá, a vassal of Copán, Tikal's key ally in the south, switched allegiance to Calakmul, defeated Copán and gained its own independence. It appears that this was a conscious effort on the part of Calakmul to bring about the collapse of Tikal's southern allies. This upset the balance of power in the southern Maya area and lead to a steady decline in the fortunes of Copán. In the 8th century, the rulers of Tikal collected monuments from across the city and erected them in front of the North Acropolis. By the late 8th century and early 9th century, activity at Tikal slowed. Impressive architecture was still built but few hieroglyphic inscriptions refer to later rulers. === Klassika Terminali === By the 9th century, the crisis of the Classic Maya collapse was sweeping across the region, with populations plummeting and city after city falling into silence. Increasingly endemic warfare in the Maya region caused Tikal's supporting population to heavily concentrate close to the city itself, accelerating the use of intensive agriculture and the corresponding environmental decline. Construction continued at the beginning of the century, with the erection of Temple 3, the last of the city's major pyramids, and the erection of monuments to mark the 19th K'atun in 810. The beginning of the 10th Bak'tun in 830 passed uncelebrated, and marks the beginning of a 60-year hiatus, probably resulting from the collapse of central control in the city. During this hiatus, satellite sites traditionally under Tikal's control began to erect their own monuments featuring local rulers and using the Mutal emblem glyph, with Tikal apparently lacking the authority or the power to crush these bids for independence. In 849, Jewel K'awiil is mentioned on a stela at Seibal as visiting that city as the Divine Lord of Tikal but he is not recorded elsewhere and Tikal's once-great power was little more than a memory. The sites of Ixlu and Jimbal had by now inherited the once exclusive Mutal emblem glyph. As Tikal and its hinterland reached peak population, the area suffered deforestation, erosion and nutrient loss followed by a rapid decline in population levels. Recent analysis also indicates that the city's freshwater sources became highly contaminated with mercury, phosphate and cyanobacteria leading to the accumulation of toxins. Tikal and its immediate surroundings seem to have lost most of their population between 830 and 950 and central authority seems to have collapsed rapidly. There is not much evidence from Tikal that the city was directly affected by the endemic warfare that afflicted parts of the Maya region during the Terminal Classic, although an influx of refugees from the Petexbatún region may have exacerbated problems resulting from the already stretched environmental resources. The site core seen from the south, with Temple I at center, the North Acropolis to the left and Central Acropolis to the right In the latter half of the 9th century there was an attempt to revive royal power at the much-diminished city of Tikal, as evidenced by a stela erected in the Great Plaza by Jasaw Chan K'awiil II in 869. This was the last monument erected at Tikal before the city finally fell into silence. The former satellites of Tikal, such as Jimbal and Uaxactun, did not last much longer, erecting their final monuments in 889. By the end of the 9th century the vast majority of Tikal's population had deserted the city, its royal palaces were occupied by squatters and simple thatched dwellings were being erected in the city's ceremonial plazas. The squatters blocked some doorways in the rooms they reoccupied in the monumental structures of the site and left rubbish that included a mixture of domestic refuse and non-utilitarian items such as musical instruments. These inhabitants reused the earlier monuments for their own ritual activities, far removed from those of the royal dynasty that had erected them. Some monuments were vandalized and some were moved to new locations. Before its final abandonment all respect for the old rulers had disappeared, with the tombs of the North Acropolis being explored for jade and the easier-to-find tombs were looted. After 950, Tikal was all but deserted, although a remnant population may have survived in perishable huts interspersed among the ruins. Even these final inhabitants abandoned the city in the 10th or 11th centuries and the rainforest claimed the ruins for the next thousand years. Some of Tikal's population may have migrated to the Peten Lakes region, which remained heavily populated in spite of a plunge in population levels in the first half of the 9th century. The most likely cause of collapse at Tikal is overpopulation and agrarian failure. The fall of Tikal was a blow to the heart of Classic Maya civilization, the city having been at the forefront of courtly life, art and architecture for over a thousand years, with an ancient ruling dynasty. However, new research regarding paleoenvironmental proxies from the Tikal reservoir system suggests that a meteorological drought may have led to the abandonment of Tikal, fouling some reservoirs near the temple and palace with algae blooms, while other reservoirs remained drinkable. Buildings were painted with mercury-bearing cinnabar, which were washed off by rain and polluted some reservoirs. Works of Kohler and colleagues showed that this city reached an unsustainable level of inequalities at the end.^{[''clarification needed'']} === Moderna === Archeologist Edwin M. Shook, field director of the Tikal Project; Shook was also instrumental in having Tikal established as Guatemala's first National Park. In 1525, the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés passed within a few kilometers of the ruins of Tikal but did not mention them in his letters. After Spanish friar Andrés de Avendaño became lost in the Petén forests in early 1696 he described a ruin that may well have been Tikal. As is often the case with huge ancient ruins, knowledge of the site was never completely lost in the region. It seems that local people never forgot about Tikal and they guided Guatemalan expeditions to the ruins in the 1850s. Some second- or third-hand accounts of Tikal appeared in print starting in the 17th century, continuing through the writings of John Lloyd Stephens in the early 19th century (Stephens and his illustrator Frederick Catherwood heard rumors of a lost city, with white building tops towering above the jungle, during their 1839–40 travels in the region). Because of the site's remoteness from modern towns, however, no explorers visited Tikal until Modesto Méndez and Ambrosio Tut, respectively the commissioner and the governor of Petén, visited it in 1848. Artist Eusebio Lara accompanied them and their account was published in Germany in 1853. Several other expeditions came to further investigate, map, and photograph Tikal in the 19th century (including Alfred P. Maudslay in 1881-82) and the early 20th century. Pioneering archeologists started to clear, map and record the ruins in the 1880s. In 1951, a small airstrip was built at the ruins, which previously could only be reached by several days' travel through the jungle on foot or mule. In 1956 the Tikal project began to map the city on a scale not previously seen in the Maya area. From 1956 through 1970, major archeological excavations were carried out by the University of Pennsylvania Tikal Project. They mapped much of the site and excavated and restored many of the structures. Excavations directed by Edwin M. Shook and later by William Coe of the university investigated the North Acropolis and the Central Plaza from 1957 to 1969. The Tikal Project recorded over 200 monuments at the site. In 1979, the Guatemalan government began a further archeological project at Tikal, which continued through to 1984. Filmmaker George Lucas used Tikal as a filming location for the fictional moon Yavin 4 in the first ''Star Wars'' film, ''Episode IV: A New Hope'', which premiered in 1977. Temple I at Tikal was featured on the reverse of the 50 centavo banknote. Eon Productions used the site for the James Bond film ''Moonraker''. Tikal is now a major tourist attraction surrounded by its own national park. A site museum has been built at Tikal; it was completed in 1964. == Deskrizzjoni tas-sit == Tikal has been partially restored by the University of Pennsylvania and the government of Guatemala. It was one of the largest of the Classic period Maya cities and was one of the largest cities in the Americas. The architecture of the ancient city is built from limestone and includes the remains of temples that tower over 70 meters (230 ft) high, large royal palaces, in addition to a number of smaller pyramids, palaces, residences, administrative buildings, platforms and inscribed stone monuments. There is even a building which seemed to have been a jail, originally with wooden bars across the windows and doors. There are also seven courts for playing the Mesoamerican ballgame, including a set of 3 in the Seven Temples Plaza, a unique feature in Mesoamerica. The limestone used for construction was local and quarried on-site. The depressions formed by the extraction of stone for building were plastered to waterproof them and were used as reservoirs, together with some waterproofed natural depressions. The main plazas were surfaced with stucco and laid at a gradient that channelled rainfall into a system of canals that fed the reservoirs. The residential area of Tikal covers an estimated 60 square kilometers (23 sq mi), much of which has not yet been cleared, mapped, or excavated. The 16 square kilometers (6.2 sq mi) area around the site core has been intensively mapped; it may have enclosed an area of some 125 square kilometers (48 sq mi) (see below). A huge set of earthworks discovered by Dennis E. Puleston and Donald Callender in the 1960s rings Tikal with a 6-meter (20 ft) wide trench behind a rampart. Recently, a project exploring the defensive earthworks has shown that the scale of the earthworks is highly variable and that in many places it is inconsequential as a defensive feature. In addition, some parts of the earthwork were integrated into a canal system. The earthwork of Tikal varies significantly in coverage from what was originally proposed and it is much more complex and multifaceted than originally thought. === Toroq === By the Late Classic, a network of ''sacbeob'' (causeways) linked various parts of the city, running for several kilometers through its urban core. These linked the Great Plaza with Temple 4 (located about 750 meters (2,460 feet) to the west) and the Temple of the Inscriptions (about 1 kilometer (0.62 mi) to the southeast). These broad causeways were built of packed and plastered limestone and have been named after early explorers and archeologists; the Maler, Maudslay, Tozzer and Méndez causeways. They assisted the passage of everyday traffic during the rain season and also served as dams. The '''Maler Causeway''' runs north from behind Temple I to Group H. A large bas-relief is carved onto limestone bedrock upon the course of the causeway just south of Group H. It depicts two bound captives and dates to the Late Classic. The '''Maudsley Causeway''' runs 0.8 kilometers (0.50 mi) northeast from Temple IV to Group H. The '''Mendez Causeway''' runs southeast from the East Plaza to Temple VI, a distance of about 1.3 kilometers (0.81 mi). The '''Tozzer Causeway''' runs west from the Great Plaza to Temple IV. === Gruppi arkitettoniċi === The '''Great Plaza''' lies at the core of the site; it is flanked on the east and west sides by two great temple-pyramids. On the north side it is bordered by the North Acropolis and on the south by the Central Acropolis. The '''Central Acropolis''' is a palace complex just south of the Great Plaza. The '''North Acropolis''', together with the Great Plaza immediately to the south, is one of the most studied architectural groups in the Maya area; the Tikal Project excavated a massive trench across the complex, thoroughly investigating its construction history. It is a complex group with construction beginning in the Preclassic Period, around 350 BC. It developed into a funerary complex for the ruling dynasty of the Classic Period, with each additional royal burial adding new temples on top of the older structures. After AD 400 a row of tall pyramids was added to the earlier Northern Platform, which measured 100 by 80 meters (330 by 260 ft), gradually hiding it from view. Eight temple pyramids were built in the 6th century AD, each of them had an elaborate roofcomb and a stairway flanked by masks of the gods. By the 9th century AD, 43 stelae and 30 altars had been erected in the North Acropolis; 18 of these monuments were carved with hieroglyphic texts and royal portraits. The North Acropolis continued to receive burials into the Postclassic Period. The '''South Acropolis''' is found next to Temple V. It was built upon a large basal platform that covers an area of more than 20,000 square meters (220,000 sq ft). The '''Plaza of the Seven Temples''' is to the west of the South Acropolis. It is bordered on the east side by a row of nearly identical temples, by palaces on the south and west sides and by an unusual triple ballcourt on the north side. The '''Mundo Perdido''' is to the west of the Plaza of the Seven Temples. It is the largest ceremonial complex dating from the Preclassic period at Tikal. The complex was organized as a large E-Group consisting of a pyramid aligned with a platform to the east that supported three temples. The Mundo Perdido complex was rebuilt many times over the course of its history. By AD 250–300 its architectural style was influenced by the great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico, including the use of the ''talud-tablero'' form. During the Early Classic period (c. 250–600) the Mundo Perdido became one of the twin foci of the city, the other being the North Acropolis. From AD 250 to 378 it may have served as the royal necropolis. The Mundo Perdido complex was given its name by the archeologists of the University of Pennsylvania; it is centered upon the Lost World Pyramid and a small platform to the west of it. To the south of Mundo Perdido, recent 2021 excavations have revealed a one-third size replication of La Ciudadela, or The Citadel, in Teotihuacan. This area may have been used as a diplomatic headquarters and as an effort to further stamp Teotihuacan culture upon the residents of Tikal. '''Group G''' lies just south of the Mendez Causeway. The complex dates to the Late Classic and consists of palace-type structures and is one of the largest groups of its type at Tikal. It has two stories but most of the rooms are on the lower floor, a total of 29 vaulted chambers. The remains of two further chambers belong to the upper story. One of the entrances to the group was framed by a gigantic mask. '''Group H''' is centered on a large plaza to the north of the Great Plaza. It is bordered by temples dating to the Late Classic. There are nine '''Twin-Pyramid Complexes''' at Tikal, one of which was completely dismantled in ancient times and some others were partly destroyed. They vary in size but consist of two pyramids facing each other on an east–west axis. These pyramids are flat-topped and have stairways on all four sides. A row of plain stelae is placed immediately to the west of the eastern pyramid and to the north of the pyramids. Lying roughly equidistant from them, there is usually a sculpted stela and altar pair. On the south side of these complexes there is a long vaulted building containing a single room with nine doorways. The entire complex was built at once and these complexes were built at 20-year (or ''k'atun'') intervals during the Late Classic. The first twin pyramid complex was built in the early 6th century in the East Plaza. It was once thought that these complexes were unique to Tikal but rare examples have now been found at other sites, such as Yaxha and Ixlu, and they may reflect the extent of Tikal's political dominance in the Late Classic. '''Group Q''' is a twin-pyramid complex, and is one of the largest at Tikal. It was built by Yax Nuun Ayiin II in 771 in order to mark the end of the 17th K'atun. Most of it has been restored and its monuments have been re-erected. '''Group R''' is another twin-pyramid complex, dated to 790. It is close to the Maler Causeway. === Strutturi === There are thousands of ancient structures at Tikal and only a fraction of these have been excavated, after decades of archeological work. The most prominent surviving buildings include six very large pyramids, labelled Temples I – VI, each of which support a temple structure on their summits. Some of these pyramids are over 60 meters (200 feet) high. They were numbered sequentially during the early survey of the site. It is estimated that each of these major temples could have been built in as little as two years. '''Temple I''' (also known as the ''Temple of Ah Cacao'' or ''Temple of the Great Jaguar'') is a funerary pyramid dedicated to Jasaw Chan K'awil, who was entombed in the structure in AD 734, the pyramid was completed around 740–750. The temple rises 47 meters (154 ft) high. The massive roofcomb that topped the temple was originally decorated with a giant sculpture of the enthroned king, although little of this decoration survives. The tomb of the king was discovered by Aubrey Trik of the University of Pennsylvania in 1962. Among items recovered from the Late Classic tomb were a large collection of inscribed human and animal bone tubes and strips with sophisticated scenes depicting deities and people, finely carved and rubbed with vermilion, as well as jade and shell ornaments and ceramic vessels filled with offerings of food and drink. The shrine at the summit of the pyramid has three chambers, each behind the next, with the doorways spanned by wooden lintels fashioned from multiple beams. The outermost lintel is plain but the two inner lintels were carved, some of the beams were removed in the 19th century and their location is unknown, while others were taken to museums in Europe. '''Temple II''' (also known as the ''Temple of the Mask'') it was built around AD 700 and stands 38 meters (125 ft) high. Like other major temples at Tikal, the summit shrine had three consecutive chambers with the doorways spanned by wooden lintels, only the middle of which was carved. The temple was dedicated to the wife of Jasaw Chan K'awil, although no tomb was found. The queen's portrait was carved into the lintel spanning the doorway of the summit shrine. One of the beams from this lintel is now in the American Museum of Natural History in New York City. '''Temple III''' (also known as the ''Temple of the Jaguar Priest'') was the last of the great pyramids to be built at Tikal. It stood 55 meters (180 ft) tall and contained an elaborately sculpted but damaged roof lintel, possibly showing Dark Sun engaged in a ritual dance around AD 810. The temple shrine possesses two chambers. '''Temple IV''' is the tallest temple-pyramid at Tikal, measuring 70 meters (230 ft) from the plaza floor level to the top of its roof comb. Temple IV marks the reign of Yik’in Chan Kawil (Ruler B, the son of Ruler A or Jasaw Chan K'awiil I) and two carved wooden lintels over the doorway that leads into the temple on the pyramid's summit record a long count date (9.15.10.0.0) that corresponds to CE 741 (Sharer 1994:169). Temple IV is the largest pyramid built anywhere in the Maya region in the 8th century, and as it currently stands is the tallest pre-Columbian structure in the Americas although the Pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacan may originally have been taller, as may have been one of the structures at El Mirador. '''Temple V''' stands south of the Central Acropolis and is the mortuary pyramid of an as yet unidentified ruler. The temple stands 57 meters (187 ft) high, making it the second tallest structure at Tikal – only Temple IV is taller. The temple has been dated to about AD 700, in the Late Classic period, via radiocarbon analysis and the dating of ceramics associated with the structure places its construction during the reign of Nun Bak Chak in the second half of the 7th century. '''Temple VI''' is also known as the ''Temple of the Inscriptions'' and was dedicated in AD 766. It is notable for its 12-meter (39 ft) high roof-comb. Panels of hieroglyphs cover the back and sides of the roof-comb. The temple faces onto a plaza to the west and its front is unrestored. '''Temple 33''' was a funerary pyramid erected over the tomb of Siyaj Chan K'awiil I (known as Burial 48) in the North Acropolis. It started life in the Early Classic as a wide basal platform decorated with large stucco masks that flanked the stairway. Later in the Early Classic a new superstructure was added, with its own masks and decorated panels. During the Hiatus a third stage was built over the earlier constructions, the stairway was demolished and another royal burial, of an unidentified ruler, was set into the structure (Burial 23). While the new pyramid was being built another high ranking tomb (Burial 24) was inserted into the rubble core of the building. The pyramid was then completed, standing 33 meters (108 ft) tall. The final version of Temple 33 was completely dismantled by archeologists in 1965 in order to arrive at the earlier stages of construction. '''Structure 34''' is a pyramid in the North Acropolis that was built by Siyaj Chan K'awiil II over the tomb of his father, Yax Nuun Ayiin I. The pyramid was topped by a three chambered shrine, the rooms situated one behind the other. Detail of Teotihuacan-related imagery decorating the sloping ''talud'' sections of the ''talud-tablero'' sides of Structure 5D-43. '''Structure 5D-43''' is an unusual radial temple in the East Plaza, built over a pre-existing twin pyramid complex. It is built into the end of the East Plaza Ballcourt and possessed four entry doorways and three stairways, the fourth (south) side was too close to the Central Acropolis for a stairway on that side. The building has a ''talud-tablero'' platform profile, modified from the original style found at Teotihuacan. In fact, it has been suggested that the style of the building has closer affinities with El Tajin and Xochicalco than with Teotihuacan itself. The vertical ''tablero'' panels are set between sloping ''talud'' panels and are decorated with paired disc symbols. Large flower symbols are set into the sloping ''talud'' panels, related to the Venus and star symbols used at Teotihuacan. The roof of the structure was decorated with friezes although only fragments now remain, showing a monstrous face, perhaps that of a jaguar, with another head emerging from the mouth. The second head possesses a bifurcated tongue but is probably not that of a snake. The temple, and its associated ballcourt, probably date to the reign of Nuun Ujol Chaak or that of his son Jasaw Chan K'awiil I, in the later part of the 7th century. '''Structure 5C-49''' possesses a clear Teotihuacan-linked architectural style; it has balustrades, an architectural feature that is very rare in the Maya region, and a ''talud-tablero'' façade; it dates to the 4th century AD. It is located near to the Lost World pyramid. '''Structure 5C-53''' is a small Teotihuacan-style platform that dates to about AD 600. It had stairways on all four sides and did not possess a superstructure. The '''Lost World Pyramid''' (Structure 5C-54) is the largest structure in the Mundo Perdido complex. It lies in the southwest portion of Tikal's central core, south of Temple III and west of Temple V. It was decorated with stucco masks of the sun god and dates to the Late Preclassic; this pyramid is part of an enclosed complex of structures that remained intact and un-impacted by later building activity at Tikal. By the end of the Late Preclassic this pyramid was one of the largest structures in the Maya region. It attained its final form during the reign of Chak Tok Ich'aak in the 4th century AD, in the Early Classic, standing more than 30 meters (98 ft) high with stairways on all four sides and a flat top that possibly supported a superstructure built from perishable materials. Although the plaza later suffered significant alteration, the organization of a group of temples on the east side of this complex adheres to the layout that defines the so-called E-Groups, identified as solar observatories. '''Structure 5D-96''' is the central temple on the east side of the Plaza of the Seven Temples. It has been restored and its rear outer wall is decorated with skull-and-crossbones motifs. '''Group 6C-16''' is an elite residential complex that has been thoroughly excavated. It lies a few hundred m south of the Lost World Complex and the excavations have revealed elaborate stucco masks, ballplayer murals, relief sculptures and buildings with Teotihuacan characteristics. The '''Great Plaza Ballcourt''' is a small ballcourt that lies between Temple I and the Central Acropolis. The '''Bat Palace''' is also known as the Palace of Windows and lies to the west of Temple III. It has two storeys, with a double range of chambers on the lower storey and a single range in the upper storey, which has been restored. The palace has ancient graffiti and possesses low windows. '''Complex N''' lies to the west of the Bat Palace and Temple III. The complex dates to AD 711. In 2018, 60,000 uncharted structures were revealed by archeologists with help of Lidar. Thanks to the new findings, some archeologists believe that 7-11 million Maya people inhabited in the northern Guatemala during the late classical period from 650 to 800 A.D. Lidar digitally removed the tree canopy to reveal ancient remains and showed that Maya cities like Tikal were bigger than previously thought. The project was mapped near the Maya Biosphere Reserve in the Petén region of Guatemala. === Altars[edit] === '''Altar 5''' is carved with two nobles, one of whom is probably Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. They are performing a ritual using the bones of an important woman. Altar 5 was found in Complex N, which lies to the west of Temple III. '''Altar 8''' is sculpted with a bound captive. It was found within Complex P in Group H and is now in the Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología in Guatemala City. '''Altar 9''' is associated with Stela 21 and bears the sculpture of a bound captive. It is located in front of Temple VI. '''Altar 10''' is carved with a captive tied to a scaffold. It is in the northern enclosure of Group Q, a twin-pyramid complex and has suffered from erosion. '''Altar 35''' is a plain monument associated with Stela 43. The stela-altar pair is centrally located at the base of the stairway of Temple IV. === Lintels === The elaborately carved wooden Lintel 3 from Temple IV. It celebrates a military victory by Yik'in Chan K'awiil in 743. At Tikal, beams of sapodilla wood were placed as lintels spanning the inner doorways of temples. These are the most elaborately carved wooden lintels to have survived anywhere in the Maya region. '''Lintel 3''' from Temple IV was taken to Basel in Switzerland in the 19th century. It was in almost perfect condition and depicts Yik'in Chan K'awiil seated on a palanquin. === Steli === Stelae are carved stone shafts, often sculpted with figures and hieroglyphs. A selection of the most notable stelae at Tikal follows: '''Stela 1''' dates to the 5th century and depicts the king Siyaj Chan K'awiil II in a standing position. '''Stela 4''' is dated to AD 396, during the reign of Yax Nuun Ayiin after the intrusion of Teotihuacan in the Maya area. The stela displays a mix of Maya and Teotihuacan qualities, and deities from both cultures. It has a portrait of the king with the Underworld Jaguar God under one arm and the Mexican Tlaloc under the other. His helmet is a simplified version of the Teotihuacan War Serpent. Unusually for Maya sculpture, but typically for Teotihuacan, Yax Nuun Ayiin is depicted with a frontal face, rather than in profile. '''Stela 5''' was dedicated in 744 by Yik'in Chan K'awiil. '''Stela 6''' is a badly damaged monument dating to 514 and bears the name of the "Lady of Tikal" who celebrated the end of the 4th K'atun in that year. '''Stela 10''' is twinned with Stela 12 but is badly damaged. It described the accession of Kaloomte' B'alam in the early 6th century and earlier events in his career, including the capture of a prisoner depicted on the monument. '''Stela 11''' was the last monument ever erected at Tikal; it was dedicated in 869 by Jasaw Chan K'awiil II. '''Stela 12''' is linked to the queen known as the "Lady of Tikal" and king Kaloomte' B'alam. The queen is described as performing the year-ending rituals but the monument was dedicated in honor of the king. '''Stela 16''' was dedicated in 711, during the reign of Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. The sculpture, including a portrait of the king and a hieroglyphic text, are limited to the front face of the monument. It was found in Complex N, west of Temple III. '''Stela 18''' was one of two stelae erected by Yax Nuun Ayiin I to celebrate the ''k'atun''-ending of AD 396. It was re-erected at the base of Temple 34, his funerary shrine. '''Stela 19''' was dedicated in 790 by Yax Nuun Ayiin II. '''Stela 20''' was found in Complex P, in Group H, and was moved to the Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología in Guatemala City. '''Stela 21''' was dedicated in 736 by Yik'in Chan K'awiil. Only the bottom of the stela is intact, the rest having been mutilated in ancient times. The surviving sculpture is of fine quality, consisting of the feet of a figure and of accompanying hieroglyphic text. The stela is associated with Altar 9 and is located in front of Temple VI. '''Stela 22''' was dedicated in 771 by Yax Nuun Ayiin II in the northern enclosure of Group Q, a twin-pyramid complex. The face of the figure on the stela has been mutilated. '''Stela 23''' was broken in antiquity and was re-erected in a residential complex. The defaced portrait on the monument is that of the so-called "Lady of Tikal", a daughter of Chak Tok Ich'aak II who became queen at the age of six but never ruled in her own right, being paired with male co-rulers. It dates to the early 6th century. '''Stela 24''' was erected at the foot of Temple 3 in 810, accompanied by Altar 7. Both were broken into fragments in ancient times, although the name of Dark Sun survives on three fragments. '''Stela 26''' was found in the summit shrine of Temple 34, underneath a broken masonry altar. The monument had originally been erected at the base of the temple during the Early Classic period and was later broken, probably at the beginning of the Late Classic. Its remains were then interred within the temple shrine. '''Stela 29''' bears a Long Count (8.12.14.8.15) date equivalent to AD 292, the earliest surviving Long Count date from the Maya lowlands. The stela is also the earliest monument to bear the Tikal emblem glyph. It bears a sculpture of the king facing to the right, holding the head of an underworld jaguar god, one of the patron deities of the city. The stela was deliberately smashed during the 6th century or some time later, the upper portion was dragged away and dumped in a rubbish tip close to Temple III, to be uncovered by archeologists in 1959. '''Stela 30''' is the first surviving monument to be erected after the Hiatus. Its style and iconography is similar to that of Caracol, one of the more important of Tikal's enemies. Stela 31, with the sculpted image of Siyaj Chan K'awiil II '''Stela 31''' is the accession monument of Siyaj Chan K'awiil II, also bearing two portraits of his father, Yax Nuun Ayiin, as a youth dressed as a Teotihuacan warrior. He carries a spearthrower in one hand and bears a shield decorated with the face of Tlaloc, the Teotihuacan war god. In ancient times the sculpture was broken and the upper portion was moved to the summit of Temple 33 and ritually buried. Stela 31 has been described as the greatest Early Classic sculpture to survive at Tikal. A long hieroglyphic text is carved onto the back of the monument, the longest to survive from the Early Classic, which describes the arrival of Siyah K'ak' at El Peru and Tikal in January 378. It was also the first stela at Tikal to be carved on all four faces. '''Stela 32''' is a fragmented monument with a foreign Teotihuacan-style sculpture apparently depicting the lord of that city with the attributes of the central Mexican storm god Tlaloc, including his goggle eyes and tasselled headdress. '''Stela 39''' is a broken monument that was erected in the Lost World complex. The upper portion of the stela is missing but the lower portion shows the lower body and legs of Chak Tok Ich'aak, holding a flint axe in his left hand. He is trampling the figure of a bound, richly dressed captive. The monument is dated to AD 376. The text on the back of the monument describes a bloodletting ritual to celebrate a Katun-ending. The stela also names Chak Tok Ich'aak I's father as K'inich Muwaan Jol. '''Stela 40''' bears a portrait of Kan Chitam and dates to AD 468. '''Stela 43''' is paired with Altar 35. It is a plain monument at the base of the stairway of Temple IV. === Oqbra === A ceramic censer representing an elderly deity, found in Burial 10. '''Burial 1''' is a tomb in the Lost World complex. A fine ceramic bowl was recovered from the tomb, with the handle formed from three-dimensional head and neck of a bird emerging from the two-dimensional body painted on the lid. '''Burial 10''' is the tomb of Yax Nuun Ayiin. It is located beneath Structure 34 in the North Acropolis. The tomb contained a rich array of offerings, including ceramic vessels and food, and nine youths were sacrificed to accompany the dead king. A dog was also entombed with the deceased king. Pots in the tomb were stuccoed and painted and many demonstrated a blend of Maya and Teotihuacan styles. Among the offerings was an incense-burner in the shape of an elderly underworld god, sitting on a stool made of human bones and holding a severed head in his hands. The tomb was sealed with a corbel vault, then the pyramid was built on top. '''Burial 48''' is generally accepted as the tomb of Sihyaj Chan Kʼawiil II. It is located beneath Temple 33 in the North Acropolis. The chamber of the tomb was cut from the bedrock and contained the remains of the king himself together with those of two adolescents who had been sacrificed in order to accompany the deceased ruler. The walls of the tomb were covered with white stucco painted with hieroglyphs that included the Long Count date equivalent to 20 March 457, probably the date of either the death or interment of the king. The king's skeleton was missing its skull, its femurs and one of its hands while the skeletons of the sacrificial victims were intact. '''Burial 85''' dates to the Late Preclassic and was enclosed by a platform, with a primitive corbel vault. The tomb contained a single male skeleton, which lacked a skull and its thighbones. The dynastic founder of Tikal, Yax Ehb' Xook, has been linked to this tomb, which lies deep in the heart of the North Acropolis. The deceased had probably died in battle with his body being mutilated by his enemies before being recovered and interred by his followers. The bones were wrapped carefully in textiles to form an upright bundle. The missing head was replaced by a small greenstone mask with shell-inlaid teeth and eyes and bearing a three-pointed royal headband. This head wears an emblem of rulership on its forehead and is a rare Preclassic lowland Maya portrait of a king. Among the contents of the tomb were a stingray spine, a spondylus shell and twenty-six ceramic vessels. '''Burial 116''' is the tomb of Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. It is a large vaulted chamber deep within the pyramid, below the level of the Great Plaza. The tomb contained rich offerings of jadeite, ceramics, shell and works of art. The body of the king was covered with large quantities of jade ornaments including an enormous necklace with especially large beads, as depicted in sculpted portraits of the king. One of the outstanding pieces recovered from the tomb was an ornate jade mosaic vessel with the lid bearing a sculpted portrait of the king himself. '''Burial 195''' was flooded with mud in antiquity. This flood had covered wooden objects that had completely rotted away by the time the tomb was excavated, leaving hollows in the dried mud. Archeologists filled these hollows with stucco and thus excavated four effigies of the god K'awiil, the wooden originals long gone. '''Burial 196''' is a Late Classic royal tomb that contained a jade mosaic vessel topped with the head of the Maize God. == Biblijografija == * Adams, Richard E.W. (2000). "Introduction to a Survey of the Native Prehistoric Cultures of Mesoamerica". In Richard E.W. Adams; Murdo J. Macleod (eds.). The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas. Vol. II: Mesoamerica, part 1. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–44. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-521-35165-2</nowiki>. OCLC 33359444. * Andrews, E. Wyllys; William L. Fash (2005). "Issues in Copán Archaeology". In E. Wyllys Andrews; William L. Fash (eds.). Copán: The History of an Ancient Maya Kingdom. Santa Fe and Oxford: School of American Research Press and James Currey Ltd. pp. 395–425. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-85255-981-9</nowiki>. OCLC 56194789. * Banco de Guatemala. "Monedas" (in Spanish). Banco de Guatemala. Retrieved 13 November 2009. * Berlin, Heinrich (April 1967). "The Destruction of Structure 5D-33-1st at Tikal". American Antiquity. 32 (2): 241–242. doi:10.2307/277915. ISSN 0002-7316. JSTOR 277915. OCLC 754651089. S2CID 163207109. * Coe, Michael D. (1999). The Maya. Ancient peoples and places series (6th, fully revised and expanded ed.). London and New York: Thames & Hudson. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-500-28066-9</nowiki>. OCLC 59432778. * Coe, William R. (1988) [1967]. Tikal: Guía de las Antiguas Ruinas Mayas (in Spanish). Guatemala: Piedra Santa. <nowiki>ISBN 978-84-8377-246-1</nowiki>. * Drew, David (1999). The Lost Chronicles of the Mayan Kings. Los Angeles: University of California Press. * Fash, William L.; Ricardo Agurcia Fasquelle (2005). "Contributions and Controversies in the Archaeology and History of Copán". In E. Wyllys Andrews; William L. Fash (eds.). Copán: The History of an Ancient Maya Kingdom. Santa Fe and Oxford: School of American Research Press and James Currey Ltd. pp. 3–32. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-85255-981-9</nowiki>. OCLC 56194789. * Gill, Richardson B. (2000). The Great Maya Droughts: Water, Life, and Death. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-8263-2194-7</nowiki>. OCLC 43567384. * Hammond, Norman (2000). "The Maya Lowlands: Pioneer Farmers to Merchant Princes". In Richard E.W. Adams; Murdo J. Macleod (eds.). The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas. Vol. II: Mesoamerica, part 1. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 197–249. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-521-35165-2</nowiki>. OCLC 33359444. * Harrison, Peter D. (2006). "Maya Architecture at Tikal". In Nikolai Grube (ed.). Maya: Divine Kings of the Rain Forest. Eva Eggebrecht and Matthias Seidel (assistant eds.). Köln: Könemann. pp. 218–231. <nowiki>ISBN 978-3-8331-1957-6</nowiki>. OCLC 71165439. * Hidinger, Lori A. (1996). "Measuring the Impacts of Ecotourism on Animal Populations: A Case Study of Tikal National Park, Guatemala" (PDF). Yale Forestry & Environment Bulletin. 99 (1): 45–59. * Jones, Grant D. (1998). The Conquest of the Last Maya Kingdom. Stanford, California, USA: Stanford University Press. <nowiki>ISBN 9780804735223</nowiki>. OCLC 38747674. * Kelly, Joyce (1996). An Archaeological Guide to Northern Central America: Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-8061-2858-0</nowiki>. OCLC 34658843. * Kerr, Justin (n.d.). "A Precolumbian Portfolio" (online database). FAMSI Research Materials. Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies, Inc. Retrieved 13 June 2007. * Looper, Matthew G. (1999). "New Perspectives on the Late Classic Political History of Quirigua, Guatemala". Ancient Mesoamerica. 10 (2): 263–280. doi:10.1017/S0956536199101135. ISSN 0956-5361. OCLC 86542758. S2CID 161977572. * Looper, Matthew G. (2003). Lightning Warrior: Maya Art and Kingship at Quirigua. Linda Schele series in Maya and pre-Columbian studies. Austin: University of Texas Press. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-292-70556-2</nowiki>. OCLC 52208614. * Martin, Simon; Nikolai Grube (2000). Chronicle of the Maya Kings and Queens: Deciphering the Dynasties of the Ancient Maya. London and New York: Thames & Hudson. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-500-05103-0</nowiki>. OCLC 47358325. * Martin, Simon; Nikolai Grube (2008). Chronicle of the Maya Kings and Queens: Deciphering the Dynasties of the Ancient Maya (2nd revised ed.). London and New York: Thames & Hudson. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-500-28726-2</nowiki>. OCLC 191753193. * Martínez, Horacio; David Webster; Jay Silverstein; Timothy Murtha; Kirk Straight; Irinna Montepeque (2004). J.P. Laporte; B. Arroyo; H. Escobedo; H. Mejía (eds.). "Reconocimiento en la periferia de Tikal: Los Terraplenes Norte, Oeste y Este, nuevas exploraciones y perspectivas" (PDF). XVII Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala, 2003 (in Spanish). Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología, Guatemala. pp. 635–641. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 September 2011. Retrieved 24 June 2009. * Means, Philip Ainsworth (1917). History of the Spanish Conquest of Yucatan and of the Itzas . Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University. Vol. VII. Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology. OCLC 681599. * Miller, Mary Ellen (1999). Maya Art and Architecture. London and New York: Thames & Hudson. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-500-20327-9</nowiki>. OCLC 41659173. * Miller, Mary; Karl Taube (1993). The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya: An Illustrated Dictionary of Mesoamerican Religion. London: Thames & Hudson. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-500-05068-2</nowiki>. OCLC 27667317. * Morales, Tirso; Benito Burgos; Miguel Acosta; Sergio Pinelo; Marco Tulio Castellanos; Leopoldo González; Francisco Castañeda; Edy Barrios; Rudy Larios; et al. (2008). J.P. Laporte; B. Arroyo; H. Mejía (eds.). "Trabajos realizados por la Unidad de Arqueología del Parque Nacional Tikal, 2006-2007" (PDF). XXI Simposio de Arqueología en Guatemala, 2007 (in Spanish): 413–436. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 September 2011. Retrieved 21 June 2011. * Puleston, Dennis E.; Donald W. Callender, Jr. (1967). "Defensive Earthworks at Tikal". Expedition. University of Pennsylvania. 9 (3): 40–48. ISSN 0014-4738. OCLC 1568625. * Salisbury, David; Mimi Koumenalis; Barbara Moffett (19 September 2002). "Newly revealed hieroglyphs tell story of superpower conflict in the Maya world" (PDF). Exploration: The Online Research Journal of Vanderbilt University. OCLC 50324967. Archived from the original (PDF online publication) on 2 November 2014. Retrieved 22 September 2009. * Schele, Linda; Peter Mathews (1999). The Code of Kings: The language of seven Maya temples and tombs. New York: Simon & Schuster. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-684-85209-6</nowiki>. OCLC 41423034. * Sharer, Robert J.; Loa P. Traxler (2006). The Ancient Maya (6th, fully revised ed.). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-8047-4817-9</nowiki>. OCLC 57577446. * Silverstein, Jay; David Webster; Horacio Martinez; Alvaro Soto (2009). Rethinking the Earthworks of Tikal: A Hydraulic Hypothesis for the Classic Maya Polity. Ancient Mesoamerican 20(1), Cambridge Journals. * StarWars.com. "Star Wars: Episode IV A New Hope". Lucasfilm. Archived from the original on 29 December 2009. Retrieved 13 November 2009. * Torres, Estuardo. "Parque Nacional Tikal" (in Spanish). Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. Archived from the original on 18 December 2009. Retrieved 30 July 2014. * UNESCO World Heritage Center. "Tikal National Park". UNESCO World Heritage Center. Retrieved 13 November 2009. * Valdés, Juan Antonio; Fahsen, Federico (2005). "Disaster in Sight: The Terminal Classic at Tikal and Uaxactun". In Arthur A. Demarest; Prudence M. Rice; Don S. Rice (eds.). The Terminal Classic in the Maya lowlands: Collapse, transition, and transformation. Boulder: University Press of Colorado. pp. 162–194. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-87081-822-6</nowiki>. OCLC 61719499. * Webster, David L. (2002). The Fall of the Ancient Maya: Solving the Mystery of the Maya Collapse. London: Thames & Hudson. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-500-05113-9</nowiki>. OCLC 48753878. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Siti arkeoloġiċi]] [[Kategorija:Siti ta' Wirt Dinji]] [[Kategorija:Parks Nazzjonali]] [[Kategorija:Maja]] [[Kategorija:Gwatemala]] 2ni95gj17cl8mclqb0yiv4ifg9843h6 279112 279091 2022-08-15T08:24:55Z Trigcly 17859 żieda kontenut wikitext text/x-wiki [[Stampa:Tikal Temple1 2006 08 11.JPG|daqsminuri|It-Tempju I ta' Tikal huwa għoli 47 metru (154 pied).]] '''Tikal''' (/tiˈkɑːl/; ''Tik’al'' bl-ortografija moderna tal-[[Maja]]) hija l-fdal ta' belt antika, li x'aktarx kienet tissejjaħ '''Yax Mutal'''<ref>Tokovinine, Alexandre (2008). "Lords of Tikal: Narratives and Identities". ''Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology''. Harvard University: 4.</ref>, u li tinsab f'foresta tropikali fil-[[Gwatemala]].<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.cyark.org/projects/tikal/overview|titlu=CyArk|sit=CyArk|data-aċċess=2022-08-14}}</ref> Hija wieħed mill-ikbar siti [[Arkeoloġija|arkeoloġiċi]] u ċentri urbani taċ-ċivilizzazzjoni tal-Maja pre-Kolumbjana. Tinsab fir-reġjun arkeoloġiku tal-Baċir ta' Petén fit-territorju attwali tat-Tramuntana tal-Gwatemala. Is-sit jinsab fid-dipartiment ta' El Petén u huwa parti mill-Park Nazzjonali ta' Tikal. Fl-1979 sar [[Sit ta' Wirt Dinji]] tal-[[UNESCO]].<ref name=":0">{{Ċita web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/64/|titlu=Tikal National Park|kunjom=Centre|isem=UNESCO World Heritage|sit=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2022-08-14}}</ref> Tikal kienet il-[[belt kapitali]] ta' stat ħakkiem li sar wieħed mill-iżjed renji setgħana tal-Maja tal-qedem.<ref>Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 1. Hammond 2000, p. 233.</ref> Għalkemm l-arkitettura [[Monument|monumentali]] tas-sit tmur lura saħansitra tas-seklu 4 [[Ante Christum natum|Q.K]]., Tikal laħqet il-quċċata tagħha matul il-Perjodu Klassiku, għall-ħabta tal-200 sad-900. Matul dak iż-żmien, il-belt iddominat il-biċċa l-kbira tar-reġjun tal-Maja [[Politika|politikament]], ekonomikament u militarment, filwaqt li interaġixxiet ma' żoni fil-Mesoamerka kollha, bħall-metropoli l-kbira ta' [[Teotihuacan]] fil-Wied tal-Messiku daqstant 'il bogħod. Hemm evidenza li Tikal inħakmet minn Teotihuacan fis-seklu 4 W.K.<ref>Martin & Grube 2008, pp. 29-32.</ref> Wara t-tmiem tal-Perjodu Klassiku Aħħari, ma nbena l-ebda monument maġġuri f'Tikal u hemm evidenza li l-palazzi tal-elit ingħataw in-nar. Dan l-avvenimenti mexew id f'id ma' tnaqqis gradwali fil-popolazzjoni, u laħqu l-qofol tagħhom fl-abbandun tas-sit sal-aħħar tas-seklu 10. Tikal hija l-iżjed belt mifhuma minn kwalunkwe waħda mill-bliet tal-Maja l-kbar fl-artijiet baxxi, b'lista twila ta' mexxejja dinastiċi, bl-iskoperta tal-oqbra ta' bosta mill-mexxejja fuq din il-lista u bl-investigazzjoni tal-monumenti, tat-tempji u tal-palazzi tagħhom.<ref>Adams 2000, p. 34.</ref> == Etimoloġija == [[Stampa:Tikalemblem.jpg|daqsminuri|Glifiċi emblematiċi ta' isem Tikal]] L-isem ''Tikal'' jaf oriġina minn ''ti ak'al'' fil-lingwa tal-Maja tal-[[Yucatan]]; jingħad li huwa isem relattivament modern li jfisser "f'ġibjun". Milli jidher l-isem ingħata lil wieħed mill-ġibjuni antiki tas-sit mill-kaċċaturi u mill-vjaġġaturi fir-reġjun.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, p. 30.</ref> Interpretazzjoni oħra tal-isem hi li jfisser "il-post tal-vuċijiet" fil-lingwa tal-Maja ta' Itza. Madankollu, Tikal mhuwiex l-isem antik tas-sit iżda pjuttost l-isem li ġie adottat ftit wara l-iskoperta tas-sit fis-snin 40 tas-seklu 19.<ref>Drew 1999, p. 136.</ref> Il-kitbiet ġeroglifiċi fil-fdalijiet jirreferu għall-belt antika bħala ''Yax Mutal'' jew ''Yax Mutul'', li tfisser "l-ewwel Mutal". Tikal jaf bdiet tissejjaħ hekk minħabba li Dos Pilas beda juża l-istess glifiċi emblematiċi; il-mexxejja tal-belt x'aktarx li riedu jiddistingwu bejn il-bliet b'dan il-mod.<ref>Schele & Mathews 1999, p. 64.</ref> Ir-renju kollu kien jissejjaħ sempliċement ''Mutul'', li huwa l-interpretazzjoni tal-glifiċi emblematiċi tal-"qatta' xagħar" fir-ritratt fuq il-lemin. It-tifsira preċiża għadha mhux ċerta.<ref>Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 1.</ref> == Ġeografija == [[Stampa:Mayamap.png|daqsminuri|280x280px|Mappa taż-żona tal-Maja fir-reġjun Mesoamerikan. Kemm Tikal kif ukoll Calakmul jinsabu qrib iċ-ċentru taż-żona.]] L-eqreb insedjamenti kbar moderni huma Flores u Santa Elena, bejn wieħed u ieħor xi 64 kilometru (40 mil) bogħod bit-triq lejn il-Lbiċ.<ref>Kelly 1996, pp. 111-112.</ref> Tikal tinsab xi 303 kilometri (188 mil) fit-Tramuntana tal-[[Belt tal-Gwatemala]]. Tinsab 19-il kilometru (12-il mil) fin-Nofsinhar tal-belt tal-Maja kontemporanja ta' [[Uaxactun]] u 30 kilometru (19-il mil) fil-Majjistral ta' [[Yaxha]].<ref>Webster 2002, p. 118.</ref> Il-belt tinsab 100 kilometru (62 mil) fix-Xlokk tar-rivali l-kbira tagħha tal-Perjodu Klassiku, [[Calakmul]], u 85 kilometru (53 mil) fil-Majjistral tal-alleat ta' Calakmul, [[Caracol]], li issa tinsab fil-[[Beliże|Belize]].<ref>Webster 2002, p. 118.</ref> Il-belt ġiet immappjata għalkollox u kienet tkopri erja ikbar minn 16-il kilometru kwadru (6.2 mili kwadri) li kienet tinkludi madwar 3,000 struttura.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 104.</ref> It-topografija tas-sit tikkonsisti minn sensiela ta' rdumijiet paralleli tal-[[ġebla tal-ġir]] 'il fuq minn artijiet baxxi u mtajna. L-arkitettura maġġuri tas-sit hija raggruppata f'żoni iktar għoljin li huma kkollegati b'toroq olzati minn naħa għall-oħra tal-artijiet bassasa.<ref>Drew 1999, p. 185.</ref> Iż-żona madwar Tikal ġiet iddikjarata bħala l-Park Nazzjonali ta' Tikal u ż-żona ppreservata tkopri 570 kilometru kwadru (220 mil kwadru).<ref>Kelly 1996, p. 140.</ref> Dan il-park inħoloq fis-26 ta' Mejju 1955 taħt il-patroċinju tal-Instituto de Antropología e Historia u kien l-ewwel żona protetta fil-Gwatemala.<ref>Kelly 1996, p. 140.</ref> Il-fdalijiet jinsabu fost il-foresti tropikali tat-Tramuntana tal-Gwatemala li kienu jiffurmaw in-nieqa taċ-ċivilizzazzjoni tal-Maja fl-artijiet baxxi. Il-belt stess kienet tinsab qalb art għammiela abbundanti, u jaf iddominat rotta kummerċjali naturali mil-Lvant għall-Punent tul il-[[Peniżola]] tal-Yucatan. Fost is-siġar il-kbar tal-Park Nazzjonali ta' Tikal hemm il-kapok ġgantesk (''Ceiba pentandra'') li kienet is-siġra sagra tal-Maja; iċ-ċedru tropikali (''Cedrela odorata''), u l-kawba tal-[[Ħonduras]] (''Swietenia macrophylla''). Fir-rigward tal-fawna, wieħed jista' jara regolarment l-aguti, il-koati ta' mnieħru abjad, il-volpi griż, ix-xadin ta' Geoffroy, ix-xadin li jgħajjat, l-ajkla arpija, il-falkun, id-dundjan tal-foresti, il-gwan, it-tukan, il-pappagall aħdar u n-nemel li jaqta' l-weraq. Jingħad ukoll li l-ġagwar, l-ocelot u l-cougar jgħixu fil-park.<ref>Coe 1967, pp. 9-10. Hidinger 1996, p. 52.</ref> Tikal ma kellha l-ebda ilma għajr dak li kien jinġabar mill-ilma tax-xita u jinħażen f'għaxar ġibjuni. L-arkeologi li ħadmu f'Tikal matul is-seklu 20 sewwew wieħed minn dawn il-ġibjuni antiki biex jaħżnu l-ilma għalihom stess.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 124.</ref> Ix-xita annwali medja li tinżel f'Tikal tammonta għal 1,945 millimetru (76.6 pulzier). Madankollu, ix-xita ġieli tinżel għal għarrieda, u perjodi twal ta' nixfa setgħu jseħħu qabel ma l-għelejjel isiru, li kienet theddida serja għall-abitanti tal-belt antika.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 239.</ref> == Popolazzjoni == L-istimi tal-popolazzjoni ta' Tikal ivarjaw minn 10,000 sa saħansitra 90,000 abitant. Il-popolazzjoni ta' Tikal bdiet kurva kontinwa ta' tkabbir mill-bidu tal-Perjodu Preklassiku (bejn wieħed u ieħor fl-2000 Q.K. – 200 W.K.), bl-eqqel livell fil-Perjodu Klassiku Aħħari, fejn il-popolazzjoni kibret b'mod rapidu mis-700 W.K. sat-830, u mbagħad kien hemm deklin qawwi. Għaż-żona ta' 120 kilometru kwadru (46 mil kwadru) fi ħdan id-difiżi bit-tajn tal-periferija, l-ogħla popolazzjoni hija stmata li kienet 517-il persuna għal kull kilometru kwadru (1,340 persuna għal kull mil kwadru). F'żona fi ħdan raġġ ta' 12-il kilometru (7.5 mili) tal-qalba tas-sit, l-ogħla popolazzjoni hija stmata li kienet tlaħħaq il-120,000 ruħ; id-densità tal-popolazzjoni hija stmata li kienet 265 persuna għal kull kilometru kwadru (689 persuna għal kull mil kwadru). F'reġjun fi ħdan raġġ ta' 25 kilometru (16-il mil) mill-qalba tas-sit u inkluż xi siti anċillari, l-ogħla popolazzjoni hija stmata li kienet tlaħħaq l-425,000 ruħ b'densità ta' 216-il persuna għal kull kilometru kwadru (515-il persuna għal kull mil kwadru). Dawn iċ-ċifri rigward il-popolazzjoni huma ferm iktar impressjonanti minħabba l-artijiet bassasa estensiva li ma kinux adattati għall-abitazzjoni jew għall-agrikoltura. Madankollu, xi arkeologi, bħal [[David Webster]], jemmnu li dawn iċ-ċifri huma wisq għoljin.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 264.</ref> == Sit ta' Wirt Dinji == Il-Park Nazzjonali ta' Tikal ġie ddeżinjat bħala Sit ta' Wirt Dinji tal-UNESCO fl-1979.<ref name=":0" /> Il-valur universali straordinarju tas-sit ġie rrikonoxxut abbażi ta' ħames kriterji tal-għażla tal-UNESCO bħala sit kulturali u naturali mħallat: il-'''kriterju (i)''' "Rappreżentazzjoni ta' kapulavur frott il-kreattività tal-bniedem"; il-'''kriterju (iii)''' "Xhieda unika jew minn tal-inqas eċċezzjonali ta' tradizzjoni kulturali jew ta' ċivilizzazzjoni li għadha ħajja jew li għebet"; il-'''kriterju (iv)''' "Eżempju straordinarju ta' tip ta' bini, ta' grupp ta' siti jew ta' pajsaġġ arkitettoniku jew teknoloġiku li joħroġ fid-dieher stadju/i sinifikanti fl-istorja tal-bniedem"; il-'''kriterju (ix)''' "Eżempju straordinarju li jirrappreżenta proċessi ekoloġiċi u bijoloġiċi kontinwi sinifikanti fl-evoluzzjoni u fl-iżvilupp ta' ekosistemi u ta' komunitajiet ta' pjanti u ta' annimali terrestri, tal-ilma ħelu, kostali u tal-baħar"; u l-'''kriterju (x)''' "Post fejn hemm l-iktar ħabitats naturali importanti u sinifikanti għall-konservazzjoni fil-post tad-diversità bijoloġika, inkluż fejn hemm speċijiet mhedda ta' valur universali straordinarju mill-perspettiva tax-xjenza jew tal-konservazzjoni".<ref name=":0" /> == Storja == === Preklassika === [[Stampa:Maya-Maske.jpg|daqsminuri|Maskra tal-Maja li nstabet f'Tikal]] Hemm traċċi ta' biedja bikrija fis-sit li jmorru lura saħansitra sal-1000 Q.K., fil-Preklassiku Nofsani.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 262.</ref> Ġabra ta' bċejjeċ taċ-ċeramika ta' Mamon li jmorru lura għal madwar is-700 u l-400 Q.K. instabu f'''chultun'' issiġillat, jiġifieri f'kompartiment taħt l-art b'għamla ta' flixkun.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 55.</ref> Fil-perjodu Preklassiku Aħħar f'Tikal diġà kienet qed issir kostruzzjoni maġġuri, u l-ewwel binjiet tfaċċaw għall-ħabta tal-400 u t-300 Q.K., inkluż il-kostruzzjoni ta' piramidi u pjattaformi maġġuri, għalkemm il-belt kienet għadha ferm iżgħar minn siti oħra iktar fin-Nofsinhar bħal [[El Mirador]] u [[Nakbe]].<ref>Coe 1999, p. 55.</ref> F'dak iż-żmien, Tikal ipparteċipat fil-kultura mifruxa ta' Chikanel li ddominat iż-żoni Ċentrali u tat-Tramuntana tal-Maja dak iż-żmien – reġjun li kien jinkludi l-Peniżola tal-Yucatan kollha inkluż it-Tramuntana u l-Lvant tal-Gwatemala u l-Belize kollu.<ref>Coe 1999, pp. 73, 80.</ref> Żewġ tempji li jmorru lura għaż-żminijiet aħħarin ta' Chikanel kellhom superstrutturi b'ħitan bix-xogħol fil-ġebel li jaf kienu bil-volti apposta li jħallu arkata jew spazju vojt fi ħdanhom, għalkemm ma nstabux provi ta' dan. Wieħed minnhom kellu affreski elaborati mal-ħitan ta' barra li juru figuri umani fuq sfond ta' tiżjin ripetut bl-[[isfar]], bl-[[iswed]], bir-roża u bl-[[aħmar]].<ref>Coe 1999, p. 75.</ref> Fl-ewwel seklu W.K. tfaċċaw l-ewwel oqbra għonja u Tikal iffjorixxiet politikament u kulturalment, filwaqt li l-ġirien ġganteski tagħha fit-Tramuntana majnaw. Lejn l-aħħar tal-Preklassiku Aħħari, l-istil tal-arti u tal-arkitettura Izapan mill-Kosta [[Oċean Paċifiku|Paċifika]] beda jinfluwenza lil Tikal, kif joħroġ fid-dieher minn skultura miksura mill-akropoli u mill-affreski bikrin fil-belt.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 78.</ref> === Klassika Bikrija === It-tmexxija dinastika fl-artijiet baxxi tal-Maja hija ankrata l-iktar fil-fond f'Tikal. Skont sejbiet ġeroglifiċi li saru iktar 'il quddiem, id-dinastija ġiet stabbilita minn [[Yax Ehb Xook]], x'aktarx fl-ewwel seklu W.K.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 90.</ref> Fil-bidu tal-perjodu Klassiku Bikri, il-poter fir-reġjun tal-Maja kien ikkonċentrat f'Tikal u f'Calakmul, fil-qalba tat-territorju tal-Maja.<ref>Miller 1999, pp. 88-89.</ref> Tikal jaf ibbenefikat mill-waqgħa tal-istati Preklassiċi l-kbar bħal El Mirador. Fil-perjodu Klassiku Bikri Tikal malajr żviluppat fl-iżjed belt dinamika fir-reġjun tal-Maja, u xprunat l-iżvilupp ta' bliet tal-Maja oħrajn fl-inħawi.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 191.</ref> Madankollu, is-sit spiss kien imdaħħal fi gwerer u mill-kitbiet imnaqqxa nafu li kien hemm diversi alleanzi u kunflitti ma' stati oħra tal-Maja, inkluż Uaxactun, Caracol, [[Naranjo]] u Calakmul. Is-sit ġarrab telfa fl-aħħar tal-perjodu Klassiku Bikri kontra Caracol, li ħadet post Tikal bħala ċ-ċentru ewlieni fl-artijiet baxxi tan-Nofsinhar tal-Maja.<ref>Sharer 1994, p. 265.</ref> Fil-parti iktar bikrija tal-Klassiku Bikri kien hemm ostilitajiet bejn Tikal u l-ġar tagħha Uaxactun. F'Uaxactun fil-fatt instabu dokumentazzjonijiet dwar il-qbid ta' priġunieri minn Tikal.<ref>Kelly 1996, p. 129.</ref> Milli jidher kien hemm waqfa fis-suċċessjoni dinastika minn raġel għal ieħor lejn it-317 W.K., meta [[Unen Bahlam]] għamlet ċerimonja ta' tmiem ''katun'', x'aktarx bħala r-reġina tal-belt.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, p. 27.</ref> ==== Tikal u Teotihuacan ==== [[Stampa:Mexico SunMoonPyramid.jpg|daqsminuri|Jidher li l-metropoli l-kbira ta' Teotihuacan fil-Wied tal-Messiku intervjeniet b'mod deċiżiv fil-politka ta' Tikal.]] Diġà fil-200 W.K. Teotihuacan kellha ambaxxati f'Tikal.<ref>The Origins & Collapse of the Preclassic Maya in the Mirador Basin - Richard Hansen at The Library of Congress (2014)</ref> L-erbatax-il re ta' Tikal kien Chak Tok Ich'aak (li tfisser litteralment "Sieq tal-Ġagwar il-Kbir"). Chak Tok Ich'aak bena palazz li ġie ppreservat u żviluppat mill-mexxejja ta' warajh sakemm sar il-qalba tal-Akropoli Ċentrali.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 192.</ref> Ma tantx nafu wisq dwar Chak Tok Ich'aak għajr li nqatel fl-14 ta' Jannar 378 W.K. Fl-istess jum, wasal Siyah K'ak' (li tfisser litteralment "Twieled in-Nar") mill-Punent, wara li għadda minn [[El Peru]], sit fil-Punent ta' Tikal, fit-8 ta' Jannar. Fuq l-iStele 31 jissemma bħala s-"Sinjur tal-Punent".<ref>Drew 1999, p. 199.</ref> Siyah K'ak' x'aktarx li kien ġeneral barrani, irrappreżentat minn kitba ġeroglifika mhux tal-Maja ta' wieħed li jwaddab il-lanez flimkien ma' kokka, kitba ġeroglifika magħrufa sew mill-metropoli l-kbira ta' Teotihuacan fil-Wied tal-Messiku daqstant 'il bogħod. Siyah K'ak' jaf kien anke l-mexxej ta' Teotihuacan. Dawn l-avvenimenti rreġistrati fil-kitba ġeroglifika tal-Maja jissuġġerixxu b'mod qawwi li Siyah K'ak' mexxa invażjoni ta' Tikal min-naħa ta' Teotihuacan u r-re nattiv ta' Tikal ġarrab telfa, inqabad mill-għadu u ġie ġġustizzjat minnufih.<ref>Coe 1999, pp. 90-91.</ref> Milli jidher Siyah K'ak' ġie megħjun minn fazzjoni politika b'saħħitha f'Tikal stess<ref>Webster 2002, p. 133.</ref>; bejn wieħed u ieħor fl-istess żmien tal-ħakma, grupp ta' nattivi ta' Teotihuacan kienu qed jirresjedu qrib il-kumpless tad-Dinja Mitlufa.<ref>Drew 1999, p. 201.</ref> Huwa eżerċita kontroll ukoll fuq bliet oħra fl-inħawi, fosthom Uaxactun, fejn sar re, iżda ma ħax it-tron ta' Tikal għalih innifsu.<ref name=":1">Drew 1999, p. 200.</ref> Fi żmien sena, ibnu, Yax Nuun Ayiin I (l-"Ewwel Kukkudrill") sar il-ħmistax-il re ta' Tikal meta kien għadu tifel, u ngħata t-tron fit-13 ta' Settembru 379.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 97.</ref> Huwa rrenja għal 47 sena bħala r-re ta' Tikal, u baqa' vassall ta' Siyah K'ak' sa ma dan miet. X'aktarx li Yax Nuun Ayiin I ħa mara mid-dinastija ta' Tikal ta' qablu u b'hekk leġittimizza d-dritt ta' tmexxija għal ibnu, Siyaj Chan K'awiil II.<ref name=":1" /> [[Río Azul]], sit żgħir madwar 100 kilometru (62 mil) fil-Grigal ta' Tikal, inħakem minn Tikal matul ir-renju ta' Yax Nuun Ayiin I. Is-sit sar qisu tarka ta' Tikal u kien jiddefendiha mill-bliet ostili iktar lejn it-Tramuntana, u sar kollegament kummerċjali mal-[[Baħar Karibew|Karibew]].<ref>Drew 1999, pp. 201-202.</ref> Għalkemm il-mexxejja l-ġodda ta' Tikal kienu barranin, id-dixxendenti tagħhom malajr saru midħla tal-Maja. Tikal saret l-alleat u l-imsieħeb kummerċjali ewlieni ta' Teotihuacan fl-artijiet baxxi tal-Maja. Wara li nħakmet minn Teotihuacan, Tikal malajr iddominat ir-reġjun ta' Peten fit-Tramuntana u fil-Lvant. Uaxactun, flimkien ma' rħula żgħar oħra fir-reġjun, ġew assorbiti fir-renju ta' Tikal. Siti oħra, bħal [[Bejucal]] u [[Motul de San José]] ħdejn il-Lag ta' Petén Itzá saru vassalli tal-ġar iktar setgħan tagħhom lejn it-Tramuntana. Sa nofs is-seklu 5 Tikal kellha territorju ewlieni ta' mill-inqas 25 kilometru (16-il mil) f'kull direzzjoni. Għall-ħabta tas-seklu 5 inbniet sistema impressjonanti ta' fortifikazzjonijiet b'fosos u bi ħniedaq tul il-periferija tat-Tramuntana ta' Tikal, flimkien mad-difiżi naturali pprovduti minn żoni kbar ta' artijiet bassasa fil-Lvant u fil-Punent tal-belt. X'aktarx li nbnew ukoll fortifikazzjonijiet oħra lejn in-Nofsinhar. Dawn id-difiżi pproteġew lill-popolazzjoni ewlenija u r-riżorsi agrikoli ta' Tikal, f'erja ta' madwar 120 kilometru kwadru (46 mil kwadru). Riċerka reċenti tissuġġerixxi li l-ħniedaq kienu jintużaw bħala sistema ta' ġbir tal-ilma iktar milli għad-difiża.<ref>Silverstein 2009.</ref> ==== Tikal u Copán ==== In the 5th century the power of the city reached as far south as Copán, whose founder K'inich Yax K'uk' Mo' was clearly connected with Tikal. Copán itself was not in an ethnically Maya region and the founding of the Copán dynasty probably involved the direct intervention of Tikal. K'inich Yax K'uk' Mo' arrived in Copán in December 426 and bone analysis of his remains shows that he passed his childhood and youth at Tikal. An individual known as Ajaw K'uk' Mo' (lord K'uk' Mo') is referred to in an early text at Tikal and may well be the same person. His tomb had Teotihuacan characteristics and he was depicted in later portraits dressed in the warrior garb of Teotihuacan. Hieroglyphic texts refer to him as "Lord of the West", much like Siyah K’ak'. At the same time, in late 426, Copán founded the nearby site of Quiriguá, possibly sponsored by Tikal itself. The founding of these two centers may have been part of an effort to impose Tikal's authority upon the southeastern portion of the Maya region. The interaction between these sites and Tikal was intense over the next three centuries. A long-running rivalry between Tikal and Calakmul began in the 6th century, with each of the two cities forming its own network of mutually hostile alliances arrayed against each other in what has been likened to a long-running war between two Maya superpowers. The kings of these two capitals adopted the title ''kaloomte''', a term that has not been precisely translated but that implies something akin to "high king". The early 6th century saw another queen ruling the city, known only as the "Lady of Tikal", who was very likely a daughter of Chak Tok Ich'aak II. She seems never to have ruled in her own right, rather being partnered with male co-rulers. The first of these was Kaloomte' B'alam, who seems to have had a long career as a general at Tikal before becoming co-ruler and 19th in the dynastic sequence. The Lady of Tikal herself seems not have been counted in the dynastic numbering. It appears she was later paired with lord "Bird Claw", who is presumed to be the otherwise unknown 20th ruler. === Klassika Aħħarija === ==== L-aqwa żmien ta' Tikal ==== In the mid 6th century, Caracol seems to have allied with Calakmul and defeated Tikal, closing the Early Classic. The "Tikal hiatus" refers to a period between the late 6th to late 7th century where there was a lapse in the writing of inscriptions and large-scale construction at Tikal. In the latter half of the 6th century AD, a serious crisis befell the city, with no new stelae being erected and with widespread deliberate mutilation of public sculpture. This hiatus in activity at Tikal was long unexplained until later epigraphic decipherments identified that the period was prompted by Tikal's comprehensive defeat at the hands of Calakmul and the Caracol polity in AD 562, a defeat that seems to have resulted in the capture and sacrifice of the king of Tikal. The badly eroded Altar 21 at Caracol described how Tikal suffered this disastrous defeat in a major war in April 562. It seems that Caracol was an ally of Calakmul in the wider conflict between that city and Tikal, with the defeat of Tikal having a lasting impact upon the city. Tikal was not sacked but its power and influence were broken. After its great victory, Caracol grew rapidly and some of Tikal's population may have been forcibly relocated there. During the hiatus period, at least one ruler of Tikal took refuge with Janaab' Pakal of Palenque, another of Calakmul's victims. Calakmul itself thrived during Tikal's long hiatus period. The beginning of the Tikal hiatus has served as a marker by which archeologists commonly subdivide the Classic period of Mesoamerican chronology into the Early and Late Classic. ==== Tikal u Dos Pilas ==== In 629 Tikal founded Dos Pilas, some 110 kilometers (68 mi) to the southwest, as a military outpost in order to control trade along the course of the Pasión River. B'alaj Chan K'awiil was installed on the throne of the new outpost at the age of four, in 635. When he was older, for many years he served as a loyal vassal fighting for his brother, the king of Tikal. Roughly twenty years later, Dos Pilas was attacked by Calakmul and was soundly defeated. B'alaj Chan K'awiil was captured by the king of Calakmul but, instead of being sacrificed, he was re-instated on his throne as a vassal of his former enemy. He attacked Tikal in 657, forcing Nuun Ujol Chaak, then king of Tikal, to temporarily abandon the city. The first two rulers of Dos Pilas continued to use the Mutal emblem glyph of Tikal, and they probably felt that they had a legitimate claim to the throne of Tikal itself. For some reason, B'alaj Chan K'awiil was not installed as the new ruler of Tikal; instead he stayed at Dos Pilas. Tikal counterattacked against Dos Pilas in 672, driving B'alaj Chan K'awiil into an exile that lasted five years. Calakmul tried to encircle Tikal within an area dominated by its allies, such as El Peru, Dos Pilas, and Caracol. In 682, Jasaw Chan K'awiil I erected the first dated monument at Tikal in 120 years and claimed the title of ''kaloomte''', so ending the hiatus. He initiated a program of new construction and turned the tables on Calakmul when, in 695, he captured the enemy noble and threw the enemy state into a long decline from which it never fully recovered. After this, Calakmul never again erected a monument celebrating a military victory. ==== Tikal wara Teotihuacan ==== By the 7th century, there was no active Teotihuacan presence at any Maya site and the center of Teotihuacan had been razed by 700. Even after this, formal war attire illustrated on monuments was Teotihuacan style. Jasaw Chan K'awiil I and his heir Yik'in Chan K'awiil continued hostilities against Calakmul and its allies and imposed firm regional control over the area around Tikal, extending as far as the territory around Lake Petén Itzá. These two rulers were responsible for much of the impressive architecture visible today. In 738, Quiriguá, a vassal of Copán, Tikal's key ally in the south, switched allegiance to Calakmul, defeated Copán and gained its own independence. It appears that this was a conscious effort on the part of Calakmul to bring about the collapse of Tikal's southern allies. This upset the balance of power in the southern Maya area and lead to a steady decline in the fortunes of Copán. In the 8th century, the rulers of Tikal collected monuments from across the city and erected them in front of the North Acropolis. By the late 8th century and early 9th century, activity at Tikal slowed. Impressive architecture was still built but few hieroglyphic inscriptions refer to later rulers. === Klassika Terminali === By the 9th century, the crisis of the Classic Maya collapse was sweeping across the region, with populations plummeting and city after city falling into silence. Increasingly endemic warfare in the Maya region caused Tikal's supporting population to heavily concentrate close to the city itself, accelerating the use of intensive agriculture and the corresponding environmental decline. Construction continued at the beginning of the century, with the erection of Temple 3, the last of the city's major pyramids, and the erection of monuments to mark the 19th K'atun in 810. The beginning of the 10th Bak'tun in 830 passed uncelebrated, and marks the beginning of a 60-year hiatus, probably resulting from the collapse of central control in the city. During this hiatus, satellite sites traditionally under Tikal's control began to erect their own monuments featuring local rulers and using the Mutal emblem glyph, with Tikal apparently lacking the authority or the power to crush these bids for independence. In 849, Jewel K'awiil is mentioned on a stela at Seibal as visiting that city as the Divine Lord of Tikal but he is not recorded elsewhere and Tikal's once-great power was little more than a memory. The sites of Ixlu and Jimbal had by now inherited the once exclusive Mutal emblem glyph. As Tikal and its hinterland reached peak population, the area suffered deforestation, erosion and nutrient loss followed by a rapid decline in population levels. Recent analysis also indicates that the city's freshwater sources became highly contaminated with mercury, phosphate and cyanobacteria leading to the accumulation of toxins. Tikal and its immediate surroundings seem to have lost most of their population between 830 and 950 and central authority seems to have collapsed rapidly. There is not much evidence from Tikal that the city was directly affected by the endemic warfare that afflicted parts of the Maya region during the Terminal Classic, although an influx of refugees from the Petexbatún region may have exacerbated problems resulting from the already stretched environmental resources. The site core seen from the south, with Temple I at center, the North Acropolis to the left and Central Acropolis to the right In the latter half of the 9th century there was an attempt to revive royal power at the much-diminished city of Tikal, as evidenced by a stela erected in the Great Plaza by Jasaw Chan K'awiil II in 869. This was the last monument erected at Tikal before the city finally fell into silence. The former satellites of Tikal, such as Jimbal and Uaxactun, did not last much longer, erecting their final monuments in 889. By the end of the 9th century the vast majority of Tikal's population had deserted the city, its royal palaces were occupied by squatters and simple thatched dwellings were being erected in the city's ceremonial plazas. The squatters blocked some doorways in the rooms they reoccupied in the monumental structures of the site and left rubbish that included a mixture of domestic refuse and non-utilitarian items such as musical instruments. These inhabitants reused the earlier monuments for their own ritual activities, far removed from those of the royal dynasty that had erected them. Some monuments were vandalized and some were moved to new locations. Before its final abandonment all respect for the old rulers had disappeared, with the tombs of the North Acropolis being explored for jade and the easier-to-find tombs were looted. After 950, Tikal was all but deserted, although a remnant population may have survived in perishable huts interspersed among the ruins. Even these final inhabitants abandoned the city in the 10th or 11th centuries and the rainforest claimed the ruins for the next thousand years. Some of Tikal's population may have migrated to the Peten Lakes region, which remained heavily populated in spite of a plunge in population levels in the first half of the 9th century. The most likely cause of collapse at Tikal is overpopulation and agrarian failure. The fall of Tikal was a blow to the heart of Classic Maya civilization, the city having been at the forefront of courtly life, art and architecture for over a thousand years, with an ancient ruling dynasty. However, new research regarding paleoenvironmental proxies from the Tikal reservoir system suggests that a meteorological drought may have led to the abandonment of Tikal, fouling some reservoirs near the temple and palace with algae blooms, while other reservoirs remained drinkable. Buildings were painted with mercury-bearing cinnabar, which were washed off by rain and polluted some reservoirs. Works of Kohler and colleagues showed that this city reached an unsustainable level of inequalities at the end.^{[''clarification needed'']} === Moderna === Archeologist Edwin M. Shook, field director of the Tikal Project; Shook was also instrumental in having Tikal established as Guatemala's first National Park. In 1525, the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés passed within a few kilometers of the ruins of Tikal but did not mention them in his letters. After Spanish friar Andrés de Avendaño became lost in the Petén forests in early 1696 he described a ruin that may well have been Tikal. As is often the case with huge ancient ruins, knowledge of the site was never completely lost in the region. It seems that local people never forgot about Tikal and they guided Guatemalan expeditions to the ruins in the 1850s. Some second- or third-hand accounts of Tikal appeared in print starting in the 17th century, continuing through the writings of John Lloyd Stephens in the early 19th century (Stephens and his illustrator Frederick Catherwood heard rumors of a lost city, with white building tops towering above the jungle, during their 1839–40 travels in the region). Because of the site's remoteness from modern towns, however, no explorers visited Tikal until Modesto Méndez and Ambrosio Tut, respectively the commissioner and the governor of Petén, visited it in 1848. Artist Eusebio Lara accompanied them and their account was published in Germany in 1853. Several other expeditions came to further investigate, map, and photograph Tikal in the 19th century (including Alfred P. Maudslay in 1881-82) and the early 20th century. Pioneering archeologists started to clear, map and record the ruins in the 1880s. In 1951, a small airstrip was built at the ruins, which previously could only be reached by several days' travel through the jungle on foot or mule. In 1956 the Tikal project began to map the city on a scale not previously seen in the Maya area. From 1956 through 1970, major archeological excavations were carried out by the University of Pennsylvania Tikal Project. They mapped much of the site and excavated and restored many of the structures. Excavations directed by Edwin M. Shook and later by William Coe of the university investigated the North Acropolis and the Central Plaza from 1957 to 1969. The Tikal Project recorded over 200 monuments at the site. In 1979, the Guatemalan government began a further archeological project at Tikal, which continued through to 1984. Filmmaker George Lucas used Tikal as a filming location for the fictional moon Yavin 4 in the first ''Star Wars'' film, ''Episode IV: A New Hope'', which premiered in 1977. Temple I at Tikal was featured on the reverse of the 50 centavo banknote. Eon Productions used the site for the James Bond film ''Moonraker''. Tikal is now a major tourist attraction surrounded by its own national park. A site museum has been built at Tikal; it was completed in 1964. == Deskrizzjoni tas-sit == Tikal has been partially restored by the University of Pennsylvania and the government of Guatemala. It was one of the largest of the Classic period Maya cities and was one of the largest cities in the Americas. The architecture of the ancient city is built from limestone and includes the remains of temples that tower over 70 meters (230 ft) high, large royal palaces, in addition to a number of smaller pyramids, palaces, residences, administrative buildings, platforms and inscribed stone monuments. There is even a building which seemed to have been a jail, originally with wooden bars across the windows and doors. There are also seven courts for playing the Mesoamerican ballgame, including a set of 3 in the Seven Temples Plaza, a unique feature in Mesoamerica. The limestone used for construction was local and quarried on-site. The depressions formed by the extraction of stone for building were plastered to waterproof them and were used as reservoirs, together with some waterproofed natural depressions. The main plazas were surfaced with stucco and laid at a gradient that channelled rainfall into a system of canals that fed the reservoirs. The residential area of Tikal covers an estimated 60 square kilometers (23 sq mi), much of which has not yet been cleared, mapped, or excavated. The 16 square kilometers (6.2 sq mi) area around the site core has been intensively mapped; it may have enclosed an area of some 125 square kilometers (48 sq mi) (see below). A huge set of earthworks discovered by Dennis E. Puleston and Donald Callender in the 1960s rings Tikal with a 6-meter (20 ft) wide trench behind a rampart. Recently, a project exploring the defensive earthworks has shown that the scale of the earthworks is highly variable and that in many places it is inconsequential as a defensive feature. In addition, some parts of the earthwork were integrated into a canal system. The earthwork of Tikal varies significantly in coverage from what was originally proposed and it is much more complex and multifaceted than originally thought. === Toroq === By the Late Classic, a network of ''sacbeob'' (causeways) linked various parts of the city, running for several kilometers through its urban core. These linked the Great Plaza with Temple 4 (located about 750 meters (2,460 feet) to the west) and the Temple of the Inscriptions (about 1 kilometer (0.62 mi) to the southeast). These broad causeways were built of packed and plastered limestone and have been named after early explorers and archeologists; the Maler, Maudslay, Tozzer and Méndez causeways. They assisted the passage of everyday traffic during the rain season and also served as dams. The '''Maler Causeway''' runs north from behind Temple I to Group H. A large bas-relief is carved onto limestone bedrock upon the course of the causeway just south of Group H. It depicts two bound captives and dates to the Late Classic. The '''Maudsley Causeway''' runs 0.8 kilometers (0.50 mi) northeast from Temple IV to Group H. The '''Mendez Causeway''' runs southeast from the East Plaza to Temple VI, a distance of about 1.3 kilometers (0.81 mi). The '''Tozzer Causeway''' runs west from the Great Plaza to Temple IV. === Gruppi arkitettoniċi === The '''Great Plaza''' lies at the core of the site; it is flanked on the east and west sides by two great temple-pyramids. On the north side it is bordered by the North Acropolis and on the south by the Central Acropolis. The '''Central Acropolis''' is a palace complex just south of the Great Plaza. The '''North Acropolis''', together with the Great Plaza immediately to the south, is one of the most studied architectural groups in the Maya area; the Tikal Project excavated a massive trench across the complex, thoroughly investigating its construction history. It is a complex group with construction beginning in the Preclassic Period, around 350 BC. It developed into a funerary complex for the ruling dynasty of the Classic Period, with each additional royal burial adding new temples on top of the older structures. After AD 400 a row of tall pyramids was added to the earlier Northern Platform, which measured 100 by 80 meters (330 by 260 ft), gradually hiding it from view. Eight temple pyramids were built in the 6th century AD, each of them had an elaborate roofcomb and a stairway flanked by masks of the gods. By the 9th century AD, 43 stelae and 30 altars had been erected in the North Acropolis; 18 of these monuments were carved with hieroglyphic texts and royal portraits. The North Acropolis continued to receive burials into the Postclassic Period. The '''South Acropolis''' is found next to Temple V. It was built upon a large basal platform that covers an area of more than 20,000 square meters (220,000 sq ft). The '''Plaza of the Seven Temples''' is to the west of the South Acropolis. It is bordered on the east side by a row of nearly identical temples, by palaces on the south and west sides and by an unusual triple ballcourt on the north side. The '''Mundo Perdido''' is to the west of the Plaza of the Seven Temples. It is the largest ceremonial complex dating from the Preclassic period at Tikal. The complex was organized as a large E-Group consisting of a pyramid aligned with a platform to the east that supported three temples. The Mundo Perdido complex was rebuilt many times over the course of its history. By AD 250–300 its architectural style was influenced by the great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico, including the use of the ''talud-tablero'' form. During the Early Classic period (c. 250–600) the Mundo Perdido became one of the twin foci of the city, the other being the North Acropolis. From AD 250 to 378 it may have served as the royal necropolis. The Mundo Perdido complex was given its name by the archeologists of the University of Pennsylvania; it is centered upon the Lost World Pyramid and a small platform to the west of it. To the south of Mundo Perdido, recent 2021 excavations have revealed a one-third size replication of La Ciudadela, or The Citadel, in Teotihuacan. This area may have been used as a diplomatic headquarters and as an effort to further stamp Teotihuacan culture upon the residents of Tikal. '''Group G''' lies just south of the Mendez Causeway. The complex dates to the Late Classic and consists of palace-type structures and is one of the largest groups of its type at Tikal. It has two stories but most of the rooms are on the lower floor, a total of 29 vaulted chambers. The remains of two further chambers belong to the upper story. One of the entrances to the group was framed by a gigantic mask. '''Group H''' is centered on a large plaza to the north of the Great Plaza. It is bordered by temples dating to the Late Classic. There are nine '''Twin-Pyramid Complexes''' at Tikal, one of which was completely dismantled in ancient times and some others were partly destroyed. They vary in size but consist of two pyramids facing each other on an east–west axis. These pyramids are flat-topped and have stairways on all four sides. A row of plain stelae is placed immediately to the west of the eastern pyramid and to the north of the pyramids. Lying roughly equidistant from them, there is usually a sculpted stela and altar pair. On the south side of these complexes there is a long vaulted building containing a single room with nine doorways. The entire complex was built at once and these complexes were built at 20-year (or ''k'atun'') intervals during the Late Classic. The first twin pyramid complex was built in the early 6th century in the East Plaza. It was once thought that these complexes were unique to Tikal but rare examples have now been found at other sites, such as Yaxha and Ixlu, and they may reflect the extent of Tikal's political dominance in the Late Classic. '''Group Q''' is a twin-pyramid complex, and is one of the largest at Tikal. It was built by Yax Nuun Ayiin II in 771 in order to mark the end of the 17th K'atun. Most of it has been restored and its monuments have been re-erected. '''Group R''' is another twin-pyramid complex, dated to 790. It is close to the Maler Causeway. === Strutturi === There are thousands of ancient structures at Tikal and only a fraction of these have been excavated, after decades of archeological work. The most prominent surviving buildings include six very large pyramids, labelled Temples I – VI, each of which support a temple structure on their summits. Some of these pyramids are over 60 meters (200 feet) high. They were numbered sequentially during the early survey of the site. It is estimated that each of these major temples could have been built in as little as two years. '''Temple I''' (also known as the ''Temple of Ah Cacao'' or ''Temple of the Great Jaguar'') is a funerary pyramid dedicated to Jasaw Chan K'awil, who was entombed in the structure in AD 734, the pyramid was completed around 740–750. The temple rises 47 meters (154 ft) high. The massive roofcomb that topped the temple was originally decorated with a giant sculpture of the enthroned king, although little of this decoration survives. The tomb of the king was discovered by Aubrey Trik of the University of Pennsylvania in 1962. Among items recovered from the Late Classic tomb were a large collection of inscribed human and animal bone tubes and strips with sophisticated scenes depicting deities and people, finely carved and rubbed with vermilion, as well as jade and shell ornaments and ceramic vessels filled with offerings of food and drink. The shrine at the summit of the pyramid has three chambers, each behind the next, with the doorways spanned by wooden lintels fashioned from multiple beams. The outermost lintel is plain but the two inner lintels were carved, some of the beams were removed in the 19th century and their location is unknown, while others were taken to museums in Europe. '''Temple II''' (also known as the ''Temple of the Mask'') it was built around AD 700 and stands 38 meters (125 ft) high. Like other major temples at Tikal, the summit shrine had three consecutive chambers with the doorways spanned by wooden lintels, only the middle of which was carved. The temple was dedicated to the wife of Jasaw Chan K'awil, although no tomb was found. The queen's portrait was carved into the lintel spanning the doorway of the summit shrine. One of the beams from this lintel is now in the American Museum of Natural History in New York City. '''Temple III''' (also known as the ''Temple of the Jaguar Priest'') was the last of the great pyramids to be built at Tikal. It stood 55 meters (180 ft) tall and contained an elaborately sculpted but damaged roof lintel, possibly showing Dark Sun engaged in a ritual dance around AD 810. The temple shrine possesses two chambers. '''Temple IV''' is the tallest temple-pyramid at Tikal, measuring 70 meters (230 ft) from the plaza floor level to the top of its roof comb. Temple IV marks the reign of Yik’in Chan Kawil (Ruler B, the son of Ruler A or Jasaw Chan K'awiil I) and two carved wooden lintels over the doorway that leads into the temple on the pyramid's summit record a long count date (9.15.10.0.0) that corresponds to CE 741 (Sharer 1994:169). Temple IV is the largest pyramid built anywhere in the Maya region in the 8th century, and as it currently stands is the tallest pre-Columbian structure in the Americas although the Pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacan may originally have been taller, as may have been one of the structures at El Mirador. '''Temple V''' stands south of the Central Acropolis and is the mortuary pyramid of an as yet unidentified ruler. The temple stands 57 meters (187 ft) high, making it the second tallest structure at Tikal – only Temple IV is taller. The temple has been dated to about AD 700, in the Late Classic period, via radiocarbon analysis and the dating of ceramics associated with the structure places its construction during the reign of Nun Bak Chak in the second half of the 7th century. '''Temple VI''' is also known as the ''Temple of the Inscriptions'' and was dedicated in AD 766. It is notable for its 12-meter (39 ft) high roof-comb. Panels of hieroglyphs cover the back and sides of the roof-comb. The temple faces onto a plaza to the west and its front is unrestored. '''Temple 33''' was a funerary pyramid erected over the tomb of Siyaj Chan K'awiil I (known as Burial 48) in the North Acropolis. It started life in the Early Classic as a wide basal platform decorated with large stucco masks that flanked the stairway. Later in the Early Classic a new superstructure was added, with its own masks and decorated panels. During the Hiatus a third stage was built over the earlier constructions, the stairway was demolished and another royal burial, of an unidentified ruler, was set into the structure (Burial 23). While the new pyramid was being built another high ranking tomb (Burial 24) was inserted into the rubble core of the building. The pyramid was then completed, standing 33 meters (108 ft) tall. The final version of Temple 33 was completely dismantled by archeologists in 1965 in order to arrive at the earlier stages of construction. '''Structure 34''' is a pyramid in the North Acropolis that was built by Siyaj Chan K'awiil II over the tomb of his father, Yax Nuun Ayiin I. The pyramid was topped by a three chambered shrine, the rooms situated one behind the other. Detail of Teotihuacan-related imagery decorating the sloping ''talud'' sections of the ''talud-tablero'' sides of Structure 5D-43. '''Structure 5D-43''' is an unusual radial temple in the East Plaza, built over a pre-existing twin pyramid complex. It is built into the end of the East Plaza Ballcourt and possessed four entry doorways and three stairways, the fourth (south) side was too close to the Central Acropolis for a stairway on that side. The building has a ''talud-tablero'' platform profile, modified from the original style found at Teotihuacan. In fact, it has been suggested that the style of the building has closer affinities with El Tajin and Xochicalco than with Teotihuacan itself. The vertical ''tablero'' panels are set between sloping ''talud'' panels and are decorated with paired disc symbols. Large flower symbols are set into the sloping ''talud'' panels, related to the Venus and star symbols used at Teotihuacan. The roof of the structure was decorated with friezes although only fragments now remain, showing a monstrous face, perhaps that of a jaguar, with another head emerging from the mouth. The second head possesses a bifurcated tongue but is probably not that of a snake. The temple, and its associated ballcourt, probably date to the reign of Nuun Ujol Chaak or that of his son Jasaw Chan K'awiil I, in the later part of the 7th century. '''Structure 5C-49''' possesses a clear Teotihuacan-linked architectural style; it has balustrades, an architectural feature that is very rare in the Maya region, and a ''talud-tablero'' façade; it dates to the 4th century AD. It is located near to the Lost World pyramid. '''Structure 5C-53''' is a small Teotihuacan-style platform that dates to about AD 600. It had stairways on all four sides and did not possess a superstructure. The '''Lost World Pyramid''' (Structure 5C-54) is the largest structure in the Mundo Perdido complex. It lies in the southwest portion of Tikal's central core, south of Temple III and west of Temple V. It was decorated with stucco masks of the sun god and dates to the Late Preclassic; this pyramid is part of an enclosed complex of structures that remained intact and un-impacted by later building activity at Tikal. By the end of the Late Preclassic this pyramid was one of the largest structures in the Maya region. It attained its final form during the reign of Chak Tok Ich'aak in the 4th century AD, in the Early Classic, standing more than 30 meters (98 ft) high with stairways on all four sides and a flat top that possibly supported a superstructure built from perishable materials. Although the plaza later suffered significant alteration, the organization of a group of temples on the east side of this complex adheres to the layout that defines the so-called E-Groups, identified as solar observatories. '''Structure 5D-96''' is the central temple on the east side of the Plaza of the Seven Temples. It has been restored and its rear outer wall is decorated with skull-and-crossbones motifs. '''Group 6C-16''' is an elite residential complex that has been thoroughly excavated. It lies a few hundred m south of the Lost World Complex and the excavations have revealed elaborate stucco masks, ballplayer murals, relief sculptures and buildings with Teotihuacan characteristics. The '''Great Plaza Ballcourt''' is a small ballcourt that lies between Temple I and the Central Acropolis. The '''Bat Palace''' is also known as the Palace of Windows and lies to the west of Temple III. It has two storeys, with a double range of chambers on the lower storey and a single range in the upper storey, which has been restored. The palace has ancient graffiti and possesses low windows. '''Complex N''' lies to the west of the Bat Palace and Temple III. The complex dates to AD 711. In 2018, 60,000 uncharted structures were revealed by archeologists with help of Lidar. Thanks to the new findings, some archeologists believe that 7-11 million Maya people inhabited in the northern Guatemala during the late classical period from 650 to 800 A.D. Lidar digitally removed the tree canopy to reveal ancient remains and showed that Maya cities like Tikal were bigger than previously thought. The project was mapped near the Maya Biosphere Reserve in the Petén region of Guatemala. === Altars[edit] === '''Altar 5''' is carved with two nobles, one of whom is probably Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. They are performing a ritual using the bones of an important woman. Altar 5 was found in Complex N, which lies to the west of Temple III. '''Altar 8''' is sculpted with a bound captive. It was found within Complex P in Group H and is now in the Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología in Guatemala City. '''Altar 9''' is associated with Stela 21 and bears the sculpture of a bound captive. It is located in front of Temple VI. '''Altar 10''' is carved with a captive tied to a scaffold. It is in the northern enclosure of Group Q, a twin-pyramid complex and has suffered from erosion. '''Altar 35''' is a plain monument associated with Stela 43. The stela-altar pair is centrally located at the base of the stairway of Temple IV. === Lintels === The elaborately carved wooden Lintel 3 from Temple IV. It celebrates a military victory by Yik'in Chan K'awiil in 743. At Tikal, beams of sapodilla wood were placed as lintels spanning the inner doorways of temples. These are the most elaborately carved wooden lintels to have survived anywhere in the Maya region. '''Lintel 3''' from Temple IV was taken to Basel in Switzerland in the 19th century. It was in almost perfect condition and depicts Yik'in Chan K'awiil seated on a palanquin. === Steli === Stelae are carved stone shafts, often sculpted with figures and hieroglyphs. A selection of the most notable stelae at Tikal follows: '''Stela 1''' dates to the 5th century and depicts the king Siyaj Chan K'awiil II in a standing position. '''Stela 4''' is dated to AD 396, during the reign of Yax Nuun Ayiin after the intrusion of Teotihuacan in the Maya area. The stela displays a mix of Maya and Teotihuacan qualities, and deities from both cultures. It has a portrait of the king with the Underworld Jaguar God under one arm and the Mexican Tlaloc under the other. His helmet is a simplified version of the Teotihuacan War Serpent. Unusually for Maya sculpture, but typically for Teotihuacan, Yax Nuun Ayiin is depicted with a frontal face, rather than in profile. '''Stela 5''' was dedicated in 744 by Yik'in Chan K'awiil. '''Stela 6''' is a badly damaged monument dating to 514 and bears the name of the "Lady of Tikal" who celebrated the end of the 4th K'atun in that year. '''Stela 10''' is twinned with Stela 12 but is badly damaged. It described the accession of Kaloomte' B'alam in the early 6th century and earlier events in his career, including the capture of a prisoner depicted on the monument. '''Stela 11''' was the last monument ever erected at Tikal; it was dedicated in 869 by Jasaw Chan K'awiil II. '''Stela 12''' is linked to the queen known as the "Lady of Tikal" and king Kaloomte' B'alam. The queen is described as performing the year-ending rituals but the monument was dedicated in honor of the king. '''Stela 16''' was dedicated in 711, during the reign of Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. The sculpture, including a portrait of the king and a hieroglyphic text, are limited to the front face of the monument. It was found in Complex N, west of Temple III. '''Stela 18''' was one of two stelae erected by Yax Nuun Ayiin I to celebrate the ''k'atun''-ending of AD 396. It was re-erected at the base of Temple 34, his funerary shrine. '''Stela 19''' was dedicated in 790 by Yax Nuun Ayiin II. '''Stela 20''' was found in Complex P, in Group H, and was moved to the Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología in Guatemala City. '''Stela 21''' was dedicated in 736 by Yik'in Chan K'awiil. Only the bottom of the stela is intact, the rest having been mutilated in ancient times. The surviving sculpture is of fine quality, consisting of the feet of a figure and of accompanying hieroglyphic text. The stela is associated with Altar 9 and is located in front of Temple VI. '''Stela 22''' was dedicated in 771 by Yax Nuun Ayiin II in the northern enclosure of Group Q, a twin-pyramid complex. The face of the figure on the stela has been mutilated. '''Stela 23''' was broken in antiquity and was re-erected in a residential complex. The defaced portrait on the monument is that of the so-called "Lady of Tikal", a daughter of Chak Tok Ich'aak II who became queen at the age of six but never ruled in her own right, being paired with male co-rulers. It dates to the early 6th century. '''Stela 24''' was erected at the foot of Temple 3 in 810, accompanied by Altar 7. Both were broken into fragments in ancient times, although the name of Dark Sun survives on three fragments. '''Stela 26''' was found in the summit shrine of Temple 34, underneath a broken masonry altar. The monument had originally been erected at the base of the temple during the Early Classic period and was later broken, probably at the beginning of the Late Classic. Its remains were then interred within the temple shrine. '''Stela 29''' bears a Long Count (8.12.14.8.15) date equivalent to AD 292, the earliest surviving Long Count date from the Maya lowlands. The stela is also the earliest monument to bear the Tikal emblem glyph. It bears a sculpture of the king facing to the right, holding the head of an underworld jaguar god, one of the patron deities of the city. The stela was deliberately smashed during the 6th century or some time later, the upper portion was dragged away and dumped in a rubbish tip close to Temple III, to be uncovered by archeologists in 1959. '''Stela 30''' is the first surviving monument to be erected after the Hiatus. Its style and iconography is similar to that of Caracol, one of the more important of Tikal's enemies. Stela 31, with the sculpted image of Siyaj Chan K'awiil II '''Stela 31''' is the accession monument of Siyaj Chan K'awiil II, also bearing two portraits of his father, Yax Nuun Ayiin, as a youth dressed as a Teotihuacan warrior. He carries a spearthrower in one hand and bears a shield decorated with the face of Tlaloc, the Teotihuacan war god. In ancient times the sculpture was broken and the upper portion was moved to the summit of Temple 33 and ritually buried. Stela 31 has been described as the greatest Early Classic sculpture to survive at Tikal. A long hieroglyphic text is carved onto the back of the monument, the longest to survive from the Early Classic, which describes the arrival of Siyah K'ak' at El Peru and Tikal in January 378. It was also the first stela at Tikal to be carved on all four faces. '''Stela 32''' is a fragmented monument with a foreign Teotihuacan-style sculpture apparently depicting the lord of that city with the attributes of the central Mexican storm god Tlaloc, including his goggle eyes and tasselled headdress. '''Stela 39''' is a broken monument that was erected in the Lost World complex. The upper portion of the stela is missing but the lower portion shows the lower body and legs of Chak Tok Ich'aak, holding a flint axe in his left hand. He is trampling the figure of a bound, richly dressed captive. The monument is dated to AD 376. The text on the back of the monument describes a bloodletting ritual to celebrate a Katun-ending. The stela also names Chak Tok Ich'aak I's father as K'inich Muwaan Jol. '''Stela 40''' bears a portrait of Kan Chitam and dates to AD 468. '''Stela 43''' is paired with Altar 35. It is a plain monument at the base of the stairway of Temple IV. === Oqbra === A ceramic censer representing an elderly deity, found in Burial 10. '''Burial 1''' is a tomb in the Lost World complex. A fine ceramic bowl was recovered from the tomb, with the handle formed from three-dimensional head and neck of a bird emerging from the two-dimensional body painted on the lid. '''Burial 10''' is the tomb of Yax Nuun Ayiin. It is located beneath Structure 34 in the North Acropolis. The tomb contained a rich array of offerings, including ceramic vessels and food, and nine youths were sacrificed to accompany the dead king. A dog was also entombed with the deceased king. Pots in the tomb were stuccoed and painted and many demonstrated a blend of Maya and Teotihuacan styles. Among the offerings was an incense-burner in the shape of an elderly underworld god, sitting on a stool made of human bones and holding a severed head in his hands. The tomb was sealed with a corbel vault, then the pyramid was built on top. '''Burial 48''' is generally accepted as the tomb of Sihyaj Chan Kʼawiil II. It is located beneath Temple 33 in the North Acropolis. The chamber of the tomb was cut from the bedrock and contained the remains of the king himself together with those of two adolescents who had been sacrificed in order to accompany the deceased ruler. The walls of the tomb were covered with white stucco painted with hieroglyphs that included the Long Count date equivalent to 20 March 457, probably the date of either the death or interment of the king. The king's skeleton was missing its skull, its femurs and one of its hands while the skeletons of the sacrificial victims were intact. '''Burial 85''' dates to the Late Preclassic and was enclosed by a platform, with a primitive corbel vault. The tomb contained a single male skeleton, which lacked a skull and its thighbones. The dynastic founder of Tikal, Yax Ehb' Xook, has been linked to this tomb, which lies deep in the heart of the North Acropolis. The deceased had probably died in battle with his body being mutilated by his enemies before being recovered and interred by his followers. The bones were wrapped carefully in textiles to form an upright bundle. The missing head was replaced by a small greenstone mask with shell-inlaid teeth and eyes and bearing a three-pointed royal headband. This head wears an emblem of rulership on its forehead and is a rare Preclassic lowland Maya portrait of a king. Among the contents of the tomb were a stingray spine, a spondylus shell and twenty-six ceramic vessels. '''Burial 116''' is the tomb of Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. It is a large vaulted chamber deep within the pyramid, below the level of the Great Plaza. The tomb contained rich offerings of jadeite, ceramics, shell and works of art. The body of the king was covered with large quantities of jade ornaments including an enormous necklace with especially large beads, as depicted in sculpted portraits of the king. 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Wyllys; William L. Fash (2005). "Issues in Copán Archaeology". In E. Wyllys Andrews; William L. Fash (eds.). Copán: The History of an Ancient Maya Kingdom. Santa Fe and Oxford: School of American Research Press and James Currey Ltd. pp. 395–425. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-85255-981-9</nowiki>. OCLC 56194789. * Banco de Guatemala. "Monedas" (in Spanish). Banco de Guatemala. Retrieved 13 November 2009. * Berlin, Heinrich (April 1967). "The Destruction of Structure 5D-33-1st at Tikal". American Antiquity. 32 (2): 241–242. doi:10.2307/277915. ISSN 0002-7316. JSTOR 277915. OCLC 754651089. S2CID 163207109. * Coe, Michael D. (1999). The Maya. Ancient peoples and places series (6th, fully revised and expanded ed.). London and New York: Thames & Hudson. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-500-28066-9</nowiki>. OCLC 59432778. * Coe, William R. (1988) [1967]. Tikal: Guía de las Antiguas Ruinas Mayas (in Spanish). Guatemala: Piedra Santa. <nowiki>ISBN 978-84-8377-246-1</nowiki>. * Drew, David (1999). The Lost Chronicles of the Mayan Kings. Los Angeles: University of California Press. * Fash, William L.; Ricardo Agurcia Fasquelle (2005). "Contributions and Controversies in the Archaeology and History of Copán". In E. Wyllys Andrews; William L. Fash (eds.). Copán: The History of an Ancient Maya Kingdom. Santa Fe and Oxford: School of American Research Press and James Currey Ltd. pp. 3–32. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-85255-981-9</nowiki>. OCLC 56194789. * Gill, Richardson B. (2000). The Great Maya Droughts: Water, Life, and Death. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-8263-2194-7</nowiki>. OCLC 43567384. * Hammond, Norman (2000). "The Maya Lowlands: Pioneer Farmers to Merchant Princes". In Richard E.W. Adams; Murdo J. Macleod (eds.). The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas. Vol. II: Mesoamerica, part 1. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 197–249. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-521-35165-2</nowiki>. OCLC 33359444. * Harrison, Peter D. (2006). "Maya Architecture at Tikal". In Nikolai Grube (ed.). Maya: Divine Kings of the Rain Forest. Eva Eggebrecht and Matthias Seidel (assistant eds.). Köln: Könemann. pp. 218–231. <nowiki>ISBN 978-3-8331-1957-6</nowiki>. OCLC 71165439. * Hidinger, Lori A. (1996). "Measuring the Impacts of Ecotourism on Animal Populations: A Case Study of Tikal National Park, Guatemala" (PDF). Yale Forestry & Environment Bulletin. 99 (1): 45–59. * Jones, Grant D. (1998). The Conquest of the Last Maya Kingdom. Stanford, California, USA: Stanford University Press. <nowiki>ISBN 9780804735223</nowiki>. OCLC 38747674. * Kelly, Joyce (1996). An Archaeological Guide to Northern Central America: Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-8061-2858-0</nowiki>. OCLC 34658843. * Kerr, Justin (n.d.). "A Precolumbian Portfolio" (online database). FAMSI Research Materials. Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies, Inc. Retrieved 13 June 2007. * Looper, Matthew G. (1999). "New Perspectives on the Late Classic Political History of Quirigua, Guatemala". Ancient Mesoamerica. 10 (2): 263–280. doi:10.1017/S0956536199101135. ISSN 0956-5361. OCLC 86542758. S2CID 161977572. * Looper, Matthew G. (2003). Lightning Warrior: Maya Art and Kingship at Quirigua. Linda Schele series in Maya and pre-Columbian studies. Austin: University of Texas Press. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-292-70556-2</nowiki>. OCLC 52208614. * Martin, Simon; Nikolai Grube (2000). Chronicle of the Maya Kings and Queens: Deciphering the Dynasties of the Ancient Maya. London and New York: Thames & Hudson. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-500-05103-0</nowiki>. OCLC 47358325. * Martin, Simon; Nikolai Grube (2008). Chronicle of the Maya Kings and Queens: Deciphering the Dynasties of the Ancient Maya (2nd revised ed.). London and New York: Thames & Hudson. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-500-28726-2</nowiki>. OCLC 191753193. * Martínez, Horacio; David Webster; Jay Silverstein; Timothy Murtha; Kirk Straight; Irinna Montepeque (2004). J.P. Laporte; B. Arroyo; H. Escobedo; H. Mejía (eds.). "Reconocimiento en la periferia de Tikal: Los Terraplenes Norte, Oeste y Este, nuevas exploraciones y perspectivas" (PDF). XVII Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala, 2003 (in Spanish). Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología, Guatemala. pp. 635–641. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 September 2011. Retrieved 24 June 2009. * Means, Philip Ainsworth (1917). History of the Spanish Conquest of Yucatan and of the Itzas . Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University. Vol. VII. Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology. OCLC 681599. * Miller, Mary Ellen (1999). Maya Art and Architecture. London and New York: Thames & Hudson. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-500-20327-9</nowiki>. OCLC 41659173. * Miller, Mary; Karl Taube (1993). The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya: An Illustrated Dictionary of Mesoamerican Religion. London: Thames & Hudson. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-500-05068-2</nowiki>. OCLC 27667317. * Morales, Tirso; Benito Burgos; Miguel Acosta; Sergio Pinelo; Marco Tulio Castellanos; Leopoldo González; Francisco Castañeda; Edy Barrios; Rudy Larios; et al. (2008). J.P. Laporte; B. Arroyo; H. Mejía (eds.). "Trabajos realizados por la Unidad de Arqueología del Parque Nacional Tikal, 2006-2007" (PDF). XXI Simposio de Arqueología en Guatemala, 2007 (in Spanish): 413–436. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 September 2011. Retrieved 21 June 2011. * Puleston, Dennis E.; Donald W. Callender, Jr. (1967). "Defensive Earthworks at Tikal". Expedition. University of Pennsylvania. 9 (3): 40–48. ISSN 0014-4738. OCLC 1568625. * Salisbury, David; Mimi Koumenalis; Barbara Moffett (19 September 2002). "Newly revealed hieroglyphs tell story of superpower conflict in the Maya world" (PDF). Exploration: The Online Research Journal of Vanderbilt University. OCLC 50324967. Archived from the original (PDF online publication) on 2 November 2014. Retrieved 22 September 2009. * Schele, Linda; Peter Mathews (1999). The Code of Kings: The language of seven Maya temples and tombs. New York: Simon & Schuster. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-684-85209-6</nowiki>. OCLC 41423034. * Sharer, Robert J.; Loa P. Traxler (2006). The Ancient Maya (6th, fully revised ed.). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-8047-4817-9</nowiki>. OCLC 57577446. * Silverstein, Jay; David Webster; Horacio Martinez; Alvaro Soto (2009). Rethinking the Earthworks of Tikal: A Hydraulic Hypothesis for the Classic Maya Polity. Ancient Mesoamerican 20(1), Cambridge Journals. * StarWars.com. "Star Wars: Episode IV A New Hope". Lucasfilm. Archived from the original on 29 December 2009. Retrieved 13 November 2009. * Torres, Estuardo. "Parque Nacional Tikal" (in Spanish). Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. Archived from the original on 18 December 2009. Retrieved 30 July 2014. * UNESCO World Heritage Center. "Tikal National Park". UNESCO World Heritage Center. Retrieved 13 November 2009. * Valdés, Juan Antonio; Fahsen, Federico (2005). "Disaster in Sight: The Terminal Classic at Tikal and Uaxactun". In Arthur A. Demarest; Prudence M. Rice; Don S. Rice (eds.). The Terminal Classic in the Maya lowlands: Collapse, transition, and transformation. Boulder: University Press of Colorado. pp. 162–194. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-87081-822-6</nowiki>. OCLC 61719499. * Webster, David L. (2002). The Fall of the Ancient Maya: Solving the Mystery of the Maya Collapse. London: Thames & Hudson. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-500-05113-9</nowiki>. OCLC 48753878. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Siti arkeoloġiċi]] [[Kategorija:Siti ta' Wirt Dinji]] [[Kategorija:Parks Nazzjonali]] [[Kategorija:Maja]] [[Kategorija:Gwatemala]] 0idn6vhi4oes8ljjgyubeirgh5zqais 279113 279112 2022-08-15T08:43:14Z Trigcly 17859 /* Tikal u Copán */ żieda kontenut wikitext text/x-wiki [[Stampa:Tikal Temple1 2006 08 11.JPG|daqsminuri|It-Tempju I ta' Tikal huwa għoli 47 metru (154 pied).]] '''Tikal''' (/tiˈkɑːl/; ''Tik’al'' bl-ortografija moderna tal-[[Maja]]) hija l-fdal ta' belt antika, li x'aktarx kienet tissejjaħ '''Yax Mutal'''<ref>Tokovinine, Alexandre (2008). "Lords of Tikal: Narratives and Identities". ''Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology''. Harvard University: 4.</ref>, u li tinsab f'foresta tropikali fil-[[Gwatemala]].<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.cyark.org/projects/tikal/overview|titlu=CyArk|sit=CyArk|data-aċċess=2022-08-14}}</ref> Hija wieħed mill-ikbar siti [[Arkeoloġija|arkeoloġiċi]] u ċentri urbani taċ-ċivilizzazzjoni tal-Maja pre-Kolumbjana. Tinsab fir-reġjun arkeoloġiku tal-Baċir ta' Petén fit-territorju attwali tat-Tramuntana tal-Gwatemala. Is-sit jinsab fid-dipartiment ta' El Petén u huwa parti mill-Park Nazzjonali ta' Tikal. Fl-1979 sar [[Sit ta' Wirt Dinji]] tal-[[UNESCO]].<ref name=":0">{{Ċita web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/64/|titlu=Tikal National Park|kunjom=Centre|isem=UNESCO World Heritage|sit=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2022-08-14}}</ref> Tikal kienet il-[[belt kapitali]] ta' stat ħakkiem li sar wieħed mill-iżjed renji setgħana tal-Maja tal-qedem.<ref>Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 1. Hammond 2000, p. 233.</ref> Għalkemm l-arkitettura [[Monument|monumentali]] tas-sit tmur lura saħansitra tas-seklu 4 [[Ante Christum natum|Q.K]]., Tikal laħqet il-quċċata tagħha matul il-Perjodu Klassiku, għall-ħabta tal-200 sad-900. Matul dak iż-żmien, il-belt iddominat il-biċċa l-kbira tar-reġjun tal-Maja [[Politika|politikament]], ekonomikament u militarment, filwaqt li interaġixxiet ma' żoni fil-Mesoamerka kollha, bħall-metropoli l-kbira ta' [[Teotihuacan]] fil-Wied tal-Messiku daqstant 'il bogħod. Hemm evidenza li Tikal inħakmet minn Teotihuacan fis-seklu 4 W.K.<ref>Martin & Grube 2008, pp. 29-32.</ref> Wara t-tmiem tal-Perjodu Klassiku Aħħari, ma nbena l-ebda monument maġġuri f'Tikal u hemm evidenza li l-palazzi tal-elit ingħataw in-nar. Dan l-avvenimenti mexew id f'id ma' tnaqqis gradwali fil-popolazzjoni, u laħqu l-qofol tagħhom fl-abbandun tas-sit sal-aħħar tas-seklu 10. Tikal hija l-iżjed belt mifhuma minn kwalunkwe waħda mill-bliet tal-Maja l-kbar fl-artijiet baxxi, b'lista twila ta' mexxejja dinastiċi, bl-iskoperta tal-oqbra ta' bosta mill-mexxejja fuq din il-lista u bl-investigazzjoni tal-monumenti, tat-tempji u tal-palazzi tagħhom.<ref>Adams 2000, p. 34.</ref> == Etimoloġija == [[Stampa:Tikalemblem.jpg|daqsminuri|Glifiċi emblematiċi ta' isem Tikal]] L-isem ''Tikal'' jaf oriġina minn ''ti ak'al'' fil-lingwa tal-Maja tal-[[Yucatan]]; jingħad li huwa isem relattivament modern li jfisser "f'ġibjun". Milli jidher l-isem ingħata lil wieħed mill-ġibjuni antiki tas-sit mill-kaċċaturi u mill-vjaġġaturi fir-reġjun.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, p. 30.</ref> Interpretazzjoni oħra tal-isem hi li jfisser "il-post tal-vuċijiet" fil-lingwa tal-Maja ta' Itza. Madankollu, Tikal mhuwiex l-isem antik tas-sit iżda pjuttost l-isem li ġie adottat ftit wara l-iskoperta tas-sit fis-snin 40 tas-seklu 19.<ref>Drew 1999, p. 136.</ref> Il-kitbiet ġeroglifiċi fil-fdalijiet jirreferu għall-belt antika bħala ''Yax Mutal'' jew ''Yax Mutul'', li tfisser "l-ewwel Mutal". Tikal jaf bdiet tissejjaħ hekk minħabba li Dos Pilas beda juża l-istess glifiċi emblematiċi; il-mexxejja tal-belt x'aktarx li riedu jiddistingwu bejn il-bliet b'dan il-mod.<ref>Schele & Mathews 1999, p. 64.</ref> Ir-renju kollu kien jissejjaħ sempliċement ''Mutul'', li huwa l-interpretazzjoni tal-glifiċi emblematiċi tal-"qatta' xagħar" fir-ritratt fuq il-lemin. It-tifsira preċiża għadha mhux ċerta.<ref>Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 1.</ref> == Ġeografija == [[Stampa:Mayamap.png|daqsminuri|280x280px|Mappa taż-żona tal-Maja fir-reġjun Mesoamerikan. Kemm Tikal kif ukoll Calakmul jinsabu qrib iċ-ċentru taż-żona.]] L-eqreb insedjamenti kbar moderni huma Flores u Santa Elena, bejn wieħed u ieħor xi 64 kilometru (40 mil) bogħod bit-triq lejn il-Lbiċ.<ref>Kelly 1996, pp. 111-112.</ref> Tikal tinsab xi 303 kilometri (188 mil) fit-Tramuntana tal-[[Belt tal-Gwatemala]]. Tinsab 19-il kilometru (12-il mil) fin-Nofsinhar tal-belt tal-Maja kontemporanja ta' [[Uaxactun]] u 30 kilometru (19-il mil) fil-Majjistral ta' [[Yaxha]].<ref>Webster 2002, p. 118.</ref> Il-belt tinsab 100 kilometru (62 mil) fix-Xlokk tar-rivali l-kbira tagħha tal-Perjodu Klassiku, [[Calakmul]], u 85 kilometru (53 mil) fil-Majjistral tal-alleat ta' Calakmul, [[Caracol]], li issa tinsab fil-[[Beliże|Belize]].<ref>Webster 2002, p. 118.</ref> Il-belt ġiet immappjata għalkollox u kienet tkopri erja ikbar minn 16-il kilometru kwadru (6.2 mili kwadri) li kienet tinkludi madwar 3,000 struttura.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 104.</ref> It-topografija tas-sit tikkonsisti minn sensiela ta' rdumijiet paralleli tal-[[ġebla tal-ġir]] 'il fuq minn artijiet baxxi u mtajna. L-arkitettura maġġuri tas-sit hija raggruppata f'żoni iktar għoljin li huma kkollegati b'toroq olzati minn naħa għall-oħra tal-artijiet bassasa.<ref>Drew 1999, p. 185.</ref> Iż-żona madwar Tikal ġiet iddikjarata bħala l-Park Nazzjonali ta' Tikal u ż-żona ppreservata tkopri 570 kilometru kwadru (220 mil kwadru).<ref>Kelly 1996, p. 140.</ref> Dan il-park inħoloq fis-26 ta' Mejju 1955 taħt il-patroċinju tal-Instituto de Antropología e Historia u kien l-ewwel żona protetta fil-Gwatemala.<ref>Kelly 1996, p. 140.</ref> Il-fdalijiet jinsabu fost il-foresti tropikali tat-Tramuntana tal-Gwatemala li kienu jiffurmaw in-nieqa taċ-ċivilizzazzjoni tal-Maja fl-artijiet baxxi. Il-belt stess kienet tinsab qalb art għammiela abbundanti, u jaf iddominat rotta kummerċjali naturali mil-Lvant għall-Punent tul il-[[Peniżola]] tal-Yucatan. Fost is-siġar il-kbar tal-Park Nazzjonali ta' Tikal hemm il-kapok ġgantesk (''Ceiba pentandra'') li kienet is-siġra sagra tal-Maja; iċ-ċedru tropikali (''Cedrela odorata''), u l-kawba tal-[[Ħonduras]] (''Swietenia macrophylla''). Fir-rigward tal-fawna, wieħed jista' jara regolarment l-aguti, il-koati ta' mnieħru abjad, il-volpi griż, ix-xadin ta' Geoffroy, ix-xadin li jgħajjat, l-ajkla arpija, il-falkun, id-dundjan tal-foresti, il-gwan, it-tukan, il-pappagall aħdar u n-nemel li jaqta' l-weraq. Jingħad ukoll li l-ġagwar, l-ocelot u l-cougar jgħixu fil-park.<ref>Coe 1967, pp. 9-10. Hidinger 1996, p. 52.</ref> Tikal ma kellha l-ebda ilma għajr dak li kien jinġabar mill-ilma tax-xita u jinħażen f'għaxar ġibjuni. L-arkeologi li ħadmu f'Tikal matul is-seklu 20 sewwew wieħed minn dawn il-ġibjuni antiki biex jaħżnu l-ilma għalihom stess.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 124.</ref> Ix-xita annwali medja li tinżel f'Tikal tammonta għal 1,945 millimetru (76.6 pulzier). Madankollu, ix-xita ġieli tinżel għal għarrieda, u perjodi twal ta' nixfa setgħu jseħħu qabel ma l-għelejjel isiru, li kienet theddida serja għall-abitanti tal-belt antika.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 239.</ref> == Popolazzjoni == L-istimi tal-popolazzjoni ta' Tikal ivarjaw minn 10,000 sa saħansitra 90,000 abitant. Il-popolazzjoni ta' Tikal bdiet kurva kontinwa ta' tkabbir mill-bidu tal-Perjodu Preklassiku (bejn wieħed u ieħor fl-2000 Q.K. – 200 W.K.), bl-eqqel livell fil-Perjodu Klassiku Aħħari, fejn il-popolazzjoni kibret b'mod rapidu mis-700 W.K. sat-830, u mbagħad kien hemm deklin qawwi. Għaż-żona ta' 120 kilometru kwadru (46 mil kwadru) fi ħdan id-difiżi bit-tajn tal-periferija, l-ogħla popolazzjoni hija stmata li kienet 517-il persuna għal kull kilometru kwadru (1,340 persuna għal kull mil kwadru). F'żona fi ħdan raġġ ta' 12-il kilometru (7.5 mili) tal-qalba tas-sit, l-ogħla popolazzjoni hija stmata li kienet tlaħħaq il-120,000 ruħ; id-densità tal-popolazzjoni hija stmata li kienet 265 persuna għal kull kilometru kwadru (689 persuna għal kull mil kwadru). F'reġjun fi ħdan raġġ ta' 25 kilometru (16-il mil) mill-qalba tas-sit u inkluż xi siti anċillari, l-ogħla popolazzjoni hija stmata li kienet tlaħħaq l-425,000 ruħ b'densità ta' 216-il persuna għal kull kilometru kwadru (515-il persuna għal kull mil kwadru). Dawn iċ-ċifri rigward il-popolazzjoni huma ferm iktar impressjonanti minħabba l-artijiet bassasa estensiva li ma kinux adattati għall-abitazzjoni jew għall-agrikoltura. Madankollu, xi arkeologi, bħal [[David Webster]], jemmnu li dawn iċ-ċifri huma wisq għoljin.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 264.</ref> == Sit ta' Wirt Dinji == Il-Park Nazzjonali ta' Tikal ġie ddeżinjat bħala Sit ta' Wirt Dinji tal-UNESCO fl-1979.<ref name=":0" /> Il-valur universali straordinarju tas-sit ġie rrikonoxxut abbażi ta' ħames kriterji tal-għażla tal-UNESCO bħala sit kulturali u naturali mħallat: il-'''kriterju (i)''' "Rappreżentazzjoni ta' kapulavur frott il-kreattività tal-bniedem"; il-'''kriterju (iii)''' "Xhieda unika jew minn tal-inqas eċċezzjonali ta' tradizzjoni kulturali jew ta' ċivilizzazzjoni li għadha ħajja jew li għebet"; il-'''kriterju (iv)''' "Eżempju straordinarju ta' tip ta' bini, ta' grupp ta' siti jew ta' pajsaġġ arkitettoniku jew teknoloġiku li joħroġ fid-dieher stadju/i sinifikanti fl-istorja tal-bniedem"; il-'''kriterju (ix)''' "Eżempju straordinarju li jirrappreżenta proċessi ekoloġiċi u bijoloġiċi kontinwi sinifikanti fl-evoluzzjoni u fl-iżvilupp ta' ekosistemi u ta' komunitajiet ta' pjanti u ta' annimali terrestri, tal-ilma ħelu, kostali u tal-baħar"; u l-'''kriterju (x)''' "Post fejn hemm l-iktar ħabitats naturali importanti u sinifikanti għall-konservazzjoni fil-post tad-diversità bijoloġika, inkluż fejn hemm speċijiet mhedda ta' valur universali straordinarju mill-perspettiva tax-xjenza jew tal-konservazzjoni".<ref name=":0" /> == Storja == === Preklassika === [[Stampa:Maya-Maske.jpg|daqsminuri|Maskra tal-Maja li nstabet f'Tikal]] Hemm traċċi ta' biedja bikrija fis-sit li jmorru lura saħansitra sal-1000 Q.K., fil-Preklassiku Nofsani.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 262.</ref> Ġabra ta' bċejjeċ taċ-ċeramika ta' Mamon li jmorru lura għal madwar is-700 u l-400 Q.K. instabu f'''chultun'' issiġillat, jiġifieri f'kompartiment taħt l-art b'għamla ta' flixkun.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 55.</ref> Fil-perjodu Preklassiku Aħħar f'Tikal diġà kienet qed issir kostruzzjoni maġġuri, u l-ewwel binjiet tfaċċaw għall-ħabta tal-400 u t-300 Q.K., inkluż il-kostruzzjoni ta' piramidi u pjattaformi maġġuri, għalkemm il-belt kienet għadha ferm iżgħar minn siti oħra iktar fin-Nofsinhar bħal [[El Mirador]] u [[Nakbe]].<ref>Coe 1999, p. 55.</ref> F'dak iż-żmien, Tikal ipparteċipat fil-kultura mifruxa ta' Chikanel li ddominat iż-żoni Ċentrali u tat-Tramuntana tal-Maja dak iż-żmien – reġjun li kien jinkludi l-Peniżola tal-Yucatan kollha inkluż it-Tramuntana u l-Lvant tal-Gwatemala u l-Belize kollu.<ref>Coe 1999, pp. 73, 80.</ref> Żewġ tempji li jmorru lura għaż-żminijiet aħħarin ta' Chikanel kellhom superstrutturi b'ħitan bix-xogħol fil-ġebel li jaf kienu bil-volti apposta li jħallu arkata jew spazju vojt fi ħdanhom, għalkemm ma nstabux provi ta' dan. Wieħed minnhom kellu affreski elaborati mal-ħitan ta' barra li juru figuri umani fuq sfond ta' tiżjin ripetut bl-[[isfar]], bl-[[iswed]], bir-roża u bl-[[aħmar]].<ref>Coe 1999, p. 75.</ref> Fl-ewwel seklu W.K. tfaċċaw l-ewwel oqbra għonja u Tikal iffjorixxiet politikament u kulturalment, filwaqt li l-ġirien ġganteski tagħha fit-Tramuntana majnaw. Lejn l-aħħar tal-Preklassiku Aħħari, l-istil tal-arti u tal-arkitettura Izapan mill-Kosta [[Oċean Paċifiku|Paċifika]] beda jinfluwenza lil Tikal, kif joħroġ fid-dieher minn skultura miksura mill-akropoli u mill-affreski bikrin fil-belt.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 78.</ref> === Klassika Bikrija === It-tmexxija dinastika fl-artijiet baxxi tal-Maja hija ankrata l-iktar fil-fond f'Tikal. Skont sejbiet ġeroglifiċi li saru iktar 'il quddiem, id-dinastija ġiet stabbilita minn [[Yax Ehb Xook]], x'aktarx fl-ewwel seklu W.K.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 90.</ref> Fil-bidu tal-perjodu Klassiku Bikri, il-poter fir-reġjun tal-Maja kien ikkonċentrat f'Tikal u f'Calakmul, fil-qalba tat-territorju tal-Maja.<ref>Miller 1999, pp. 88-89.</ref> Tikal jaf ibbenefikat mill-waqgħa tal-istati Preklassiċi l-kbar bħal El Mirador. Fil-perjodu Klassiku Bikri Tikal malajr żviluppat fl-iżjed belt dinamika fir-reġjun tal-Maja, u xprunat l-iżvilupp ta' bliet tal-Maja oħrajn fl-inħawi.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 191.</ref> Madankollu, is-sit spiss kien imdaħħal fi gwerer u mill-kitbiet imnaqqxa nafu li kien hemm diversi alleanzi u kunflitti ma' stati oħra tal-Maja, inkluż Uaxactun, Caracol, [[Naranjo]] u Calakmul. Is-sit ġarrab telfa fl-aħħar tal-perjodu Klassiku Bikri kontra Caracol, li ħadet post Tikal bħala ċ-ċentru ewlieni fl-artijiet baxxi tan-Nofsinhar tal-Maja.<ref>Sharer 1994, p. 265.</ref> Fil-parti iktar bikrija tal-Klassiku Bikri kien hemm ostilitajiet bejn Tikal u l-ġar tagħha Uaxactun. F'Uaxactun fil-fatt instabu dokumentazzjonijiet dwar il-qbid ta' priġunieri minn Tikal.<ref>Kelly 1996, p. 129.</ref> Milli jidher kien hemm waqfa fis-suċċessjoni dinastika minn raġel għal ieħor lejn it-317 W.K., meta [[Unen Bahlam]] għamlet ċerimonja ta' tmiem ''katun'', x'aktarx bħala r-reġina tal-belt.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, p. 27.</ref> ==== Tikal u Teotihuacan ==== [[Stampa:Mexico SunMoonPyramid.jpg|daqsminuri|Jidher li l-metropoli l-kbira ta' Teotihuacan fil-Wied tal-Messiku intervjeniet b'mod deċiżiv fil-politka ta' Tikal.]] Diġà fil-200 W.K. Teotihuacan kellha ambaxxati f'Tikal.<ref>The Origins & Collapse of the Preclassic Maya in the Mirador Basin - Richard Hansen at The Library of Congress (2014)</ref> L-erbatax-il re ta' Tikal kien Chak Tok Ich'aak (li tfisser litteralment "Sieq tal-Ġagwar il-Kbir"). Chak Tok Ich'aak bena palazz li ġie ppreservat u żviluppat mill-mexxejja ta' warajh sakemm sar il-qalba tal-Akropoli Ċentrali.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 192.</ref> Ma tantx nafu wisq dwar Chak Tok Ich'aak għajr li nqatel fl-14 ta' Jannar 378 W.K. Fl-istess jum, wasal Siyah K'ak' (li tfisser litteralment "Twieled in-Nar") mill-Punent, wara li għadda minn [[El Peru]], sit fil-Punent ta' Tikal, fit-8 ta' Jannar. Fuq l-iStele 31 jissemma bħala s-"Sinjur tal-Punent".<ref>Drew 1999, p. 199.</ref> Siyah K'ak' x'aktarx li kien ġeneral barrani, irrappreżentat minn kitba ġeroglifika mhux tal-Maja ta' wieħed li jwaddab il-lanez flimkien ma' kokka, kitba ġeroglifika magħrufa sew mill-metropoli l-kbira ta' Teotihuacan fil-Wied tal-Messiku daqstant 'il bogħod. Siyah K'ak' jaf kien anke l-mexxej ta' Teotihuacan. Dawn l-avvenimenti rreġistrati fil-kitba ġeroglifika tal-Maja jissuġġerixxu b'mod qawwi li Siyah K'ak' mexxa invażjoni ta' Tikal min-naħa ta' Teotihuacan u r-re nattiv ta' Tikal ġarrab telfa, inqabad mill-għadu u ġie ġġustizzjat minnufih.<ref>Coe 1999, pp. 90-91.</ref> Milli jidher Siyah K'ak' ġie megħjun minn fazzjoni politika b'saħħitha f'Tikal stess<ref>Webster 2002, p. 133.</ref>; bejn wieħed u ieħor fl-istess żmien tal-ħakma, grupp ta' nattivi ta' Teotihuacan kienu qed jirresjedu qrib il-kumpless tad-Dinja Mitlufa.<ref>Drew 1999, p. 201.</ref> Huwa eżerċita kontroll ukoll fuq bliet oħra fl-inħawi, fosthom Uaxactun, fejn sar re, iżda ma ħax it-tron ta' Tikal għalih innifsu.<ref name=":1">Drew 1999, p. 200.</ref> Fi żmien sena, ibnu, Yax Nuun Ayiin I (l-"Ewwel Kukkudrill") sar il-ħmistax-il re ta' Tikal meta kien għadu tifel, u ngħata t-tron fit-13 ta' Settembru 379.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 97.</ref> Huwa rrenja għal 47 sena bħala r-re ta' Tikal, u baqa' vassall ta' Siyah K'ak' sa ma dan miet. X'aktarx li Yax Nuun Ayiin I ħa mara mid-dinastija ta' Tikal ta' qablu u b'hekk leġittimizza d-dritt ta' tmexxija għal ibnu, Siyaj Chan K'awiil II.<ref name=":1" /> [[Río Azul]], sit żgħir madwar 100 kilometru (62 mil) fil-Grigal ta' Tikal, inħakem minn Tikal matul ir-renju ta' Yax Nuun Ayiin I. Is-sit sar qisu tarka ta' Tikal u kien jiddefendiha mill-bliet ostili iktar lejn it-Tramuntana, u sar kollegament kummerċjali mal-[[Baħar Karibew|Karibew]].<ref>Drew 1999, pp. 201-202.</ref> Għalkemm il-mexxejja l-ġodda ta' Tikal kienu barranin, id-dixxendenti tagħhom malajr saru midħla tal-Maja. Tikal saret l-alleat u l-imsieħeb kummerċjali ewlieni ta' Teotihuacan fl-artijiet baxxi tal-Maja. Wara li nħakmet minn Teotihuacan, Tikal malajr iddominat ir-reġjun ta' Peten fit-Tramuntana u fil-Lvant. Uaxactun, flimkien ma' rħula żgħar oħra fir-reġjun, ġew assorbiti fir-renju ta' Tikal. Siti oħra, bħal [[Bejucal]] u [[Motul de San José]] ħdejn il-Lag ta' Petén Itzá saru vassalli tal-ġar iktar setgħan tagħhom lejn it-Tramuntana. Sa nofs is-seklu 5 Tikal kellha territorju ewlieni ta' mill-inqas 25 kilometru (16-il mil) f'kull direzzjoni. Għall-ħabta tas-seklu 5 inbniet sistema impressjonanti ta' fortifikazzjonijiet b'fosos u bi ħniedaq tul il-periferija tat-Tramuntana ta' Tikal, flimkien mad-difiżi naturali pprovduti minn żoni kbar ta' artijiet bassasa fil-Lvant u fil-Punent tal-belt. X'aktarx li nbnew ukoll fortifikazzjonijiet oħra lejn in-Nofsinhar. Dawn id-difiżi pproteġew lill-popolazzjoni ewlenija u r-riżorsi agrikoli ta' Tikal, f'erja ta' madwar 120 kilometru kwadru (46 mil kwadru). Riċerka reċenti tissuġġerixxi li l-ħniedaq kienu jintużaw bħala sistema ta' ġbir tal-ilma iktar milli għad-difiża.<ref>Silverstein 2009.</ref> ==== Tikal u Copán ==== Fis-seklu 5 il-poter tal-belt kien iwassal saħansitra sa Copán fin-Nofsinhar, u l-fundatur tagħha, K'inich Yax K'uk' Mo', kellu rabtiet ċari ma' Tikal. Copán stess ma kinitx f'reġjun etniku tal-Maja u l-istabbiliment tad-dinastija ta' Copán x'aktarx li kienet tinvolvi l-intervent dirett ta' Tikal.<ref>Wyllys Andrews & Fash 2005, p. 407.</ref> K'inich Yax K'uk' Mo' wasal f'Copán f'Diċembru 426 u mill-analiżi tal-għadam tiegħu nafu li qatta' tfulitu u żgħożitu f'Tikal.<ref>Fash & Agurcia Fasquelle 2005, p. 26.</ref> Individwu magħruf bħala Ajaw K'uk' Mo' (jew is-Sinjur K'uk' Mo') jissemma f'test bikri f'Tikal u jaf kien l-istess persuna.<ref>Looper 2003, p. 37.</ref> Il-qabar tiegħu kellu karatteristiċi ta' Teotihuacan u iktar 'il quddiem ġie mpinġi bl-ilbies tal-ġellieda ta' Teotihuacan. Kitbiet ġeroglifiċi jirreferu għalih bħala s-"Sinjur tal-Punent", l-istess bħal Siyah K'ak'. Fl-istess żmien, fl-aħħar tal-426, Copán stabbiliet is-sit ta' [[Quiriguá]] fil-qrib, possibbilment sponsorjata minn Tikal stess. L-istabbiliment ta' dawn iż-żewġ ċentri jaf kien parti minn sforz biex tiġi imposta l-awtorità ta' Tikal fuq il-parti tax-Xlokk tar-reġjun tal-Maja.<ref>Looper 2003, p. 38.</ref> L-interazzjoni bejn dawn is-siti u Tikal kienet waħda intensiva matul it-tliet sekli ta' wara.<ref>Looper 1999, p. 263.</ref> Rivalità twila bejn Tikal u Calakmul bdiet fis-seklu 6, u kull waħda miż-żewġt ibliet iffurmat in-network tagħha ta' alleanzi ostili għal xulxin, u dan x'aktarx wassal għal gwerra twila bejn iż-żewġ superpotenzi tal-Maja. Ir-rejiet ta' dawn iż-żewġ bliet kapitali adottaw it-titlu ta' ''kaloomte''', terminu li ġiex tradott b'mod preċiż iżda li jimplika xi ħaġa bħal "re għoli".<ref>Webster 2002, pp. 168-169.</ref> Fil-bidu tas-seklu 6 laħqet reġina oħra bħala mexxejja tal-belt, magħrufa bħala s-"Sinjura ta' Tikal", li x'aktarx kienet bint Chak Tok Ich'aak II. Milli jidher qatt ma mexxiet waħedha, iżda dejjem kellha magħha mexxejja rġiel. L-ewwel wieħed minnhom kien Kaloomte' B'alam, li milli jidher kellu karriera twila bħala ġeneral f'Tikal qabel ma sar mexxej mar-reġina u fid-19-il post fis-sekwenza dinastika. Is-Sinjura ta' Tikal stess ma ġietx magħduda fis-sekwenza dinastika numerika. Iktar 'il quddiem x'aktarx li ngħaqad magħha bħala mexxej is-Sinjur "Difer ta' [[Għasfur]]", li jingħad li kien l-20 mexxej.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, pp. 38-39.</ref> === Klassika Aħħarija === ==== L-aqwa żmien ta' Tikal ==== In the mid 6th century, Caracol seems to have allied with Calakmul and defeated Tikal, closing the Early Classic. The "Tikal hiatus" refers to a period between the late 6th to late 7th century where there was a lapse in the writing of inscriptions and large-scale construction at Tikal. In the latter half of the 6th century AD, a serious crisis befell the city, with no new stelae being erected and with widespread deliberate mutilation of public sculpture. This hiatus in activity at Tikal was long unexplained until later epigraphic decipherments identified that the period was prompted by Tikal's comprehensive defeat at the hands of Calakmul and the Caracol polity in AD 562, a defeat that seems to have resulted in the capture and sacrifice of the king of Tikal. The badly eroded Altar 21 at Caracol described how Tikal suffered this disastrous defeat in a major war in April 562. It seems that Caracol was an ally of Calakmul in the wider conflict between that city and Tikal, with the defeat of Tikal having a lasting impact upon the city. Tikal was not sacked but its power and influence were broken. After its great victory, Caracol grew rapidly and some of Tikal's population may have been forcibly relocated there. During the hiatus period, at least one ruler of Tikal took refuge with Janaab' Pakal of Palenque, another of Calakmul's victims. Calakmul itself thrived during Tikal's long hiatus period. The beginning of the Tikal hiatus has served as a marker by which archeologists commonly subdivide the Classic period of Mesoamerican chronology into the Early and Late Classic. ==== Tikal u Dos Pilas ==== In 629 Tikal founded Dos Pilas, some 110 kilometers (68 mi) to the southwest, as a military outpost in order to control trade along the course of the Pasión River. B'alaj Chan K'awiil was installed on the throne of the new outpost at the age of four, in 635. When he was older, for many years he served as a loyal vassal fighting for his brother, the king of Tikal. Roughly twenty years later, Dos Pilas was attacked by Calakmul and was soundly defeated. B'alaj Chan K'awiil was captured by the king of Calakmul but, instead of being sacrificed, he was re-instated on his throne as a vassal of his former enemy. He attacked Tikal in 657, forcing Nuun Ujol Chaak, then king of Tikal, to temporarily abandon the city. The first two rulers of Dos Pilas continued to use the Mutal emblem glyph of Tikal, and they probably felt that they had a legitimate claim to the throne of Tikal itself. For some reason, B'alaj Chan K'awiil was not installed as the new ruler of Tikal; instead he stayed at Dos Pilas. Tikal counterattacked against Dos Pilas in 672, driving B'alaj Chan K'awiil into an exile that lasted five years. Calakmul tried to encircle Tikal within an area dominated by its allies, such as El Peru, Dos Pilas, and Caracol. In 682, Jasaw Chan K'awiil I erected the first dated monument at Tikal in 120 years and claimed the title of ''kaloomte''', so ending the hiatus. He initiated a program of new construction and turned the tables on Calakmul when, in 695, he captured the enemy noble and threw the enemy state into a long decline from which it never fully recovered. After this, Calakmul never again erected a monument celebrating a military victory. ==== Tikal wara Teotihuacan ==== By the 7th century, there was no active Teotihuacan presence at any Maya site and the center of Teotihuacan had been razed by 700. Even after this, formal war attire illustrated on monuments was Teotihuacan style. Jasaw Chan K'awiil I and his heir Yik'in Chan K'awiil continued hostilities against Calakmul and its allies and imposed firm regional control over the area around Tikal, extending as far as the territory around Lake Petén Itzá. These two rulers were responsible for much of the impressive architecture visible today. In 738, Quiriguá, a vassal of Copán, Tikal's key ally in the south, switched allegiance to Calakmul, defeated Copán and gained its own independence. It appears that this was a conscious effort on the part of Calakmul to bring about the collapse of Tikal's southern allies. This upset the balance of power in the southern Maya area and lead to a steady decline in the fortunes of Copán. In the 8th century, the rulers of Tikal collected monuments from across the city and erected them in front of the North Acropolis. By the late 8th century and early 9th century, activity at Tikal slowed. Impressive architecture was still built but few hieroglyphic inscriptions refer to later rulers. === Klassika Terminali === By the 9th century, the crisis of the Classic Maya collapse was sweeping across the region, with populations plummeting and city after city falling into silence. Increasingly endemic warfare in the Maya region caused Tikal's supporting population to heavily concentrate close to the city itself, accelerating the use of intensive agriculture and the corresponding environmental decline. Construction continued at the beginning of the century, with the erection of Temple 3, the last of the city's major pyramids, and the erection of monuments to mark the 19th K'atun in 810. The beginning of the 10th Bak'tun in 830 passed uncelebrated, and marks the beginning of a 60-year hiatus, probably resulting from the collapse of central control in the city. During this hiatus, satellite sites traditionally under Tikal's control began to erect their own monuments featuring local rulers and using the Mutal emblem glyph, with Tikal apparently lacking the authority or the power to crush these bids for independence. In 849, Jewel K'awiil is mentioned on a stela at Seibal as visiting that city as the Divine Lord of Tikal but he is not recorded elsewhere and Tikal's once-great power was little more than a memory. The sites of Ixlu and Jimbal had by now inherited the once exclusive Mutal emblem glyph. As Tikal and its hinterland reached peak population, the area suffered deforestation, erosion and nutrient loss followed by a rapid decline in population levels. Recent analysis also indicates that the city's freshwater sources became highly contaminated with mercury, phosphate and cyanobacteria leading to the accumulation of toxins. Tikal and its immediate surroundings seem to have lost most of their population between 830 and 950 and central authority seems to have collapsed rapidly. There is not much evidence from Tikal that the city was directly affected by the endemic warfare that afflicted parts of the Maya region during the Terminal Classic, although an influx of refugees from the Petexbatún region may have exacerbated problems resulting from the already stretched environmental resources. The site core seen from the south, with Temple I at center, the North Acropolis to the left and Central Acropolis to the right In the latter half of the 9th century there was an attempt to revive royal power at the much-diminished city of Tikal, as evidenced by a stela erected in the Great Plaza by Jasaw Chan K'awiil II in 869. This was the last monument erected at Tikal before the city finally fell into silence. The former satellites of Tikal, such as Jimbal and Uaxactun, did not last much longer, erecting their final monuments in 889. By the end of the 9th century the vast majority of Tikal's population had deserted the city, its royal palaces were occupied by squatters and simple thatched dwellings were being erected in the city's ceremonial plazas. The squatters blocked some doorways in the rooms they reoccupied in the monumental structures of the site and left rubbish that included a mixture of domestic refuse and non-utilitarian items such as musical instruments. These inhabitants reused the earlier monuments for their own ritual activities, far removed from those of the royal dynasty that had erected them. Some monuments were vandalized and some were moved to new locations. Before its final abandonment all respect for the old rulers had disappeared, with the tombs of the North Acropolis being explored for jade and the easier-to-find tombs were looted. After 950, Tikal was all but deserted, although a remnant population may have survived in perishable huts interspersed among the ruins. Even these final inhabitants abandoned the city in the 10th or 11th centuries and the rainforest claimed the ruins for the next thousand years. Some of Tikal's population may have migrated to the Peten Lakes region, which remained heavily populated in spite of a plunge in population levels in the first half of the 9th century. The most likely cause of collapse at Tikal is overpopulation and agrarian failure. The fall of Tikal was a blow to the heart of Classic Maya civilization, the city having been at the forefront of courtly life, art and architecture for over a thousand years, with an ancient ruling dynasty. However, new research regarding paleoenvironmental proxies from the Tikal reservoir system suggests that a meteorological drought may have led to the abandonment of Tikal, fouling some reservoirs near the temple and palace with algae blooms, while other reservoirs remained drinkable. Buildings were painted with mercury-bearing cinnabar, which were washed off by rain and polluted some reservoirs. Works of Kohler and colleagues showed that this city reached an unsustainable level of inequalities at the end.^{[''clarification needed'']} === Moderna === Archeologist Edwin M. Shook, field director of the Tikal Project; Shook was also instrumental in having Tikal established as Guatemala's first National Park. In 1525, the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés passed within a few kilometers of the ruins of Tikal but did not mention them in his letters. After Spanish friar Andrés de Avendaño became lost in the Petén forests in early 1696 he described a ruin that may well have been Tikal. As is often the case with huge ancient ruins, knowledge of the site was never completely lost in the region. It seems that local people never forgot about Tikal and they guided Guatemalan expeditions to the ruins in the 1850s. Some second- or third-hand accounts of Tikal appeared in print starting in the 17th century, continuing through the writings of John Lloyd Stephens in the early 19th century (Stephens and his illustrator Frederick Catherwood heard rumors of a lost city, with white building tops towering above the jungle, during their 1839–40 travels in the region). Because of the site's remoteness from modern towns, however, no explorers visited Tikal until Modesto Méndez and Ambrosio Tut, respectively the commissioner and the governor of Petén, visited it in 1848. Artist Eusebio Lara accompanied them and their account was published in Germany in 1853. Several other expeditions came to further investigate, map, and photograph Tikal in the 19th century (including Alfred P. Maudslay in 1881-82) and the early 20th century. Pioneering archeologists started to clear, map and record the ruins in the 1880s. In 1951, a small airstrip was built at the ruins, which previously could only be reached by several days' travel through the jungle on foot or mule. In 1956 the Tikal project began to map the city on a scale not previously seen in the Maya area. From 1956 through 1970, major archeological excavations were carried out by the University of Pennsylvania Tikal Project. They mapped much of the site and excavated and restored many of the structures. Excavations directed by Edwin M. Shook and later by William Coe of the university investigated the North Acropolis and the Central Plaza from 1957 to 1969. The Tikal Project recorded over 200 monuments at the site. In 1979, the Guatemalan government began a further archeological project at Tikal, which continued through to 1984. Filmmaker George Lucas used Tikal as a filming location for the fictional moon Yavin 4 in the first ''Star Wars'' film, ''Episode IV: A New Hope'', which premiered in 1977. Temple I at Tikal was featured on the reverse of the 50 centavo banknote. Eon Productions used the site for the James Bond film ''Moonraker''. Tikal is now a major tourist attraction surrounded by its own national park. A site museum has been built at Tikal; it was completed in 1964. == Deskrizzjoni tas-sit == Tikal has been partially restored by the University of Pennsylvania and the government of Guatemala. It was one of the largest of the Classic period Maya cities and was one of the largest cities in the Americas. The architecture of the ancient city is built from limestone and includes the remains of temples that tower over 70 meters (230 ft) high, large royal palaces, in addition to a number of smaller pyramids, palaces, residences, administrative buildings, platforms and inscribed stone monuments. There is even a building which seemed to have been a jail, originally with wooden bars across the windows and doors. There are also seven courts for playing the Mesoamerican ballgame, including a set of 3 in the Seven Temples Plaza, a unique feature in Mesoamerica. The limestone used for construction was local and quarried on-site. The depressions formed by the extraction of stone for building were plastered to waterproof them and were used as reservoirs, together with some waterproofed natural depressions. The main plazas were surfaced with stucco and laid at a gradient that channelled rainfall into a system of canals that fed the reservoirs. The residential area of Tikal covers an estimated 60 square kilometers (23 sq mi), much of which has not yet been cleared, mapped, or excavated. The 16 square kilometers (6.2 sq mi) area around the site core has been intensively mapped; it may have enclosed an area of some 125 square kilometers (48 sq mi) (see below). A huge set of earthworks discovered by Dennis E. Puleston and Donald Callender in the 1960s rings Tikal with a 6-meter (20 ft) wide trench behind a rampart. Recently, a project exploring the defensive earthworks has shown that the scale of the earthworks is highly variable and that in many places it is inconsequential as a defensive feature. In addition, some parts of the earthwork were integrated into a canal system. The earthwork of Tikal varies significantly in coverage from what was originally proposed and it is much more complex and multifaceted than originally thought. === Toroq === By the Late Classic, a network of ''sacbeob'' (causeways) linked various parts of the city, running for several kilometers through its urban core. These linked the Great Plaza with Temple 4 (located about 750 meters (2,460 feet) to the west) and the Temple of the Inscriptions (about 1 kilometer (0.62 mi) to the southeast). These broad causeways were built of packed and plastered limestone and have been named after early explorers and archeologists; the Maler, Maudslay, Tozzer and Méndez causeways. They assisted the passage of everyday traffic during the rain season and also served as dams. The '''Maler Causeway''' runs north from behind Temple I to Group H. A large bas-relief is carved onto limestone bedrock upon the course of the causeway just south of Group H. It depicts two bound captives and dates to the Late Classic. The '''Maudsley Causeway''' runs 0.8 kilometers (0.50 mi) northeast from Temple IV to Group H. The '''Mendez Causeway''' runs southeast from the East Plaza to Temple VI, a distance of about 1.3 kilometers (0.81 mi). The '''Tozzer Causeway''' runs west from the Great Plaza to Temple IV. === Gruppi arkitettoniċi === The '''Great Plaza''' lies at the core of the site; it is flanked on the east and west sides by two great temple-pyramids. On the north side it is bordered by the North Acropolis and on the south by the Central Acropolis. The '''Central Acropolis''' is a palace complex just south of the Great Plaza. The '''North Acropolis''', together with the Great Plaza immediately to the south, is one of the most studied architectural groups in the Maya area; the Tikal Project excavated a massive trench across the complex, thoroughly investigating its construction history. It is a complex group with construction beginning in the Preclassic Period, around 350 BC. It developed into a funerary complex for the ruling dynasty of the Classic Period, with each additional royal burial adding new temples on top of the older structures. After AD 400 a row of tall pyramids was added to the earlier Northern Platform, which measured 100 by 80 meters (330 by 260 ft), gradually hiding it from view. Eight temple pyramids were built in the 6th century AD, each of them had an elaborate roofcomb and a stairway flanked by masks of the gods. By the 9th century AD, 43 stelae and 30 altars had been erected in the North Acropolis; 18 of these monuments were carved with hieroglyphic texts and royal portraits. The North Acropolis continued to receive burials into the Postclassic Period. The '''South Acropolis''' is found next to Temple V. It was built upon a large basal platform that covers an area of more than 20,000 square meters (220,000 sq ft). The '''Plaza of the Seven Temples''' is to the west of the South Acropolis. It is bordered on the east side by a row of nearly identical temples, by palaces on the south and west sides and by an unusual triple ballcourt on the north side. The '''Mundo Perdido''' is to the west of the Plaza of the Seven Temples. It is the largest ceremonial complex dating from the Preclassic period at Tikal. The complex was organized as a large E-Group consisting of a pyramid aligned with a platform to the east that supported three temples. The Mundo Perdido complex was rebuilt many times over the course of its history. By AD 250–300 its architectural style was influenced by the great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico, including the use of the ''talud-tablero'' form. During the Early Classic period (c. 250–600) the Mundo Perdido became one of the twin foci of the city, the other being the North Acropolis. From AD 250 to 378 it may have served as the royal necropolis. The Mundo Perdido complex was given its name by the archeologists of the University of Pennsylvania; it is centered upon the Lost World Pyramid and a small platform to the west of it. To the south of Mundo Perdido, recent 2021 excavations have revealed a one-third size replication of La Ciudadela, or The Citadel, in Teotihuacan. This area may have been used as a diplomatic headquarters and as an effort to further stamp Teotihuacan culture upon the residents of Tikal. '''Group G''' lies just south of the Mendez Causeway. The complex dates to the Late Classic and consists of palace-type structures and is one of the largest groups of its type at Tikal. It has two stories but most of the rooms are on the lower floor, a total of 29 vaulted chambers. The remains of two further chambers belong to the upper story. One of the entrances to the group was framed by a gigantic mask. '''Group H''' is centered on a large plaza to the north of the Great Plaza. It is bordered by temples dating to the Late Classic. There are nine '''Twin-Pyramid Complexes''' at Tikal, one of which was completely dismantled in ancient times and some others were partly destroyed. They vary in size but consist of two pyramids facing each other on an east–west axis. These pyramids are flat-topped and have stairways on all four sides. A row of plain stelae is placed immediately to the west of the eastern pyramid and to the north of the pyramids. Lying roughly equidistant from them, there is usually a sculpted stela and altar pair. On the south side of these complexes there is a long vaulted building containing a single room with nine doorways. The entire complex was built at once and these complexes were built at 20-year (or ''k'atun'') intervals during the Late Classic. The first twin pyramid complex was built in the early 6th century in the East Plaza. It was once thought that these complexes were unique to Tikal but rare examples have now been found at other sites, such as Yaxha and Ixlu, and they may reflect the extent of Tikal's political dominance in the Late Classic. '''Group Q''' is a twin-pyramid complex, and is one of the largest at Tikal. It was built by Yax Nuun Ayiin II in 771 in order to mark the end of the 17th K'atun. Most of it has been restored and its monuments have been re-erected. '''Group R''' is another twin-pyramid complex, dated to 790. It is close to the Maler Causeway. === Strutturi === There are thousands of ancient structures at Tikal and only a fraction of these have been excavated, after decades of archeological work. The most prominent surviving buildings include six very large pyramids, labelled Temples I – VI, each of which support a temple structure on their summits. Some of these pyramids are over 60 meters (200 feet) high. They were numbered sequentially during the early survey of the site. It is estimated that each of these major temples could have been built in as little as two years. '''Temple I''' (also known as the ''Temple of Ah Cacao'' or ''Temple of the Great Jaguar'') is a funerary pyramid dedicated to Jasaw Chan K'awil, who was entombed in the structure in AD 734, the pyramid was completed around 740–750. The temple rises 47 meters (154 ft) high. The massive roofcomb that topped the temple was originally decorated with a giant sculpture of the enthroned king, although little of this decoration survives. The tomb of the king was discovered by Aubrey Trik of the University of Pennsylvania in 1962. Among items recovered from the Late Classic tomb were a large collection of inscribed human and animal bone tubes and strips with sophisticated scenes depicting deities and people, finely carved and rubbed with vermilion, as well as jade and shell ornaments and ceramic vessels filled with offerings of food and drink. The shrine at the summit of the pyramid has three chambers, each behind the next, with the doorways spanned by wooden lintels fashioned from multiple beams. The outermost lintel is plain but the two inner lintels were carved, some of the beams were removed in the 19th century and their location is unknown, while others were taken to museums in Europe. '''Temple II''' (also known as the ''Temple of the Mask'') it was built around AD 700 and stands 38 meters (125 ft) high. Like other major temples at Tikal, the summit shrine had three consecutive chambers with the doorways spanned by wooden lintels, only the middle of which was carved. The temple was dedicated to the wife of Jasaw Chan K'awil, although no tomb was found. The queen's portrait was carved into the lintel spanning the doorway of the summit shrine. One of the beams from this lintel is now in the American Museum of Natural History in New York City. '''Temple III''' (also known as the ''Temple of the Jaguar Priest'') was the last of the great pyramids to be built at Tikal. It stood 55 meters (180 ft) tall and contained an elaborately sculpted but damaged roof lintel, possibly showing Dark Sun engaged in a ritual dance around AD 810. The temple shrine possesses two chambers. '''Temple IV''' is the tallest temple-pyramid at Tikal, measuring 70 meters (230 ft) from the plaza floor level to the top of its roof comb. Temple IV marks the reign of Yik’in Chan Kawil (Ruler B, the son of Ruler A or Jasaw Chan K'awiil I) and two carved wooden lintels over the doorway that leads into the temple on the pyramid's summit record a long count date (9.15.10.0.0) that corresponds to CE 741 (Sharer 1994:169). Temple IV is the largest pyramid built anywhere in the Maya region in the 8th century, and as it currently stands is the tallest pre-Columbian structure in the Americas although the Pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacan may originally have been taller, as may have been one of the structures at El Mirador. '''Temple V''' stands south of the Central Acropolis and is the mortuary pyramid of an as yet unidentified ruler. The temple stands 57 meters (187 ft) high, making it the second tallest structure at Tikal – only Temple IV is taller. The temple has been dated to about AD 700, in the Late Classic period, via radiocarbon analysis and the dating of ceramics associated with the structure places its construction during the reign of Nun Bak Chak in the second half of the 7th century. '''Temple VI''' is also known as the ''Temple of the Inscriptions'' and was dedicated in AD 766. It is notable for its 12-meter (39 ft) high roof-comb. Panels of hieroglyphs cover the back and sides of the roof-comb. The temple faces onto a plaza to the west and its front is unrestored. '''Temple 33''' was a funerary pyramid erected over the tomb of Siyaj Chan K'awiil I (known as Burial 48) in the North Acropolis. It started life in the Early Classic as a wide basal platform decorated with large stucco masks that flanked the stairway. Later in the Early Classic a new superstructure was added, with its own masks and decorated panels. During the Hiatus a third stage was built over the earlier constructions, the stairway was demolished and another royal burial, of an unidentified ruler, was set into the structure (Burial 23). While the new pyramid was being built another high ranking tomb (Burial 24) was inserted into the rubble core of the building. The pyramid was then completed, standing 33 meters (108 ft) tall. The final version of Temple 33 was completely dismantled by archeologists in 1965 in order to arrive at the earlier stages of construction. '''Structure 34''' is a pyramid in the North Acropolis that was built by Siyaj Chan K'awiil II over the tomb of his father, Yax Nuun Ayiin I. The pyramid was topped by a three chambered shrine, the rooms situated one behind the other. Detail of Teotihuacan-related imagery decorating the sloping ''talud'' sections of the ''talud-tablero'' sides of Structure 5D-43. '''Structure 5D-43''' is an unusual radial temple in the East Plaza, built over a pre-existing twin pyramid complex. It is built into the end of the East Plaza Ballcourt and possessed four entry doorways and three stairways, the fourth (south) side was too close to the Central Acropolis for a stairway on that side. The building has a ''talud-tablero'' platform profile, modified from the original style found at Teotihuacan. In fact, it has been suggested that the style of the building has closer affinities with El Tajin and Xochicalco than with Teotihuacan itself. The vertical ''tablero'' panels are set between sloping ''talud'' panels and are decorated with paired disc symbols. Large flower symbols are set into the sloping ''talud'' panels, related to the Venus and star symbols used at Teotihuacan. The roof of the structure was decorated with friezes although only fragments now remain, showing a monstrous face, perhaps that of a jaguar, with another head emerging from the mouth. The second head possesses a bifurcated tongue but is probably not that of a snake. The temple, and its associated ballcourt, probably date to the reign of Nuun Ujol Chaak or that of his son Jasaw Chan K'awiil I, in the later part of the 7th century. '''Structure 5C-49''' possesses a clear Teotihuacan-linked architectural style; it has balustrades, an architectural feature that is very rare in the Maya region, and a ''talud-tablero'' façade; it dates to the 4th century AD. It is located near to the Lost World pyramid. '''Structure 5C-53''' is a small Teotihuacan-style platform that dates to about AD 600. It had stairways on all four sides and did not possess a superstructure. The '''Lost World Pyramid''' (Structure 5C-54) is the largest structure in the Mundo Perdido complex. It lies in the southwest portion of Tikal's central core, south of Temple III and west of Temple V. It was decorated with stucco masks of the sun god and dates to the Late Preclassic; this pyramid is part of an enclosed complex of structures that remained intact and un-impacted by later building activity at Tikal. By the end of the Late Preclassic this pyramid was one of the largest structures in the Maya region. It attained its final form during the reign of Chak Tok Ich'aak in the 4th century AD, in the Early Classic, standing more than 30 meters (98 ft) high with stairways on all four sides and a flat top that possibly supported a superstructure built from perishable materials. Although the plaza later suffered significant alteration, the organization of a group of temples on the east side of this complex adheres to the layout that defines the so-called E-Groups, identified as solar observatories. '''Structure 5D-96''' is the central temple on the east side of the Plaza of the Seven Temples. It has been restored and its rear outer wall is decorated with skull-and-crossbones motifs. '''Group 6C-16''' is an elite residential complex that has been thoroughly excavated. It lies a few hundred m south of the Lost World Complex and the excavations have revealed elaborate stucco masks, ballplayer murals, relief sculptures and buildings with Teotihuacan characteristics. The '''Great Plaza Ballcourt''' is a small ballcourt that lies between Temple I and the Central Acropolis. The '''Bat Palace''' is also known as the Palace of Windows and lies to the west of Temple III. It has two storeys, with a double range of chambers on the lower storey and a single range in the upper storey, which has been restored. The palace has ancient graffiti and possesses low windows. '''Complex N''' lies to the west of the Bat Palace and Temple III. The complex dates to AD 711. In 2018, 60,000 uncharted structures were revealed by archeologists with help of Lidar. Thanks to the new findings, some archeologists believe that 7-11 million Maya people inhabited in the northern Guatemala during the late classical period from 650 to 800 A.D. Lidar digitally removed the tree canopy to reveal ancient remains and showed that Maya cities like Tikal were bigger than previously thought. The project was mapped near the Maya Biosphere Reserve in the Petén region of Guatemala. === Altars[edit] === '''Altar 5''' is carved with two nobles, one of whom is probably Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. They are performing a ritual using the bones of an important woman. Altar 5 was found in Complex N, which lies to the west of Temple III. '''Altar 8''' is sculpted with a bound captive. It was found within Complex P in Group H and is now in the Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología in Guatemala City. '''Altar 9''' is associated with Stela 21 and bears the sculpture of a bound captive. It is located in front of Temple VI. '''Altar 10''' is carved with a captive tied to a scaffold. It is in the northern enclosure of Group Q, a twin-pyramid complex and has suffered from erosion. '''Altar 35''' is a plain monument associated with Stela 43. The stela-altar pair is centrally located at the base of the stairway of Temple IV. === Lintels === The elaborately carved wooden Lintel 3 from Temple IV. It celebrates a military victory by Yik'in Chan K'awiil in 743. At Tikal, beams of sapodilla wood were placed as lintels spanning the inner doorways of temples. These are the most elaborately carved wooden lintels to have survived anywhere in the Maya region. '''Lintel 3''' from Temple IV was taken to Basel in Switzerland in the 19th century. It was in almost perfect condition and depicts Yik'in Chan K'awiil seated on a palanquin. === Steli === Stelae are carved stone shafts, often sculpted with figures and hieroglyphs. A selection of the most notable stelae at Tikal follows: '''Stela 1''' dates to the 5th century and depicts the king Siyaj Chan K'awiil II in a standing position. '''Stela 4''' is dated to AD 396, during the reign of Yax Nuun Ayiin after the intrusion of Teotihuacan in the Maya area. The stela displays a mix of Maya and Teotihuacan qualities, and deities from both cultures. It has a portrait of the king with the Underworld Jaguar God under one arm and the Mexican Tlaloc under the other. His helmet is a simplified version of the Teotihuacan War Serpent. Unusually for Maya sculpture, but typically for Teotihuacan, Yax Nuun Ayiin is depicted with a frontal face, rather than in profile. '''Stela 5''' was dedicated in 744 by Yik'in Chan K'awiil. '''Stela 6''' is a badly damaged monument dating to 514 and bears the name of the "Lady of Tikal" who celebrated the end of the 4th K'atun in that year. '''Stela 10''' is twinned with Stela 12 but is badly damaged. It described the accession of Kaloomte' B'alam in the early 6th century and earlier events in his career, including the capture of a prisoner depicted on the monument. '''Stela 11''' was the last monument ever erected at Tikal; it was dedicated in 869 by Jasaw Chan K'awiil II. '''Stela 12''' is linked to the queen known as the "Lady of Tikal" and king Kaloomte' B'alam. The queen is described as performing the year-ending rituals but the monument was dedicated in honor of the king. '''Stela 16''' was dedicated in 711, during the reign of Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. The sculpture, including a portrait of the king and a hieroglyphic text, are limited to the front face of the monument. It was found in Complex N, west of Temple III. '''Stela 18''' was one of two stelae erected by Yax Nuun Ayiin I to celebrate the ''k'atun''-ending of AD 396. It was re-erected at the base of Temple 34, his funerary shrine. '''Stela 19''' was dedicated in 790 by Yax Nuun Ayiin II. '''Stela 20''' was found in Complex P, in Group H, and was moved to the Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología in Guatemala City. '''Stela 21''' was dedicated in 736 by Yik'in Chan K'awiil. Only the bottom of the stela is intact, the rest having been mutilated in ancient times. The surviving sculpture is of fine quality, consisting of the feet of a figure and of accompanying hieroglyphic text. The stela is associated with Altar 9 and is located in front of Temple VI. '''Stela 22''' was dedicated in 771 by Yax Nuun Ayiin II in the northern enclosure of Group Q, a twin-pyramid complex. The face of the figure on the stela has been mutilated. '''Stela 23''' was broken in antiquity and was re-erected in a residential complex. The defaced portrait on the monument is that of the so-called "Lady of Tikal", a daughter of Chak Tok Ich'aak II who became queen at the age of six but never ruled in her own right, being paired with male co-rulers. It dates to the early 6th century. '''Stela 24''' was erected at the foot of Temple 3 in 810, accompanied by Altar 7. Both were broken into fragments in ancient times, although the name of Dark Sun survives on three fragments. '''Stela 26''' was found in the summit shrine of Temple 34, underneath a broken masonry altar. The monument had originally been erected at the base of the temple during the Early Classic period and was later broken, probably at the beginning of the Late Classic. Its remains were then interred within the temple shrine. '''Stela 29''' bears a Long Count (8.12.14.8.15) date equivalent to AD 292, the earliest surviving Long Count date from the Maya lowlands. The stela is also the earliest monument to bear the Tikal emblem glyph. It bears a sculpture of the king facing to the right, holding the head of an underworld jaguar god, one of the patron deities of the city. The stela was deliberately smashed during the 6th century or some time later, the upper portion was dragged away and dumped in a rubbish tip close to Temple III, to be uncovered by archeologists in 1959. '''Stela 30''' is the first surviving monument to be erected after the Hiatus. Its style and iconography is similar to that of Caracol, one of the more important of Tikal's enemies. Stela 31, with the sculpted image of Siyaj Chan K'awiil II '''Stela 31''' is the accession monument of Siyaj Chan K'awiil II, also bearing two portraits of his father, Yax Nuun Ayiin, as a youth dressed as a Teotihuacan warrior. He carries a spearthrower in one hand and bears a shield decorated with the face of Tlaloc, the Teotihuacan war god. In ancient times the sculpture was broken and the upper portion was moved to the summit of Temple 33 and ritually buried. Stela 31 has been described as the greatest Early Classic sculpture to survive at Tikal. A long hieroglyphic text is carved onto the back of the monument, the longest to survive from the Early Classic, which describes the arrival of Siyah K'ak' at El Peru and Tikal in January 378. It was also the first stela at Tikal to be carved on all four faces. '''Stela 32''' is a fragmented monument with a foreign Teotihuacan-style sculpture apparently depicting the lord of that city with the attributes of the central Mexican storm god Tlaloc, including his goggle eyes and tasselled headdress. '''Stela 39''' is a broken monument that was erected in the Lost World complex. The upper portion of the stela is missing but the lower portion shows the lower body and legs of Chak Tok Ich'aak, holding a flint axe in his left hand. He is trampling the figure of a bound, richly dressed captive. The monument is dated to AD 376. The text on the back of the monument describes a bloodletting ritual to celebrate a Katun-ending. The stela also names Chak Tok Ich'aak I's father as K'inich Muwaan Jol. '''Stela 40''' bears a portrait of Kan Chitam and dates to AD 468. '''Stela 43''' is paired with Altar 35. It is a plain monument at the base of the stairway of Temple IV. === Oqbra === A ceramic censer representing an elderly deity, found in Burial 10. '''Burial 1''' is a tomb in the Lost World complex. A fine ceramic bowl was recovered from the tomb, with the handle formed from three-dimensional head and neck of a bird emerging from the two-dimensional body painted on the lid. '''Burial 10''' is the tomb of Yax Nuun Ayiin. It is located beneath Structure 34 in the North Acropolis. The tomb contained a rich array of offerings, including ceramic vessels and food, and nine youths were sacrificed to accompany the dead king. A dog was also entombed with the deceased king. Pots in the tomb were stuccoed and painted and many demonstrated a blend of Maya and Teotihuacan styles. Among the offerings was an incense-burner in the shape of an elderly underworld god, sitting on a stool made of human bones and holding a severed head in his hands. The tomb was sealed with a corbel vault, then the pyramid was built on top. '''Burial 48''' is generally accepted as the tomb of Sihyaj Chan Kʼawiil II. It is located beneath Temple 33 in the North Acropolis. The chamber of the tomb was cut from the bedrock and contained the remains of the king himself together with those of two adolescents who had been sacrificed in order to accompany the deceased ruler. The walls of the tomb were covered with white stucco painted with hieroglyphs that included the Long Count date equivalent to 20 March 457, probably the date of either the death or interment of the king. The king's skeleton was missing its skull, its femurs and one of its hands while the skeletons of the sacrificial victims were intact. '''Burial 85''' dates to the Late Preclassic and was enclosed by a platform, with a primitive corbel vault. The tomb contained a single male skeleton, which lacked a skull and its thighbones. The dynastic founder of Tikal, Yax Ehb' Xook, has been linked to this tomb, which lies deep in the heart of the North Acropolis. The deceased had probably died in battle with his body being mutilated by his enemies before being recovered and interred by his followers. The bones were wrapped carefully in textiles to form an upright bundle. The missing head was replaced by a small greenstone mask with shell-inlaid teeth and eyes and bearing a three-pointed royal headband. This head wears an emblem of rulership on its forehead and is a rare Preclassic lowland Maya portrait of a king. Among the contents of the tomb were a stingray spine, a spondylus shell and twenty-six ceramic vessels. '''Burial 116''' is the tomb of Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. It is a large vaulted chamber deep within the pyramid, below the level of the Great Plaza. The tomb contained rich offerings of jadeite, ceramics, shell and works of art. The body of the king was covered with large quantities of jade ornaments including an enormous necklace with especially large beads, as depicted in sculpted portraits of the king. One of the outstanding pieces recovered from the tomb was an ornate jade mosaic vessel with the lid bearing a sculpted portrait of the king himself. '''Burial 195''' was flooded with mud in antiquity. This flood had covered wooden objects that had completely rotted away by the time the tomb was excavated, leaving hollows in the dried mud. Archeologists filled these hollows with stucco and thus excavated four effigies of the god K'awiil, the wooden originals long gone. '''Burial 196''' is a Late Classic royal tomb that contained a jade mosaic vessel topped with the head of the Maize God. == Biblijografija == * Adams, Richard E.W. (2000). "Introduction to a Survey of the Native Prehistoric Cultures of Mesoamerica". In Richard E.W. Adams; Murdo J. Macleod (eds.). The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas. Vol. II: Mesoamerica, part 1. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–44. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-521-35165-2</nowiki>. OCLC 33359444. * Andrews, E. Wyllys; William L. Fash (2005). "Issues in Copán Archaeology". In E. Wyllys Andrews; William L. Fash (eds.). Copán: The History of an Ancient Maya Kingdom. Santa Fe and Oxford: School of American Research Press and James Currey Ltd. pp. 395–425. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-85255-981-9</nowiki>. OCLC 56194789. * Banco de Guatemala. "Monedas" (in Spanish). Banco de Guatemala. Retrieved 13 November 2009. * Berlin, Heinrich (April 1967). "The Destruction of Structure 5D-33-1st at Tikal". American Antiquity. 32 (2): 241–242. doi:10.2307/277915. ISSN 0002-7316. JSTOR 277915. OCLC 754651089. S2CID 163207109. * Coe, Michael D. (1999). The Maya. Ancient peoples and places series (6th, fully revised and expanded ed.). London and New York: Thames & Hudson. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-500-28066-9</nowiki>. OCLC 59432778. * Coe, William R. (1988) [1967]. Tikal: Guía de las Antiguas Ruinas Mayas (in Spanish). Guatemala: Piedra Santa. <nowiki>ISBN 978-84-8377-246-1</nowiki>. * Drew, David (1999). The Lost Chronicles of the Mayan Kings. Los Angeles: University of California Press. * Fash, William L.; Ricardo Agurcia Fasquelle (2005). "Contributions and Controversies in the Archaeology and History of Copán". In E. Wyllys Andrews; William L. Fash (eds.). Copán: The History of an Ancient Maya Kingdom. Santa Fe and Oxford: School of American Research Press and James Currey Ltd. pp. 3–32. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-85255-981-9</nowiki>. OCLC 56194789. * Gill, Richardson B. (2000). The Great Maya Droughts: Water, Life, and Death. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-8263-2194-7</nowiki>. OCLC 43567384. * Hammond, Norman (2000). "The Maya Lowlands: Pioneer Farmers to Merchant Princes". In Richard E.W. Adams; Murdo J. Macleod (eds.). The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas. Vol. II: Mesoamerica, part 1. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 197–249. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-521-35165-2</nowiki>. OCLC 33359444. * Harrison, Peter D. (2006). "Maya Architecture at Tikal". In Nikolai Grube (ed.). Maya: Divine Kings of the Rain Forest. Eva Eggebrecht and Matthias Seidel (assistant eds.). Köln: Könemann. pp. 218–231. <nowiki>ISBN 978-3-8331-1957-6</nowiki>. OCLC 71165439. * Hidinger, Lori A. (1996). "Measuring the Impacts of Ecotourism on Animal Populations: A Case Study of Tikal National Park, Guatemala" (PDF). Yale Forestry & Environment Bulletin. 99 (1): 45–59. * Jones, Grant D. (1998). The Conquest of the Last Maya Kingdom. Stanford, California, USA: Stanford University Press. <nowiki>ISBN 9780804735223</nowiki>. OCLC 38747674. * Kelly, Joyce (1996). An Archaeological Guide to Northern Central America: Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-8061-2858-0</nowiki>. OCLC 34658843. * Kerr, Justin (n.d.). "A Precolumbian Portfolio" (online database). FAMSI Research Materials. Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies, Inc. Retrieved 13 June 2007. * Looper, Matthew G. (1999). "New Perspectives on the Late Classic Political History of Quirigua, Guatemala". Ancient Mesoamerica. 10 (2): 263–280. doi:10.1017/S0956536199101135. ISSN 0956-5361. OCLC 86542758. S2CID 161977572. * Looper, Matthew G. (2003). Lightning Warrior: Maya Art and Kingship at Quirigua. Linda Schele series in Maya and pre-Columbian studies. Austin: University of Texas Press. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-292-70556-2</nowiki>. OCLC 52208614. * Martin, Simon; Nikolai Grube (2000). Chronicle of the Maya Kings and Queens: Deciphering the Dynasties of the Ancient Maya. London and New York: Thames & Hudson. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-500-05103-0</nowiki>. OCLC 47358325. * Martin, Simon; Nikolai Grube (2008). Chronicle of the Maya Kings and Queens: Deciphering the Dynasties of the Ancient Maya (2nd revised ed.). London and New York: Thames & Hudson. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-500-28726-2</nowiki>. OCLC 191753193. * Martínez, Horacio; David Webster; Jay Silverstein; Timothy Murtha; Kirk Straight; Irinna Montepeque (2004). J.P. Laporte; B. Arroyo; H. Escobedo; H. Mejía (eds.). "Reconocimiento en la periferia de Tikal: Los Terraplenes Norte, Oeste y Este, nuevas exploraciones y perspectivas" (PDF). XVII Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala, 2003 (in Spanish). Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología, Guatemala. pp. 635–641. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 September 2011. Retrieved 24 June 2009. * Means, Philip Ainsworth (1917). History of the Spanish Conquest of Yucatan and of the Itzas . Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University. Vol. VII. Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology. OCLC 681599. * Miller, Mary Ellen (1999). Maya Art and Architecture. London and New York: Thames & Hudson. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-500-20327-9</nowiki>. OCLC 41659173. * Miller, Mary; Karl Taube (1993). The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya: An Illustrated Dictionary of Mesoamerican Religion. London: Thames & Hudson. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-500-05068-2</nowiki>. OCLC 27667317. * Morales, Tirso; Benito Burgos; Miguel Acosta; Sergio Pinelo; Marco Tulio Castellanos; Leopoldo González; Francisco Castañeda; Edy Barrios; Rudy Larios; et al. (2008). J.P. Laporte; B. Arroyo; H. Mejía (eds.). "Trabajos realizados por la Unidad de Arqueología del Parque Nacional Tikal, 2006-2007" (PDF). XXI Simposio de Arqueología en Guatemala, 2007 (in Spanish): 413–436. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 September 2011. Retrieved 21 June 2011. * Puleston, Dennis E.; Donald W. Callender, Jr. (1967). "Defensive Earthworks at Tikal". Expedition. University of Pennsylvania. 9 (3): 40–48. ISSN 0014-4738. OCLC 1568625. * Salisbury, David; Mimi Koumenalis; Barbara Moffett (19 September 2002). "Newly revealed hieroglyphs tell story of superpower conflict in the Maya world" (PDF). Exploration: The Online Research Journal of Vanderbilt University. OCLC 50324967. Archived from the original (PDF online publication) on 2 November 2014. Retrieved 22 September 2009. * Schele, Linda; Peter Mathews (1999). The Code of Kings: The language of seven Maya temples and tombs. New York: Simon & Schuster. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-684-85209-6</nowiki>. OCLC 41423034. * Sharer, Robert J.; Loa P. Traxler (2006). The Ancient Maya (6th, fully revised ed.). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-8047-4817-9</nowiki>. OCLC 57577446. * Silverstein, Jay; David Webster; Horacio Martinez; Alvaro Soto (2009). Rethinking the Earthworks of Tikal: A Hydraulic Hypothesis for the Classic Maya Polity. Ancient Mesoamerican 20(1), Cambridge Journals. * StarWars.com. "Star Wars: Episode IV A New Hope". Lucasfilm. Archived from the original on 29 December 2009. Retrieved 13 November 2009. * Torres, Estuardo. "Parque Nacional Tikal" (in Spanish). Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. Archived from the original on 18 December 2009. Retrieved 30 July 2014. * UNESCO World Heritage Center. "Tikal National Park". UNESCO World Heritage Center. Retrieved 13 November 2009. * Valdés, Juan Antonio; Fahsen, Federico (2005). "Disaster in Sight: The Terminal Classic at Tikal and Uaxactun". In Arthur A. Demarest; Prudence M. Rice; Don S. Rice (eds.). The Terminal Classic in the Maya lowlands: Collapse, transition, and transformation. Boulder: University Press of Colorado. pp. 162–194. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-87081-822-6</nowiki>. OCLC 61719499. * Webster, David L. (2002). The Fall of the Ancient Maya: Solving the Mystery of the Maya Collapse. London: Thames & Hudson. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-500-05113-9</nowiki>. OCLC 48753878. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Siti arkeoloġiċi]] [[Kategorija:Siti ta' Wirt Dinji]] [[Kategorija:Parks Nazzjonali]] [[Kategorija:Maja]] [[Kategorija:Gwatemala]] 975u8h9v8cgw76d6bg3gu2fi5yacvtt 279114 279113 2022-08-15T08:48:31Z Trigcly 17859 /* Klassika Aħħarija */ żieda referenzi wikitext text/x-wiki [[Stampa:Tikal Temple1 2006 08 11.JPG|daqsminuri|It-Tempju I ta' Tikal huwa għoli 47 metru (154 pied).]] '''Tikal''' (/tiˈkɑːl/; ''Tik’al'' bl-ortografija moderna tal-[[Maja]]) hija l-fdal ta' belt antika, li x'aktarx kienet tissejjaħ '''Yax Mutal'''<ref>Tokovinine, Alexandre (2008). "Lords of Tikal: Narratives and Identities". ''Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology''. Harvard University: 4.</ref>, u li tinsab f'foresta tropikali fil-[[Gwatemala]].<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.cyark.org/projects/tikal/overview|titlu=CyArk|sit=CyArk|data-aċċess=2022-08-14}}</ref> Hija wieħed mill-ikbar siti [[Arkeoloġija|arkeoloġiċi]] u ċentri urbani taċ-ċivilizzazzjoni tal-Maja pre-Kolumbjana. Tinsab fir-reġjun arkeoloġiku tal-Baċir ta' Petén fit-territorju attwali tat-Tramuntana tal-Gwatemala. Is-sit jinsab fid-dipartiment ta' El Petén u huwa parti mill-Park Nazzjonali ta' Tikal. Fl-1979 sar [[Sit ta' Wirt Dinji]] tal-[[UNESCO]].<ref name=":0">{{Ċita web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/64/|titlu=Tikal National Park|kunjom=Centre|isem=UNESCO World Heritage|sit=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2022-08-14}}</ref> Tikal kienet il-[[belt kapitali]] ta' stat ħakkiem li sar wieħed mill-iżjed renji setgħana tal-Maja tal-qedem.<ref>Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 1. Hammond 2000, p. 233.</ref> Għalkemm l-arkitettura [[Monument|monumentali]] tas-sit tmur lura saħansitra tas-seklu 4 [[Ante Christum natum|Q.K]]., Tikal laħqet il-quċċata tagħha matul il-Perjodu Klassiku, għall-ħabta tal-200 sad-900. Matul dak iż-żmien, il-belt iddominat il-biċċa l-kbira tar-reġjun tal-Maja [[Politika|politikament]], ekonomikament u militarment, filwaqt li interaġixxiet ma' żoni fil-Mesoamerka kollha, bħall-metropoli l-kbira ta' [[Teotihuacan]] fil-Wied tal-Messiku daqstant 'il bogħod. Hemm evidenza li Tikal inħakmet minn Teotihuacan fis-seklu 4 W.K.<ref>Martin & Grube 2008, pp. 29-32.</ref> Wara t-tmiem tal-Perjodu Klassiku Aħħari, ma nbena l-ebda monument maġġuri f'Tikal u hemm evidenza li l-palazzi tal-elit ingħataw in-nar. Dan l-avvenimenti mexew id f'id ma' tnaqqis gradwali fil-popolazzjoni, u laħqu l-qofol tagħhom fl-abbandun tas-sit sal-aħħar tas-seklu 10. Tikal hija l-iżjed belt mifhuma minn kwalunkwe waħda mill-bliet tal-Maja l-kbar fl-artijiet baxxi, b'lista twila ta' mexxejja dinastiċi, bl-iskoperta tal-oqbra ta' bosta mill-mexxejja fuq din il-lista u bl-investigazzjoni tal-monumenti, tat-tempji u tal-palazzi tagħhom.<ref>Adams 2000, p. 34.</ref> == Etimoloġija == [[Stampa:Tikalemblem.jpg|daqsminuri|Glifiċi emblematiċi ta' isem Tikal]] L-isem ''Tikal'' jaf oriġina minn ''ti ak'al'' fil-lingwa tal-Maja tal-[[Yucatan]]; jingħad li huwa isem relattivament modern li jfisser "f'ġibjun". Milli jidher l-isem ingħata lil wieħed mill-ġibjuni antiki tas-sit mill-kaċċaturi u mill-vjaġġaturi fir-reġjun.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, p. 30.</ref> Interpretazzjoni oħra tal-isem hi li jfisser "il-post tal-vuċijiet" fil-lingwa tal-Maja ta' Itza. Madankollu, Tikal mhuwiex l-isem antik tas-sit iżda pjuttost l-isem li ġie adottat ftit wara l-iskoperta tas-sit fis-snin 40 tas-seklu 19.<ref>Drew 1999, p. 136.</ref> Il-kitbiet ġeroglifiċi fil-fdalijiet jirreferu għall-belt antika bħala ''Yax Mutal'' jew ''Yax Mutul'', li tfisser "l-ewwel Mutal". Tikal jaf bdiet tissejjaħ hekk minħabba li Dos Pilas beda juża l-istess glifiċi emblematiċi; il-mexxejja tal-belt x'aktarx li riedu jiddistingwu bejn il-bliet b'dan il-mod.<ref>Schele & Mathews 1999, p. 64.</ref> Ir-renju kollu kien jissejjaħ sempliċement ''Mutul'', li huwa l-interpretazzjoni tal-glifiċi emblematiċi tal-"qatta' xagħar" fir-ritratt fuq il-lemin. It-tifsira preċiża għadha mhux ċerta.<ref>Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 1.</ref> == Ġeografija == [[Stampa:Mayamap.png|daqsminuri|280x280px|Mappa taż-żona tal-Maja fir-reġjun Mesoamerikan. Kemm Tikal kif ukoll Calakmul jinsabu qrib iċ-ċentru taż-żona.]] L-eqreb insedjamenti kbar moderni huma Flores u Santa Elena, bejn wieħed u ieħor xi 64 kilometru (40 mil) bogħod bit-triq lejn il-Lbiċ.<ref>Kelly 1996, pp. 111-112.</ref> Tikal tinsab xi 303 kilometri (188 mil) fit-Tramuntana tal-[[Belt tal-Gwatemala]]. Tinsab 19-il kilometru (12-il mil) fin-Nofsinhar tal-belt tal-Maja kontemporanja ta' [[Uaxactun]] u 30 kilometru (19-il mil) fil-Majjistral ta' [[Yaxha]].<ref>Webster 2002, p. 118.</ref> Il-belt tinsab 100 kilometru (62 mil) fix-Xlokk tar-rivali l-kbira tagħha tal-Perjodu Klassiku, [[Calakmul]], u 85 kilometru (53 mil) fil-Majjistral tal-alleat ta' Calakmul, [[Caracol]], li issa tinsab fil-[[Beliże|Belize]].<ref>Webster 2002, p. 118.</ref> Il-belt ġiet immappjata għalkollox u kienet tkopri erja ikbar minn 16-il kilometru kwadru (6.2 mili kwadri) li kienet tinkludi madwar 3,000 struttura.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 104.</ref> It-topografija tas-sit tikkonsisti minn sensiela ta' rdumijiet paralleli tal-[[ġebla tal-ġir]] 'il fuq minn artijiet baxxi u mtajna. L-arkitettura maġġuri tas-sit hija raggruppata f'żoni iktar għoljin li huma kkollegati b'toroq olzati minn naħa għall-oħra tal-artijiet bassasa.<ref>Drew 1999, p. 185.</ref> Iż-żona madwar Tikal ġiet iddikjarata bħala l-Park Nazzjonali ta' Tikal u ż-żona ppreservata tkopri 570 kilometru kwadru (220 mil kwadru).<ref>Kelly 1996, p. 140.</ref> Dan il-park inħoloq fis-26 ta' Mejju 1955 taħt il-patroċinju tal-Instituto de Antropología e Historia u kien l-ewwel żona protetta fil-Gwatemala.<ref>Kelly 1996, p. 140.</ref> Il-fdalijiet jinsabu fost il-foresti tropikali tat-Tramuntana tal-Gwatemala li kienu jiffurmaw in-nieqa taċ-ċivilizzazzjoni tal-Maja fl-artijiet baxxi. Il-belt stess kienet tinsab qalb art għammiela abbundanti, u jaf iddominat rotta kummerċjali naturali mil-Lvant għall-Punent tul il-[[Peniżola]] tal-Yucatan. Fost is-siġar il-kbar tal-Park Nazzjonali ta' Tikal hemm il-kapok ġgantesk (''Ceiba pentandra'') li kienet is-siġra sagra tal-Maja; iċ-ċedru tropikali (''Cedrela odorata''), u l-kawba tal-[[Ħonduras]] (''Swietenia macrophylla''). Fir-rigward tal-fawna, wieħed jista' jara regolarment l-aguti, il-koati ta' mnieħru abjad, il-volpi griż, ix-xadin ta' Geoffroy, ix-xadin li jgħajjat, l-ajkla arpija, il-falkun, id-dundjan tal-foresti, il-gwan, it-tukan, il-pappagall aħdar u n-nemel li jaqta' l-weraq. Jingħad ukoll li l-ġagwar, l-ocelot u l-cougar jgħixu fil-park.<ref>Coe 1967, pp. 9-10. Hidinger 1996, p. 52.</ref> Tikal ma kellha l-ebda ilma għajr dak li kien jinġabar mill-ilma tax-xita u jinħażen f'għaxar ġibjuni. L-arkeologi li ħadmu f'Tikal matul is-seklu 20 sewwew wieħed minn dawn il-ġibjuni antiki biex jaħżnu l-ilma għalihom stess.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 124.</ref> Ix-xita annwali medja li tinżel f'Tikal tammonta għal 1,945 millimetru (76.6 pulzier). Madankollu, ix-xita ġieli tinżel għal għarrieda, u perjodi twal ta' nixfa setgħu jseħħu qabel ma l-għelejjel isiru, li kienet theddida serja għall-abitanti tal-belt antika.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 239.</ref> == Popolazzjoni == L-istimi tal-popolazzjoni ta' Tikal ivarjaw minn 10,000 sa saħansitra 90,000 abitant. Il-popolazzjoni ta' Tikal bdiet kurva kontinwa ta' tkabbir mill-bidu tal-Perjodu Preklassiku (bejn wieħed u ieħor fl-2000 Q.K. – 200 W.K.), bl-eqqel livell fil-Perjodu Klassiku Aħħari, fejn il-popolazzjoni kibret b'mod rapidu mis-700 W.K. sat-830, u mbagħad kien hemm deklin qawwi. Għaż-żona ta' 120 kilometru kwadru (46 mil kwadru) fi ħdan id-difiżi bit-tajn tal-periferija, l-ogħla popolazzjoni hija stmata li kienet 517-il persuna għal kull kilometru kwadru (1,340 persuna għal kull mil kwadru). F'żona fi ħdan raġġ ta' 12-il kilometru (7.5 mili) tal-qalba tas-sit, l-ogħla popolazzjoni hija stmata li kienet tlaħħaq il-120,000 ruħ; id-densità tal-popolazzjoni hija stmata li kienet 265 persuna għal kull kilometru kwadru (689 persuna għal kull mil kwadru). F'reġjun fi ħdan raġġ ta' 25 kilometru (16-il mil) mill-qalba tas-sit u inkluż xi siti anċillari, l-ogħla popolazzjoni hija stmata li kienet tlaħħaq l-425,000 ruħ b'densità ta' 216-il persuna għal kull kilometru kwadru (515-il persuna għal kull mil kwadru). Dawn iċ-ċifri rigward il-popolazzjoni huma ferm iktar impressjonanti minħabba l-artijiet bassasa estensiva li ma kinux adattati għall-abitazzjoni jew għall-agrikoltura. Madankollu, xi arkeologi, bħal [[David Webster]], jemmnu li dawn iċ-ċifri huma wisq għoljin.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 264.</ref> == Sit ta' Wirt Dinji == Il-Park Nazzjonali ta' Tikal ġie ddeżinjat bħala Sit ta' Wirt Dinji tal-UNESCO fl-1979.<ref name=":0" /> Il-valur universali straordinarju tas-sit ġie rrikonoxxut abbażi ta' ħames kriterji tal-għażla tal-UNESCO bħala sit kulturali u naturali mħallat: il-'''kriterju (i)''' "Rappreżentazzjoni ta' kapulavur frott il-kreattività tal-bniedem"; il-'''kriterju (iii)''' "Xhieda unika jew minn tal-inqas eċċezzjonali ta' tradizzjoni kulturali jew ta' ċivilizzazzjoni li għadha ħajja jew li għebet"; il-'''kriterju (iv)''' "Eżempju straordinarju ta' tip ta' bini, ta' grupp ta' siti jew ta' pajsaġġ arkitettoniku jew teknoloġiku li joħroġ fid-dieher stadju/i sinifikanti fl-istorja tal-bniedem"; il-'''kriterju (ix)''' "Eżempju straordinarju li jirrappreżenta proċessi ekoloġiċi u bijoloġiċi kontinwi sinifikanti fl-evoluzzjoni u fl-iżvilupp ta' ekosistemi u ta' komunitajiet ta' pjanti u ta' annimali terrestri, tal-ilma ħelu, kostali u tal-baħar"; u l-'''kriterju (x)''' "Post fejn hemm l-iktar ħabitats naturali importanti u sinifikanti għall-konservazzjoni fil-post tad-diversità bijoloġika, inkluż fejn hemm speċijiet mhedda ta' valur universali straordinarju mill-perspettiva tax-xjenza jew tal-konservazzjoni".<ref name=":0" /> == Storja == === Preklassika === [[Stampa:Maya-Maske.jpg|daqsminuri|Maskra tal-Maja li nstabet f'Tikal]] Hemm traċċi ta' biedja bikrija fis-sit li jmorru lura saħansitra sal-1000 Q.K., fil-Preklassiku Nofsani.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 262.</ref> Ġabra ta' bċejjeċ taċ-ċeramika ta' Mamon li jmorru lura għal madwar is-700 u l-400 Q.K. instabu f'''chultun'' issiġillat, jiġifieri f'kompartiment taħt l-art b'għamla ta' flixkun.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 55.</ref> Fil-perjodu Preklassiku Aħħar f'Tikal diġà kienet qed issir kostruzzjoni maġġuri, u l-ewwel binjiet tfaċċaw għall-ħabta tal-400 u t-300 Q.K., inkluż il-kostruzzjoni ta' piramidi u pjattaformi maġġuri, għalkemm il-belt kienet għadha ferm iżgħar minn siti oħra iktar fin-Nofsinhar bħal [[El Mirador]] u [[Nakbe]].<ref>Coe 1999, p. 55.</ref> F'dak iż-żmien, Tikal ipparteċipat fil-kultura mifruxa ta' Chikanel li ddominat iż-żoni Ċentrali u tat-Tramuntana tal-Maja dak iż-żmien – reġjun li kien jinkludi l-Peniżola tal-Yucatan kollha inkluż it-Tramuntana u l-Lvant tal-Gwatemala u l-Belize kollu.<ref>Coe 1999, pp. 73, 80.</ref> Żewġ tempji li jmorru lura għaż-żminijiet aħħarin ta' Chikanel kellhom superstrutturi b'ħitan bix-xogħol fil-ġebel li jaf kienu bil-volti apposta li jħallu arkata jew spazju vojt fi ħdanhom, għalkemm ma nstabux provi ta' dan. Wieħed minnhom kellu affreski elaborati mal-ħitan ta' barra li juru figuri umani fuq sfond ta' tiżjin ripetut bl-[[isfar]], bl-[[iswed]], bir-roża u bl-[[aħmar]].<ref>Coe 1999, p. 75.</ref> Fl-ewwel seklu W.K. tfaċċaw l-ewwel oqbra għonja u Tikal iffjorixxiet politikament u kulturalment, filwaqt li l-ġirien ġganteski tagħha fit-Tramuntana majnaw. Lejn l-aħħar tal-Preklassiku Aħħari, l-istil tal-arti u tal-arkitettura Izapan mill-Kosta [[Oċean Paċifiku|Paċifika]] beda jinfluwenza lil Tikal, kif joħroġ fid-dieher minn skultura miksura mill-akropoli u mill-affreski bikrin fil-belt.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 78.</ref> === Klassika Bikrija === It-tmexxija dinastika fl-artijiet baxxi tal-Maja hija ankrata l-iktar fil-fond f'Tikal. Skont sejbiet ġeroglifiċi li saru iktar 'il quddiem, id-dinastija ġiet stabbilita minn [[Yax Ehb Xook]], x'aktarx fl-ewwel seklu W.K.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 90.</ref> Fil-bidu tal-perjodu Klassiku Bikri, il-poter fir-reġjun tal-Maja kien ikkonċentrat f'Tikal u f'Calakmul, fil-qalba tat-territorju tal-Maja.<ref>Miller 1999, pp. 88-89.</ref> Tikal jaf ibbenefikat mill-waqgħa tal-istati Preklassiċi l-kbar bħal El Mirador. Fil-perjodu Klassiku Bikri Tikal malajr żviluppat fl-iżjed belt dinamika fir-reġjun tal-Maja, u xprunat l-iżvilupp ta' bliet tal-Maja oħrajn fl-inħawi.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 191.</ref> Madankollu, is-sit spiss kien imdaħħal fi gwerer u mill-kitbiet imnaqqxa nafu li kien hemm diversi alleanzi u kunflitti ma' stati oħra tal-Maja, inkluż Uaxactun, Caracol, [[Naranjo]] u Calakmul. Is-sit ġarrab telfa fl-aħħar tal-perjodu Klassiku Bikri kontra Caracol, li ħadet post Tikal bħala ċ-ċentru ewlieni fl-artijiet baxxi tan-Nofsinhar tal-Maja.<ref>Sharer 1994, p. 265.</ref> Fil-parti iktar bikrija tal-Klassiku Bikri kien hemm ostilitajiet bejn Tikal u l-ġar tagħha Uaxactun. F'Uaxactun fil-fatt instabu dokumentazzjonijiet dwar il-qbid ta' priġunieri minn Tikal.<ref>Kelly 1996, p. 129.</ref> Milli jidher kien hemm waqfa fis-suċċessjoni dinastika minn raġel għal ieħor lejn it-317 W.K., meta [[Unen Bahlam]] għamlet ċerimonja ta' tmiem ''katun'', x'aktarx bħala r-reġina tal-belt.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, p. 27.</ref> ==== Tikal u Teotihuacan ==== [[Stampa:Mexico SunMoonPyramid.jpg|daqsminuri|Jidher li l-metropoli l-kbira ta' Teotihuacan fil-Wied tal-Messiku intervjeniet b'mod deċiżiv fil-politka ta' Tikal.]] Diġà fil-200 W.K. Teotihuacan kellha ambaxxati f'Tikal.<ref>The Origins & Collapse of the Preclassic Maya in the Mirador Basin - Richard Hansen at The Library of Congress (2014)</ref> L-erbatax-il re ta' Tikal kien Chak Tok Ich'aak (li tfisser litteralment "Sieq tal-Ġagwar il-Kbir"). Chak Tok Ich'aak bena palazz li ġie ppreservat u żviluppat mill-mexxejja ta' warajh sakemm sar il-qalba tal-Akropoli Ċentrali.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 192.</ref> Ma tantx nafu wisq dwar Chak Tok Ich'aak għajr li nqatel fl-14 ta' Jannar 378 W.K. Fl-istess jum, wasal Siyah K'ak' (li tfisser litteralment "Twieled in-Nar") mill-Punent, wara li għadda minn [[El Peru]], sit fil-Punent ta' Tikal, fit-8 ta' Jannar. Fuq l-iStele 31 jissemma bħala s-"Sinjur tal-Punent".<ref>Drew 1999, p. 199.</ref> Siyah K'ak' x'aktarx li kien ġeneral barrani, irrappreżentat minn kitba ġeroglifika mhux tal-Maja ta' wieħed li jwaddab il-lanez flimkien ma' kokka, kitba ġeroglifika magħrufa sew mill-metropoli l-kbira ta' Teotihuacan fil-Wied tal-Messiku daqstant 'il bogħod. Siyah K'ak' jaf kien anke l-mexxej ta' Teotihuacan. Dawn l-avvenimenti rreġistrati fil-kitba ġeroglifika tal-Maja jissuġġerixxu b'mod qawwi li Siyah K'ak' mexxa invażjoni ta' Tikal min-naħa ta' Teotihuacan u r-re nattiv ta' Tikal ġarrab telfa, inqabad mill-għadu u ġie ġġustizzjat minnufih.<ref>Coe 1999, pp. 90-91.</ref> Milli jidher Siyah K'ak' ġie megħjun minn fazzjoni politika b'saħħitha f'Tikal stess<ref>Webster 2002, p. 133.</ref>; bejn wieħed u ieħor fl-istess żmien tal-ħakma, grupp ta' nattivi ta' Teotihuacan kienu qed jirresjedu qrib il-kumpless tad-Dinja Mitlufa.<ref>Drew 1999, p. 201.</ref> Huwa eżerċita kontroll ukoll fuq bliet oħra fl-inħawi, fosthom Uaxactun, fejn sar re, iżda ma ħax it-tron ta' Tikal għalih innifsu.<ref name=":1">Drew 1999, p. 200.</ref> Fi żmien sena, ibnu, Yax Nuun Ayiin I (l-"Ewwel Kukkudrill") sar il-ħmistax-il re ta' Tikal meta kien għadu tifel, u ngħata t-tron fit-13 ta' Settembru 379.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 97.</ref> Huwa rrenja għal 47 sena bħala r-re ta' Tikal, u baqa' vassall ta' Siyah K'ak' sa ma dan miet. X'aktarx li Yax Nuun Ayiin I ħa mara mid-dinastija ta' Tikal ta' qablu u b'hekk leġittimizza d-dritt ta' tmexxija għal ibnu, Siyaj Chan K'awiil II.<ref name=":1" /> [[Río Azul]], sit żgħir madwar 100 kilometru (62 mil) fil-Grigal ta' Tikal, inħakem minn Tikal matul ir-renju ta' Yax Nuun Ayiin I. Is-sit sar qisu tarka ta' Tikal u kien jiddefendiha mill-bliet ostili iktar lejn it-Tramuntana, u sar kollegament kummerċjali mal-[[Baħar Karibew|Karibew]].<ref>Drew 1999, pp. 201-202.</ref> Għalkemm il-mexxejja l-ġodda ta' Tikal kienu barranin, id-dixxendenti tagħhom malajr saru midħla tal-Maja. Tikal saret l-alleat u l-imsieħeb kummerċjali ewlieni ta' Teotihuacan fl-artijiet baxxi tal-Maja. Wara li nħakmet minn Teotihuacan, Tikal malajr iddominat ir-reġjun ta' Peten fit-Tramuntana u fil-Lvant. Uaxactun, flimkien ma' rħula żgħar oħra fir-reġjun, ġew assorbiti fir-renju ta' Tikal. Siti oħra, bħal [[Bejucal]] u [[Motul de San José]] ħdejn il-Lag ta' Petén Itzá saru vassalli tal-ġar iktar setgħan tagħhom lejn it-Tramuntana. Sa nofs is-seklu 5 Tikal kellha territorju ewlieni ta' mill-inqas 25 kilometru (16-il mil) f'kull direzzjoni. Għall-ħabta tas-seklu 5 inbniet sistema impressjonanti ta' fortifikazzjonijiet b'fosos u bi ħniedaq tul il-periferija tat-Tramuntana ta' Tikal, flimkien mad-difiżi naturali pprovduti minn żoni kbar ta' artijiet bassasa fil-Lvant u fil-Punent tal-belt. X'aktarx li nbnew ukoll fortifikazzjonijiet oħra lejn in-Nofsinhar. Dawn id-difiżi pproteġew lill-popolazzjoni ewlenija u r-riżorsi agrikoli ta' Tikal, f'erja ta' madwar 120 kilometru kwadru (46 mil kwadru). Riċerka reċenti tissuġġerixxi li l-ħniedaq kienu jintużaw bħala sistema ta' ġbir tal-ilma iktar milli għad-difiża.<ref>Silverstein 2009.</ref> ==== Tikal u Copán ==== Fis-seklu 5 il-poter tal-belt kien iwassal saħansitra sa Copán fin-Nofsinhar, u l-fundatur tagħha, K'inich Yax K'uk' Mo', kellu rabtiet ċari ma' Tikal. Copán stess ma kinitx f'reġjun etniku tal-Maja u l-istabbiliment tad-dinastija ta' Copán x'aktarx li kienet tinvolvi l-intervent dirett ta' Tikal.<ref>Wyllys Andrews & Fash 2005, p. 407.</ref> K'inich Yax K'uk' Mo' wasal f'Copán f'Diċembru 426 u mill-analiżi tal-għadam tiegħu nafu li qatta' tfulitu u żgħożitu f'Tikal.<ref>Fash & Agurcia Fasquelle 2005, p. 26.</ref> Individwu magħruf bħala Ajaw K'uk' Mo' (jew is-Sinjur K'uk' Mo') jissemma f'test bikri f'Tikal u jaf kien l-istess persuna.<ref>Looper 2003, p. 37.</ref> Il-qabar tiegħu kellu karatteristiċi ta' Teotihuacan u iktar 'il quddiem ġie mpinġi bl-ilbies tal-ġellieda ta' Teotihuacan. Kitbiet ġeroglifiċi jirreferu għalih bħala s-"Sinjur tal-Punent", l-istess bħal Siyah K'ak'. Fl-istess żmien, fl-aħħar tal-426, Copán stabbiliet is-sit ta' [[Quiriguá]] fil-qrib, possibbilment sponsorjata minn Tikal stess. L-istabbiliment ta' dawn iż-żewġ ċentri jaf kien parti minn sforz biex tiġi imposta l-awtorità ta' Tikal fuq il-parti tax-Xlokk tar-reġjun tal-Maja.<ref>Looper 2003, p. 38.</ref> L-interazzjoni bejn dawn is-siti u Tikal kienet waħda intensiva matul it-tliet sekli ta' wara.<ref>Looper 1999, p. 263.</ref> Rivalità twila bejn Tikal u Calakmul bdiet fis-seklu 6, u kull waħda miż-żewġt ibliet iffurmat in-network tagħha ta' alleanzi ostili għal xulxin, u dan x'aktarx wassal għal gwerra twila bejn iż-żewġ superpotenzi tal-Maja. Ir-rejiet ta' dawn iż-żewġ bliet kapitali adottaw it-titlu ta' ''kaloomte''', terminu li ġiex tradott b'mod preċiż iżda li jimplika xi ħaġa bħal "re għoli".<ref>Webster 2002, pp. 168-169.</ref> Fil-bidu tas-seklu 6 laħqet reġina oħra bħala mexxejja tal-belt, magħrufa bħala s-"Sinjura ta' Tikal", li x'aktarx kienet bint Chak Tok Ich'aak II. Milli jidher qatt ma mexxiet waħedha, iżda dejjem kellha magħha mexxejja rġiel. L-ewwel wieħed minnhom kien Kaloomte' B'alam, li milli jidher kellu karriera twila bħala ġeneral f'Tikal qabel ma sar mexxej mar-reġina u fid-19-il post fis-sekwenza dinastika. Is-Sinjura ta' Tikal stess ma ġietx magħduda fis-sekwenza dinastika numerika. Iktar 'il quddiem x'aktarx li ngħaqad magħha bħala mexxej is-Sinjur "Difer ta' [[Għasfur]]", li jingħad li kien l-20 mexxej.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, pp. 38-39.</ref> === Klassika Aħħarija === ==== L-aqwa żmien ta' Tikal ==== [[Stampa:Tikal-Plaza-And-North-Acropolis.jpg|daqsminuri|280x280px|Il-pjazza prinċipali matul iċ-ċelebrazzjonijiet tas-solstizju tax-xitwa]] In the mid 6th century, Caracol seems to have allied with Calakmul and defeated Tikal, closing the Early Classic.<ref>Miller 1999, p. 89.</ref> The "Tikal hiatus" refers to a period between the late 6th to late 7th century where there was a lapse in the writing of inscriptions and large-scale construction at Tikal. In the latter half of the 6th century AD, a serious crisis befell the city, with no new stelae being erected and with widespread deliberate mutilation of public sculpture.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 94.</ref> This hiatus in activity at Tikal was long unexplained until later epigraphic decipherments identified that the period was prompted by Tikal's comprehensive defeat at the hands of Calakmul and the Caracol polity in AD 562, a defeat that seems to have resulted in the capture and sacrifice of the king of Tikal. The badly eroded Altar 21 at Caracol described how Tikal suffered this disastrous defeat in a major war in April 562.<ref>Historical Dictionary of Mesoamerica by Walter Robert Thurmond Witschey and Clifford T. Brown, p. 313.</ref> It seems that Caracol was an ally of Calakmul in the wider conflict between that city and Tikal, with the defeat of Tikal having a lasting impact upon the city. Tikal was not sacked but its power and influence were broken.<ref>Webster 2002, pp. 192-193.</ref> After its great victory, Caracol grew rapidly and some of Tikal's population may have been forcibly relocated there. During the hiatus period, at least one ruler of Tikal took refuge with Janaab' Pakal of Palenque, another of Calakmul's victims.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 193.</ref> Calakmul itself thrived during Tikal's long hiatus period.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 194.</ref> The beginning of the Tikal hiatus has served as a marker by which archeologists commonly subdivide the Classic period of Mesoamerican chronology into the Early and Late Classic.<ref>Miller u Taube 1993, p. 20.</ref> ==== Tikal u Dos Pilas ==== In 629 Tikal founded Dos Pilas, some 110 kilometers (68 mi) to the southwest, as a military outpost in order to control trade along the course of the Pasión River. B'alaj Chan K'awiil was installed on the throne of the new outpost at the age of four, in 635. When he was older, for many years he served as a loyal vassal fighting for his brother, the king of Tikal. Roughly twenty years later, Dos Pilas was attacked by Calakmul and was soundly defeated. B'alaj Chan K'awiil was captured by the king of Calakmul but, instead of being sacrificed, he was re-instated on his throne as a vassal of his former enemy. He attacked Tikal in 657, forcing Nuun Ujol Chaak, then king of Tikal, to temporarily abandon the city. The first two rulers of Dos Pilas continued to use the Mutal emblem glyph of Tikal, and they probably felt that they had a legitimate claim to the throne of Tikal itself. For some reason, B'alaj Chan K'awiil was not installed as the new ruler of Tikal; instead he stayed at Dos Pilas. Tikal counterattacked against Dos Pilas in 672, driving B'alaj Chan K'awiil into an exile that lasted five years. Calakmul tried to encircle Tikal within an area dominated by its allies, such as El Peru, Dos Pilas, and Caracol. In 682, Jasaw Chan K'awiil I erected the first dated monument at Tikal in 120 years and claimed the title of ''kaloomte''', so ending the hiatus. He initiated a program of new construction and turned the tables on Calakmul when, in 695, he captured the enemy noble and threw the enemy state into a long decline from which it never fully recovered. After this, Calakmul never again erected a monument celebrating a military victory. ==== Tikal wara Teotihuacan ==== By the 7th century, there was no active Teotihuacan presence at any Maya site and the center of Teotihuacan had been razed by 700. Even after this, formal war attire illustrated on monuments was Teotihuacan style. Jasaw Chan K'awiil I and his heir Yik'in Chan K'awiil continued hostilities against Calakmul and its allies and imposed firm regional control over the area around Tikal, extending as far as the territory around Lake Petén Itzá. These two rulers were responsible for much of the impressive architecture visible today. In 738, Quiriguá, a vassal of Copán, Tikal's key ally in the south, switched allegiance to Calakmul, defeated Copán and gained its own independence. It appears that this was a conscious effort on the part of Calakmul to bring about the collapse of Tikal's southern allies. This upset the balance of power in the southern Maya area and lead to a steady decline in the fortunes of Copán. In the 8th century, the rulers of Tikal collected monuments from across the city and erected them in front of the North Acropolis. By the late 8th century and early 9th century, activity at Tikal slowed. Impressive architecture was still built but few hieroglyphic inscriptions refer to later rulers. === Klassika Terminali === By the 9th century, the crisis of the Classic Maya collapse was sweeping across the region, with populations plummeting and city after city falling into silence. Increasingly endemic warfare in the Maya region caused Tikal's supporting population to heavily concentrate close to the city itself, accelerating the use of intensive agriculture and the corresponding environmental decline. Construction continued at the beginning of the century, with the erection of Temple 3, the last of the city's major pyramids, and the erection of monuments to mark the 19th K'atun in 810. The beginning of the 10th Bak'tun in 830 passed uncelebrated, and marks the beginning of a 60-year hiatus, probably resulting from the collapse of central control in the city. During this hiatus, satellite sites traditionally under Tikal's control began to erect their own monuments featuring local rulers and using the Mutal emblem glyph, with Tikal apparently lacking the authority or the power to crush these bids for independence. In 849, Jewel K'awiil is mentioned on a stela at Seibal as visiting that city as the Divine Lord of Tikal but he is not recorded elsewhere and Tikal's once-great power was little more than a memory. The sites of Ixlu and Jimbal had by now inherited the once exclusive Mutal emblem glyph. As Tikal and its hinterland reached peak population, the area suffered deforestation, erosion and nutrient loss followed by a rapid decline in population levels. Recent analysis also indicates that the city's freshwater sources became highly contaminated with mercury, phosphate and cyanobacteria leading to the accumulation of toxins. Tikal and its immediate surroundings seem to have lost most of their population between 830 and 950 and central authority seems to have collapsed rapidly. There is not much evidence from Tikal that the city was directly affected by the endemic warfare that afflicted parts of the Maya region during the Terminal Classic, although an influx of refugees from the Petexbatún region may have exacerbated problems resulting from the already stretched environmental resources. The site core seen from the south, with Temple I at center, the North Acropolis to the left and Central Acropolis to the right In the latter half of the 9th century there was an attempt to revive royal power at the much-diminished city of Tikal, as evidenced by a stela erected in the Great Plaza by Jasaw Chan K'awiil II in 869. This was the last monument erected at Tikal before the city finally fell into silence. The former satellites of Tikal, such as Jimbal and Uaxactun, did not last much longer, erecting their final monuments in 889. By the end of the 9th century the vast majority of Tikal's population had deserted the city, its royal palaces were occupied by squatters and simple thatched dwellings were being erected in the city's ceremonial plazas. The squatters blocked some doorways in the rooms they reoccupied in the monumental structures of the site and left rubbish that included a mixture of domestic refuse and non-utilitarian items such as musical instruments. These inhabitants reused the earlier monuments for their own ritual activities, far removed from those of the royal dynasty that had erected them. Some monuments were vandalized and some were moved to new locations. Before its final abandonment all respect for the old rulers had disappeared, with the tombs of the North Acropolis being explored for jade and the easier-to-find tombs were looted. After 950, Tikal was all but deserted, although a remnant population may have survived in perishable huts interspersed among the ruins. Even these final inhabitants abandoned the city in the 10th or 11th centuries and the rainforest claimed the ruins for the next thousand years. Some of Tikal's population may have migrated to the Peten Lakes region, which remained heavily populated in spite of a plunge in population levels in the first half of the 9th century. The most likely cause of collapse at Tikal is overpopulation and agrarian failure. The fall of Tikal was a blow to the heart of Classic Maya civilization, the city having been at the forefront of courtly life, art and architecture for over a thousand years, with an ancient ruling dynasty. However, new research regarding paleoenvironmental proxies from the Tikal reservoir system suggests that a meteorological drought may have led to the abandonment of Tikal, fouling some reservoirs near the temple and palace with algae blooms, while other reservoirs remained drinkable. Buildings were painted with mercury-bearing cinnabar, which were washed off by rain and polluted some reservoirs. Works of Kohler and colleagues showed that this city reached an unsustainable level of inequalities at the end.^{[''clarification needed'']} === Moderna === In 1525, the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés passed within a few kilometers of the ruins of Tikal but did not mention them in his letters. After Spanish friar Andrés de Avendaño became lost in the Petén forests in early 1696 he described a ruin that may well have been Tikal. As is often the case with huge ancient ruins, knowledge of the site was never completely lost in the region. It seems that local people never forgot about Tikal and they guided Guatemalan expeditions to the ruins in the 1850s. Some second- or third-hand accounts of Tikal appeared in print starting in the 17th century, continuing through the writings of John Lloyd Stephens in the early 19th century (Stephens and his illustrator Frederick Catherwood heard rumors of a lost city, with white building tops towering above the jungle, during their 1839–40 travels in the region). Because of the site's remoteness from modern towns, however, no explorers visited Tikal until Modesto Méndez and Ambrosio Tut, respectively the commissioner and the governor of Petén, visited it in 1848. Artist Eusebio Lara accompanied them and their account was published in Germany in 1853. Several other expeditions came to further investigate, map, and photograph Tikal in the 19th century (including Alfred P. Maudslay in 1881-82) and the early 20th century. Pioneering archeologists started to clear, map and record the ruins in the 1880s. In 1951, a small airstrip was built at the ruins, which previously could only be reached by several days' travel through the jungle on foot or mule. In 1956 the Tikal project began to map the city on a scale not previously seen in the Maya area. From 1956 through 1970, major archeological excavations were carried out by the University of Pennsylvania Tikal Project. They mapped much of the site and excavated and restored many of the structures. Excavations directed by Edwin M. Shook and later by William Coe of the university investigated the North Acropolis and the Central Plaza from 1957 to 1969. The Tikal Project recorded over 200 monuments at the site. In 1979, the Guatemalan government began a further archeological project at Tikal, which continued through to 1984. Filmmaker George Lucas used Tikal as a filming location for the fictional moon Yavin 4 in the first ''Star Wars'' film, ''Episode IV: A New Hope'', which premiered in 1977. Temple I at Tikal was featured on the reverse of the 50 centavo banknote. Eon Productions used the site for the James Bond film ''Moonraker''. Tikal is now a major tourist attraction surrounded by its own national park. A site museum has been built at Tikal; it was completed in 1964. == Deskrizzjoni tas-sit == Tikal has been partially restored by the University of Pennsylvania and the government of Guatemala. It was one of the largest of the Classic period Maya cities and was one of the largest cities in the Americas. The architecture of the ancient city is built from limestone and includes the remains of temples that tower over 70 meters (230 ft) high, large royal palaces, in addition to a number of smaller pyramids, palaces, residences, administrative buildings, platforms and inscribed stone monuments. There is even a building which seemed to have been a jail, originally with wooden bars across the windows and doors. There are also seven courts for playing the Mesoamerican ballgame, including a set of 3 in the Seven Temples Plaza, a unique feature in Mesoamerica. The limestone used for construction was local and quarried on-site. The depressions formed by the extraction of stone for building were plastered to waterproof them and were used as reservoirs, together with some waterproofed natural depressions. The main plazas were surfaced with stucco and laid at a gradient that channelled rainfall into a system of canals that fed the reservoirs. The residential area of Tikal covers an estimated 60 square kilometers (23 sq mi), much of which has not yet been cleared, mapped, or excavated. The 16 square kilometers (6.2 sq mi) area around the site core has been intensively mapped; it may have enclosed an area of some 125 square kilometers (48 sq mi) (see below). A huge set of earthworks discovered by Dennis E. Puleston and Donald Callender in the 1960s rings Tikal with a 6-meter (20 ft) wide trench behind a rampart. Recently, a project exploring the defensive earthworks has shown that the scale of the earthworks is highly variable and that in many places it is inconsequential as a defensive feature. In addition, some parts of the earthwork were integrated into a canal system. The earthwork of Tikal varies significantly in coverage from what was originally proposed and it is much more complex and multifaceted than originally thought. === Toroq === By the Late Classic, a network of ''sacbeob'' (causeways) linked various parts of the city, running for several kilometers through its urban core. These linked the Great Plaza with Temple 4 (located about 750 meters (2,460 feet) to the west) and the Temple of the Inscriptions (about 1 kilometer (0.62 mi) to the southeast). These broad causeways were built of packed and plastered limestone and have been named after early explorers and archeologists; the Maler, Maudslay, Tozzer and Méndez causeways. They assisted the passage of everyday traffic during the rain season and also served as dams. The '''Maler Causeway''' runs north from behind Temple I to Group H. A large bas-relief is carved onto limestone bedrock upon the course of the causeway just south of Group H. It depicts two bound captives and dates to the Late Classic. The '''Maudsley Causeway''' runs 0.8 kilometers (0.50 mi) northeast from Temple IV to Group H. The '''Mendez Causeway''' runs southeast from the East Plaza to Temple VI, a distance of about 1.3 kilometers (0.81 mi). The '''Tozzer Causeway''' runs west from the Great Plaza to Temple IV. === Gruppi arkitettoniċi === The '''Great Plaza''' lies at the core of the site; it is flanked on the east and west sides by two great temple-pyramids. On the north side it is bordered by the North Acropolis and on the south by the Central Acropolis. The '''Central Acropolis''' is a palace complex just south of the Great Plaza. The '''North Acropolis''', together with the Great Plaza immediately to the south, is one of the most studied architectural groups in the Maya area; the Tikal Project excavated a massive trench across the complex, thoroughly investigating its construction history. It is a complex group with construction beginning in the Preclassic Period, around 350 BC. It developed into a funerary complex for the ruling dynasty of the Classic Period, with each additional royal burial adding new temples on top of the older structures. After AD 400 a row of tall pyramids was added to the earlier Northern Platform, which measured 100 by 80 meters (330 by 260 ft), gradually hiding it from view. Eight temple pyramids were built in the 6th century AD, each of them had an elaborate roofcomb and a stairway flanked by masks of the gods. By the 9th century AD, 43 stelae and 30 altars had been erected in the North Acropolis; 18 of these monuments were carved with hieroglyphic texts and royal portraits. The North Acropolis continued to receive burials into the Postclassic Period. The '''South Acropolis''' is found next to Temple V. It was built upon a large basal platform that covers an area of more than 20,000 square meters (220,000 sq ft). The '''Plaza of the Seven Temples''' is to the west of the South Acropolis. It is bordered on the east side by a row of nearly identical temples, by palaces on the south and west sides and by an unusual triple ballcourt on the north side. The '''Mundo Perdido''' is to the west of the Plaza of the Seven Temples. It is the largest ceremonial complex dating from the Preclassic period at Tikal. The complex was organized as a large E-Group consisting of a pyramid aligned with a platform to the east that supported three temples. The Mundo Perdido complex was rebuilt many times over the course of its history. By AD 250–300 its architectural style was influenced by the great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico, including the use of the ''talud-tablero'' form. During the Early Classic period (c. 250–600) the Mundo Perdido became one of the twin foci of the city, the other being the North Acropolis. From AD 250 to 378 it may have served as the royal necropolis. The Mundo Perdido complex was given its name by the archeologists of the University of Pennsylvania; it is centered upon the Lost World Pyramid and a small platform to the west of it. To the south of Mundo Perdido, recent 2021 excavations have revealed a one-third size replication of La Ciudadela, or The Citadel, in Teotihuacan. This area may have been used as a diplomatic headquarters and as an effort to further stamp Teotihuacan culture upon the residents of Tikal. '''Group G''' lies just south of the Mendez Causeway. The complex dates to the Late Classic and consists of palace-type structures and is one of the largest groups of its type at Tikal. It has two stories but most of the rooms are on the lower floor, a total of 29 vaulted chambers. The remains of two further chambers belong to the upper story. One of the entrances to the group was framed by a gigantic mask. '''Group H''' is centered on a large plaza to the north of the Great Plaza. It is bordered by temples dating to the Late Classic. There are nine '''Twin-Pyramid Complexes''' at Tikal, one of which was completely dismantled in ancient times and some others were partly destroyed. They vary in size but consist of two pyramids facing each other on an east–west axis. These pyramids are flat-topped and have stairways on all four sides. A row of plain stelae is placed immediately to the west of the eastern pyramid and to the north of the pyramids. Lying roughly equidistant from them, there is usually a sculpted stela and altar pair. On the south side of these complexes there is a long vaulted building containing a single room with nine doorways. The entire complex was built at once and these complexes were built at 20-year (or ''k'atun'') intervals during the Late Classic. The first twin pyramid complex was built in the early 6th century in the East Plaza. It was once thought that these complexes were unique to Tikal but rare examples have now been found at other sites, such as Yaxha and Ixlu, and they may reflect the extent of Tikal's political dominance in the Late Classic. '''Group Q''' is a twin-pyramid complex, and is one of the largest at Tikal. It was built by Yax Nuun Ayiin II in 771 in order to mark the end of the 17th K'atun. Most of it has been restored and its monuments have been re-erected. '''Group R''' is another twin-pyramid complex, dated to 790. It is close to the Maler Causeway. === Strutturi === There are thousands of ancient structures at Tikal and only a fraction of these have been excavated, after decades of archeological work. The most prominent surviving buildings include six very large pyramids, labelled Temples I – VI, each of which support a temple structure on their summits. Some of these pyramids are over 60 meters (200 feet) high. They were numbered sequentially during the early survey of the site. It is estimated that each of these major temples could have been built in as little as two years. '''Temple I''' (also known as the ''Temple of Ah Cacao'' or ''Temple of the Great Jaguar'') is a funerary pyramid dedicated to Jasaw Chan K'awil, who was entombed in the structure in AD 734, the pyramid was completed around 740–750. The temple rises 47 meters (154 ft) high. The massive roofcomb that topped the temple was originally decorated with a giant sculpture of the enthroned king, although little of this decoration survives. The tomb of the king was discovered by Aubrey Trik of the University of Pennsylvania in 1962. Among items recovered from the Late Classic tomb were a large collection of inscribed human and animal bone tubes and strips with sophisticated scenes depicting deities and people, finely carved and rubbed with vermilion, as well as jade and shell ornaments and ceramic vessels filled with offerings of food and drink. The shrine at the summit of the pyramid has three chambers, each behind the next, with the doorways spanned by wooden lintels fashioned from multiple beams. The outermost lintel is plain but the two inner lintels were carved, some of the beams were removed in the 19th century and their location is unknown, while others were taken to museums in Europe. '''Temple II''' (also known as the ''Temple of the Mask'') it was built around AD 700 and stands 38 meters (125 ft) high. Like other major temples at Tikal, the summit shrine had three consecutive chambers with the doorways spanned by wooden lintels, only the middle of which was carved. The temple was dedicated to the wife of Jasaw Chan K'awil, although no tomb was found. The queen's portrait was carved into the lintel spanning the doorway of the summit shrine. One of the beams from this lintel is now in the American Museum of Natural History in New York City. '''Temple III''' (also known as the ''Temple of the Jaguar Priest'') was the last of the great pyramids to be built at Tikal. It stood 55 meters (180 ft) tall and contained an elaborately sculpted but damaged roof lintel, possibly showing Dark Sun engaged in a ritual dance around AD 810. The temple shrine possesses two chambers. '''Temple IV''' is the tallest temple-pyramid at Tikal, measuring 70 meters (230 ft) from the plaza floor level to the top of its roof comb. Temple IV marks the reign of Yik’in Chan Kawil (Ruler B, the son of Ruler A or Jasaw Chan K'awiil I) and two carved wooden lintels over the doorway that leads into the temple on the pyramid's summit record a long count date (9.15.10.0.0) that corresponds to CE 741 (Sharer 1994:169). Temple IV is the largest pyramid built anywhere in the Maya region in the 8th century, and as it currently stands is the tallest pre-Columbian structure in the Americas although the Pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacan may originally have been taller, as may have been one of the structures at El Mirador. '''Temple V''' stands south of the Central Acropolis and is the mortuary pyramid of an as yet unidentified ruler. The temple stands 57 meters (187 ft) high, making it the second tallest structure at Tikal – only Temple IV is taller. The temple has been dated to about AD 700, in the Late Classic period, via radiocarbon analysis and the dating of ceramics associated with the structure places its construction during the reign of Nun Bak Chak in the second half of the 7th century. '''Temple VI''' is also known as the ''Temple of the Inscriptions'' and was dedicated in AD 766. It is notable for its 12-meter (39 ft) high roof-comb. Panels of hieroglyphs cover the back and sides of the roof-comb. The temple faces onto a plaza to the west and its front is unrestored. '''Temple 33''' was a funerary pyramid erected over the tomb of Siyaj Chan K'awiil I (known as Burial 48) in the North Acropolis. It started life in the Early Classic as a wide basal platform decorated with large stucco masks that flanked the stairway. Later in the Early Classic a new superstructure was added, with its own masks and decorated panels. During the Hiatus a third stage was built over the earlier constructions, the stairway was demolished and another royal burial, of an unidentified ruler, was set into the structure (Burial 23). While the new pyramid was being built another high ranking tomb (Burial 24) was inserted into the rubble core of the building. The pyramid was then completed, standing 33 meters (108 ft) tall. The final version of Temple 33 was completely dismantled by archeologists in 1965 in order to arrive at the earlier stages of construction. '''Structure 34''' is a pyramid in the North Acropolis that was built by Siyaj Chan K'awiil II over the tomb of his father, Yax Nuun Ayiin I. The pyramid was topped by a three chambered shrine, the rooms situated one behind the other. Detail of Teotihuacan-related imagery decorating the sloping ''talud'' sections of the ''talud-tablero'' sides of Structure 5D-43. '''Structure 5D-43''' is an unusual radial temple in the East Plaza, built over a pre-existing twin pyramid complex. It is built into the end of the East Plaza Ballcourt and possessed four entry doorways and three stairways, the fourth (south) side was too close to the Central Acropolis for a stairway on that side. The building has a ''talud-tablero'' platform profile, modified from the original style found at Teotihuacan. In fact, it has been suggested that the style of the building has closer affinities with El Tajin and Xochicalco than with Teotihuacan itself. The vertical ''tablero'' panels are set between sloping ''talud'' panels and are decorated with paired disc symbols. Large flower symbols are set into the sloping ''talud'' panels, related to the Venus and star symbols used at Teotihuacan. The roof of the structure was decorated with friezes although only fragments now remain, showing a monstrous face, perhaps that of a jaguar, with another head emerging from the mouth. The second head possesses a bifurcated tongue but is probably not that of a snake. The temple, and its associated ballcourt, probably date to the reign of Nuun Ujol Chaak or that of his son Jasaw Chan K'awiil I, in the later part of the 7th century. '''Structure 5C-49''' possesses a clear Teotihuacan-linked architectural style; it has balustrades, an architectural feature that is very rare in the Maya region, and a ''talud-tablero'' façade; it dates to the 4th century AD. It is located near to the Lost World pyramid. '''Structure 5C-53''' is a small Teotihuacan-style platform that dates to about AD 600. It had stairways on all four sides and did not possess a superstructure. The '''Lost World Pyramid''' (Structure 5C-54) is the largest structure in the Mundo Perdido complex. It lies in the southwest portion of Tikal's central core, south of Temple III and west of Temple V. It was decorated with stucco masks of the sun god and dates to the Late Preclassic; this pyramid is part of an enclosed complex of structures that remained intact and un-impacted by later building activity at Tikal. By the end of the Late Preclassic this pyramid was one of the largest structures in the Maya region. It attained its final form during the reign of Chak Tok Ich'aak in the 4th century AD, in the Early Classic, standing more than 30 meters (98 ft) high with stairways on all four sides and a flat top that possibly supported a superstructure built from perishable materials. Although the plaza later suffered significant alteration, the organization of a group of temples on the east side of this complex adheres to the layout that defines the so-called E-Groups, identified as solar observatories. '''Structure 5D-96''' is the central temple on the east side of the Plaza of the Seven Temples. It has been restored and its rear outer wall is decorated with skull-and-crossbones motifs. '''Group 6C-16''' is an elite residential complex that has been thoroughly excavated. It lies a few hundred m south of the Lost World Complex and the excavations have revealed elaborate stucco masks, ballplayer murals, relief sculptures and buildings with Teotihuacan characteristics. The '''Great Plaza Ballcourt''' is a small ballcourt that lies between Temple I and the Central Acropolis. The '''Bat Palace''' is also known as the Palace of Windows and lies to the west of Temple III. It has two storeys, with a double range of chambers on the lower storey and a single range in the upper storey, which has been restored. The palace has ancient graffiti and possesses low windows. '''Complex N''' lies to the west of the Bat Palace and Temple III. The complex dates to AD 711. In 2018, 60,000 uncharted structures were revealed by archeologists with help of Lidar. Thanks to the new findings, some archeologists believe that 7-11 million Maya people inhabited in the northern Guatemala during the late classical period from 650 to 800 A.D. Lidar digitally removed the tree canopy to reveal ancient remains and showed that Maya cities like Tikal were bigger than previously thought. The project was mapped near the Maya Biosphere Reserve in the Petén region of Guatemala. === Altars[edit] === '''Altar 5''' is carved with two nobles, one of whom is probably Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. They are performing a ritual using the bones of an important woman. Altar 5 was found in Complex N, which lies to the west of Temple III. '''Altar 8''' is sculpted with a bound captive. It was found within Complex P in Group H and is now in the Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología in Guatemala City. '''Altar 9''' is associated with Stela 21 and bears the sculpture of a bound captive. It is located in front of Temple VI. '''Altar 10''' is carved with a captive tied to a scaffold. It is in the northern enclosure of Group Q, a twin-pyramid complex and has suffered from erosion. '''Altar 35''' is a plain monument associated with Stela 43. The stela-altar pair is centrally located at the base of the stairway of Temple IV. === Lintels === The elaborately carved wooden Lintel 3 from Temple IV. It celebrates a military victory by Yik'in Chan K'awiil in 743. At Tikal, beams of sapodilla wood were placed as lintels spanning the inner doorways of temples. These are the most elaborately carved wooden lintels to have survived anywhere in the Maya region. '''Lintel 3''' from Temple IV was taken to Basel in Switzerland in the 19th century. It was in almost perfect condition and depicts Yik'in Chan K'awiil seated on a palanquin. === Steli === Stelae are carved stone shafts, often sculpted with figures and hieroglyphs. A selection of the most notable stelae at Tikal follows: '''Stela 1''' dates to the 5th century and depicts the king Siyaj Chan K'awiil II in a standing position. '''Stela 4''' is dated to AD 396, during the reign of Yax Nuun Ayiin after the intrusion of Teotihuacan in the Maya area. The stela displays a mix of Maya and Teotihuacan qualities, and deities from both cultures. It has a portrait of the king with the Underworld Jaguar God under one arm and the Mexican Tlaloc under the other. His helmet is a simplified version of the Teotihuacan War Serpent. Unusually for Maya sculpture, but typically for Teotihuacan, Yax Nuun Ayiin is depicted with a frontal face, rather than in profile. '''Stela 5''' was dedicated in 744 by Yik'in Chan K'awiil. '''Stela 6''' is a badly damaged monument dating to 514 and bears the name of the "Lady of Tikal" who celebrated the end of the 4th K'atun in that year. '''Stela 10''' is twinned with Stela 12 but is badly damaged. It described the accession of Kaloomte' B'alam in the early 6th century and earlier events in his career, including the capture of a prisoner depicted on the monument. '''Stela 11''' was the last monument ever erected at Tikal; it was dedicated in 869 by Jasaw Chan K'awiil II. '''Stela 12''' is linked to the queen known as the "Lady of Tikal" and king Kaloomte' B'alam. The queen is described as performing the year-ending rituals but the monument was dedicated in honor of the king. '''Stela 16''' was dedicated in 711, during the reign of Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. The sculpture, including a portrait of the king and a hieroglyphic text, are limited to the front face of the monument. It was found in Complex N, west of Temple III. '''Stela 18''' was one of two stelae erected by Yax Nuun Ayiin I to celebrate the ''k'atun''-ending of AD 396. It was re-erected at the base of Temple 34, his funerary shrine. '''Stela 19''' was dedicated in 790 by Yax Nuun Ayiin II. '''Stela 20''' was found in Complex P, in Group H, and was moved to the Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología in Guatemala City. '''Stela 21''' was dedicated in 736 by Yik'in Chan K'awiil. Only the bottom of the stela is intact, the rest having been mutilated in ancient times. The surviving sculpture is of fine quality, consisting of the feet of a figure and of accompanying hieroglyphic text. The stela is associated with Altar 9 and is located in front of Temple VI. '''Stela 22''' was dedicated in 771 by Yax Nuun Ayiin II in the northern enclosure of Group Q, a twin-pyramid complex. The face of the figure on the stela has been mutilated. '''Stela 23''' was broken in antiquity and was re-erected in a residential complex. The defaced portrait on the monument is that of the so-called "Lady of Tikal", a daughter of Chak Tok Ich'aak II who became queen at the age of six but never ruled in her own right, being paired with male co-rulers. It dates to the early 6th century. '''Stela 24''' was erected at the foot of Temple 3 in 810, accompanied by Altar 7. Both were broken into fragments in ancient times, although the name of Dark Sun survives on three fragments. '''Stela 26''' was found in the summit shrine of Temple 34, underneath a broken masonry altar. The monument had originally been erected at the base of the temple during the Early Classic period and was later broken, probably at the beginning of the Late Classic. Its remains were then interred within the temple shrine. '''Stela 29''' bears a Long Count (8.12.14.8.15) date equivalent to AD 292, the earliest surviving Long Count date from the Maya lowlands. The stela is also the earliest monument to bear the Tikal emblem glyph. It bears a sculpture of the king facing to the right, holding the head of an underworld jaguar god, one of the patron deities of the city. The stela was deliberately smashed during the 6th century or some time later, the upper portion was dragged away and dumped in a rubbish tip close to Temple III, to be uncovered by archeologists in 1959. '''Stela 30''' is the first surviving monument to be erected after the Hiatus. Its style and iconography is similar to that of Caracol, one of the more important of Tikal's enemies. Stela 31, with the sculpted image of Siyaj Chan K'awiil II '''Stela 31''' is the accession monument of Siyaj Chan K'awiil II, also bearing two portraits of his father, Yax Nuun Ayiin, as a youth dressed as a Teotihuacan warrior. He carries a spearthrower in one hand and bears a shield decorated with the face of Tlaloc, the Teotihuacan war god. In ancient times the sculpture was broken and the upper portion was moved to the summit of Temple 33 and ritually buried. Stela 31 has been described as the greatest Early Classic sculpture to survive at Tikal. A long hieroglyphic text is carved onto the back of the monument, the longest to survive from the Early Classic, which describes the arrival of Siyah K'ak' at El Peru and Tikal in January 378. It was also the first stela at Tikal to be carved on all four faces. '''Stela 32''' is a fragmented monument with a foreign Teotihuacan-style sculpture apparently depicting the lord of that city with the attributes of the central Mexican storm god Tlaloc, including his goggle eyes and tasselled headdress. '''Stela 39''' is a broken monument that was erected in the Lost World complex. The upper portion of the stela is missing but the lower portion shows the lower body and legs of Chak Tok Ich'aak, holding a flint axe in his left hand. He is trampling the figure of a bound, richly dressed captive. The monument is dated to AD 376. The text on the back of the monument describes a bloodletting ritual to celebrate a Katun-ending. The stela also names Chak Tok Ich'aak I's father as K'inich Muwaan Jol. '''Stela 40''' bears a portrait of Kan Chitam and dates to AD 468. '''Stela 43''' is paired with Altar 35. It is a plain monument at the base of the stairway of Temple IV. === Oqbra === A ceramic censer representing an elderly deity, found in Burial 10. '''Burial 1''' is a tomb in the Lost World complex. A fine ceramic bowl was recovered from the tomb, with the handle formed from three-dimensional head and neck of a bird emerging from the two-dimensional body painted on the lid. '''Burial 10''' is the tomb of Yax Nuun Ayiin. It is located beneath Structure 34 in the North Acropolis. The tomb contained a rich array of offerings, including ceramic vessels and food, and nine youths were sacrificed to accompany the dead king. A dog was also entombed with the deceased king. Pots in the tomb were stuccoed and painted and many demonstrated a blend of Maya and Teotihuacan styles. Among the offerings was an incense-burner in the shape of an elderly underworld god, sitting on a stool made of human bones and holding a severed head in his hands. The tomb was sealed with a corbel vault, then the pyramid was built on top. '''Burial 48''' is generally accepted as the tomb of Sihyaj Chan Kʼawiil II. It is located beneath Temple 33 in the North Acropolis. The chamber of the tomb was cut from the bedrock and contained the remains of the king himself together with those of two adolescents who had been sacrificed in order to accompany the deceased ruler. The walls of the tomb were covered with white stucco painted with hieroglyphs that included the Long Count date equivalent to 20 March 457, probably the date of either the death or interment of the king. The king's skeleton was missing its skull, its femurs and one of its hands while the skeletons of the sacrificial victims were intact. '''Burial 85''' dates to the Late Preclassic and was enclosed by a platform, with a primitive corbel vault. The tomb contained a single male skeleton, which lacked a skull and its thighbones. The dynastic founder of Tikal, Yax Ehb' Xook, has been linked to this tomb, which lies deep in the heart of the North Acropolis. The deceased had probably died in battle with his body being mutilated by his enemies before being recovered and interred by his followers. The bones were wrapped carefully in textiles to form an upright bundle. The missing head was replaced by a small greenstone mask with shell-inlaid teeth and eyes and bearing a three-pointed royal headband. This head wears an emblem of rulership on its forehead and is a rare Preclassic lowland Maya portrait of a king. Among the contents of the tomb were a stingray spine, a spondylus shell and twenty-six ceramic vessels. '''Burial 116''' is the tomb of Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. It is a large vaulted chamber deep within the pyramid, below the level of the Great Plaza. The tomb contained rich offerings of jadeite, ceramics, shell and works of art. The body of the king was covered with large quantities of jade ornaments including an enormous necklace with especially large beads, as depicted in sculpted portraits of the king. One of the outstanding pieces recovered from the tomb was an ornate jade mosaic vessel with the lid bearing a sculpted portrait of the king himself. '''Burial 195''' was flooded with mud in antiquity. This flood had covered wooden objects that had completely rotted away by the time the tomb was excavated, leaving hollows in the dried mud. Archeologists filled these hollows with stucco and thus excavated four effigies of the god K'awiil, the wooden originals long gone. '''Burial 196''' is a Late Classic royal tomb that contained a jade mosaic vessel topped with the head of the Maize God. == Biblijografija == * Adams, Richard E.W. (2000). "Introduction to a Survey of the Native Prehistoric Cultures of Mesoamerica". In Richard E.W. Adams; Murdo J. Macleod (eds.). The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas. Vol. II: Mesoamerica, part 1. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–44. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-521-35165-2</nowiki>. OCLC 33359444. * Andrews, E. Wyllys; William L. Fash (2005). "Issues in Copán Archaeology". In E. Wyllys Andrews; William L. Fash (eds.). Copán: The History of an Ancient Maya Kingdom. Santa Fe and Oxford: School of American Research Press and James Currey Ltd. pp. 395–425. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-85255-981-9</nowiki>. OCLC 56194789. * Banco de Guatemala. "Monedas" (in Spanish). Banco de Guatemala. Retrieved 13 November 2009. * Berlin, Heinrich (April 1967). "The Destruction of Structure 5D-33-1st at Tikal". American Antiquity. 32 (2): 241–242. doi:10.2307/277915. ISSN 0002-7316. JSTOR 277915. OCLC 754651089. S2CID 163207109. * Coe, Michael D. (1999). The Maya. Ancient peoples and places series (6th, fully revised and expanded ed.). London and New York: Thames & Hudson. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-500-28066-9</nowiki>. OCLC 59432778. * Coe, William R. (1988) [1967]. Tikal: Guía de las Antiguas Ruinas Mayas (in Spanish). Guatemala: Piedra Santa. <nowiki>ISBN 978-84-8377-246-1</nowiki>. * Drew, David (1999). The Lost Chronicles of the Mayan Kings. Los Angeles: University of California Press. * Fash, William L.; Ricardo Agurcia Fasquelle (2005). "Contributions and Controversies in the Archaeology and History of Copán". In E. Wyllys Andrews; William L. Fash (eds.). Copán: The History of an Ancient Maya Kingdom. Santa Fe and Oxford: School of American Research Press and James Currey Ltd. pp. 3–32. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-85255-981-9</nowiki>. OCLC 56194789. * Gill, Richardson B. (2000). The Great Maya Droughts: Water, Life, and Death. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-8263-2194-7</nowiki>. OCLC 43567384. * Hammond, Norman (2000). "The Maya Lowlands: Pioneer Farmers to Merchant Princes". In Richard E.W. Adams; Murdo J. Macleod (eds.). The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas. Vol. II: Mesoamerica, part 1. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 197–249. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-521-35165-2</nowiki>. OCLC 33359444. * Harrison, Peter D. (2006). "Maya Architecture at Tikal". In Nikolai Grube (ed.). Maya: Divine Kings of the Rain Forest. Eva Eggebrecht and Matthias Seidel (assistant eds.). Köln: Könemann. pp. 218–231. <nowiki>ISBN 978-3-8331-1957-6</nowiki>. OCLC 71165439. * Hidinger, Lori A. (1996). "Measuring the Impacts of Ecotourism on Animal Populations: A Case Study of Tikal National Park, Guatemala" (PDF). Yale Forestry & Environment Bulletin. 99 (1): 45–59. * Jones, Grant D. (1998). The Conquest of the Last Maya Kingdom. Stanford, California, USA: Stanford University Press. <nowiki>ISBN 9780804735223</nowiki>. OCLC 38747674. * Kelly, Joyce (1996). An Archaeological Guide to Northern Central America: Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-8061-2858-0</nowiki>. OCLC 34658843. * Kerr, Justin (n.d.). "A Precolumbian Portfolio" (online database). FAMSI Research Materials. Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies, Inc. Retrieved 13 June 2007. * Looper, Matthew G. (1999). "New Perspectives on the Late Classic Political History of Quirigua, Guatemala". Ancient Mesoamerica. 10 (2): 263–280. doi:10.1017/S0956536199101135. ISSN 0956-5361. OCLC 86542758. S2CID 161977572. * Looper, Matthew G. (2003). Lightning Warrior: Maya Art and Kingship at Quirigua. Linda Schele series in Maya and pre-Columbian studies. Austin: University of Texas Press. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-292-70556-2</nowiki>. OCLC 52208614. * Martin, Simon; Nikolai Grube (2000). Chronicle of the Maya Kings and Queens: Deciphering the Dynasties of the Ancient Maya. London and New York: Thames & Hudson. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-500-05103-0</nowiki>. OCLC 47358325. * Martin, Simon; Nikolai Grube (2008). Chronicle of the Maya Kings and Queens: Deciphering the Dynasties of the Ancient Maya (2nd revised ed.). London and New York: Thames & Hudson. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-500-28726-2</nowiki>. OCLC 191753193. * Martínez, Horacio; David Webster; Jay Silverstein; Timothy Murtha; Kirk Straight; Irinna Montepeque (2004). J.P. Laporte; B. Arroyo; H. Escobedo; H. Mejía (eds.). "Reconocimiento en la periferia de Tikal: Los Terraplenes Norte, Oeste y Este, nuevas exploraciones y perspectivas" (PDF). XVII Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala, 2003 (in Spanish). Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología, Guatemala. pp. 635–641. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 September 2011. Retrieved 24 June 2009. * Means, Philip Ainsworth (1917). History of the Spanish Conquest of Yucatan and of the Itzas . Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University. Vol. VII. Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology. OCLC 681599. * Miller, Mary Ellen (1999). Maya Art and Architecture. London and New York: Thames & Hudson. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-500-20327-9</nowiki>. OCLC 41659173. * Miller, Mary; Karl Taube (1993). The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya: An Illustrated Dictionary of Mesoamerican Religion. London: Thames & Hudson. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-500-05068-2</nowiki>. OCLC 27667317. * Morales, Tirso; Benito Burgos; Miguel Acosta; Sergio Pinelo; Marco Tulio Castellanos; Leopoldo González; Francisco Castañeda; Edy Barrios; Rudy Larios; et al. (2008). J.P. Laporte; B. Arroyo; H. Mejía (eds.). "Trabajos realizados por la Unidad de Arqueología del Parque Nacional Tikal, 2006-2007" (PDF). XXI Simposio de Arqueología en Guatemala, 2007 (in Spanish): 413–436. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 September 2011. Retrieved 21 June 2011. * Puleston, Dennis E.; Donald W. Callender, Jr. (1967). "Defensive Earthworks at Tikal". Expedition. University of Pennsylvania. 9 (3): 40–48. ISSN 0014-4738. OCLC 1568625. * Salisbury, David; Mimi Koumenalis; Barbara Moffett (19 September 2002). "Newly revealed hieroglyphs tell story of superpower conflict in the Maya world" (PDF). Exploration: The Online Research Journal of Vanderbilt University. OCLC 50324967. Archived from the original (PDF online publication) on 2 November 2014. Retrieved 22 September 2009. * Schele, Linda; Peter Mathews (1999). The Code of Kings: The language of seven Maya temples and tombs. New York: Simon & Schuster. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-684-85209-6</nowiki>. OCLC 41423034. * Sharer, Robert J.; Loa P. Traxler (2006). The Ancient Maya (6th, fully revised ed.). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-8047-4817-9</nowiki>. OCLC 57577446. * Silverstein, Jay; David Webster; Horacio Martinez; Alvaro Soto (2009). Rethinking the Earthworks of Tikal: A Hydraulic Hypothesis for the Classic Maya Polity. Ancient Mesoamerican 20(1), Cambridge Journals. * StarWars.com. "Star Wars: Episode IV A New Hope". Lucasfilm. Archived from the original on 29 December 2009. Retrieved 13 November 2009. * Torres, Estuardo. "Parque Nacional Tikal" (in Spanish). Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. Archived from the original on 18 December 2009. Retrieved 30 July 2014. * UNESCO World Heritage Center. "Tikal National Park". UNESCO World Heritage Center. Retrieved 13 November 2009. * Valdés, Juan Antonio; Fahsen, Federico (2005). "Disaster in Sight: The Terminal Classic at Tikal and Uaxactun". In Arthur A. Demarest; Prudence M. Rice; Don S. Rice (eds.). The Terminal Classic in the Maya lowlands: Collapse, transition, and transformation. Boulder: University Press of Colorado. pp. 162–194. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-87081-822-6</nowiki>. OCLC 61719499. * Webster, David L. (2002). The Fall of the Ancient Maya: Solving the Mystery of the Maya Collapse. London: Thames & Hudson. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-500-05113-9</nowiki>. OCLC 48753878. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Siti arkeoloġiċi]] [[Kategorija:Siti ta' Wirt Dinji]] [[Kategorija:Parks Nazzjonali]] [[Kategorija:Maja]] [[Kategorija:Gwatemala]] lt80hzgpwwq5di6ttfx4zb02otvf3a2 279115 279114 2022-08-15T09:31:49Z Trigcly 17859 /* Klassika Aħħarija */ żieda kontenut wikitext text/x-wiki [[Stampa:Tikal Temple1 2006 08 11.JPG|daqsminuri|It-Tempju I ta' Tikal huwa għoli 47 metru (154 pied).]] '''Tikal''' (/tiˈkɑːl/; ''Tik’al'' bl-ortografija moderna tal-[[Maja]]) hija l-fdal ta' belt antika, li x'aktarx kienet tissejjaħ '''Yax Mutal'''<ref>Tokovinine, Alexandre (2008). "Lords of Tikal: Narratives and Identities". ''Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology''. Harvard University: 4.</ref>, u li tinsab f'foresta tropikali fil-[[Gwatemala]].<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.cyark.org/projects/tikal/overview|titlu=CyArk|sit=CyArk|data-aċċess=2022-08-14}}</ref> Hija wieħed mill-ikbar siti [[Arkeoloġija|arkeoloġiċi]] u ċentri urbani taċ-ċivilizzazzjoni tal-Maja pre-Kolumbjana. Tinsab fir-reġjun arkeoloġiku tal-Baċir ta' Petén fit-territorju attwali tat-Tramuntana tal-Gwatemala. Is-sit jinsab fid-dipartiment ta' El Petén u huwa parti mill-Park Nazzjonali ta' Tikal. Fl-1979 sar [[Sit ta' Wirt Dinji]] tal-[[UNESCO]].<ref name=":0">{{Ċita web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/64/|titlu=Tikal National Park|kunjom=Centre|isem=UNESCO World Heritage|sit=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2022-08-14}}</ref> Tikal kienet il-[[belt kapitali]] ta' stat ħakkiem li sar wieħed mill-iżjed renji setgħana tal-Maja tal-qedem.<ref>Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 1. Hammond 2000, p. 233.</ref> Għalkemm l-arkitettura [[Monument|monumentali]] tas-sit tmur lura saħansitra tas-seklu 4 [[Ante Christum natum|Q.K]]., Tikal laħqet il-quċċata tagħha matul il-Perjodu Klassiku, għall-ħabta tal-200 sad-900. Matul dak iż-żmien, il-belt iddominat il-biċċa l-kbira tar-reġjun tal-Maja [[Politika|politikament]], ekonomikament u militarment, filwaqt li interaġixxiet ma' żoni fil-Mesoamerka kollha, bħall-metropoli l-kbira ta' [[Teotihuacan]] fil-Wied tal-Messiku daqstant 'il bogħod. Hemm evidenza li Tikal inħakmet minn Teotihuacan fis-seklu 4 W.K.<ref>Martin & Grube 2008, pp. 29-32.</ref> Wara t-tmiem tal-Perjodu Klassiku Aħħari, ma nbena l-ebda monument maġġuri f'Tikal u hemm evidenza li l-palazzi tal-elit ingħataw in-nar. Dan l-avvenimenti mexew id f'id ma' tnaqqis gradwali fil-popolazzjoni, u laħqu l-qofol tagħhom fl-abbandun tas-sit sal-aħħar tas-seklu 10. Tikal hija l-iżjed belt mifhuma minn kwalunkwe waħda mill-bliet tal-Maja l-kbar fl-artijiet baxxi, b'lista twila ta' mexxejja dinastiċi, bl-iskoperta tal-oqbra ta' bosta mill-mexxejja fuq din il-lista u bl-investigazzjoni tal-monumenti, tat-tempji u tal-palazzi tagħhom.<ref>Adams 2000, p. 34.</ref> == Etimoloġija == [[Stampa:Tikalemblem.jpg|daqsminuri|Glifiċi emblematiċi ta' isem Tikal]] L-isem ''Tikal'' jaf oriġina minn ''ti ak'al'' fil-lingwa tal-Maja tal-[[Yucatan]]; jingħad li huwa isem relattivament modern li jfisser "f'ġibjun". Milli jidher l-isem ingħata lil wieħed mill-ġibjuni antiki tas-sit mill-kaċċaturi u mill-vjaġġaturi fir-reġjun.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, p. 30.</ref> Interpretazzjoni oħra tal-isem hi li jfisser "il-post tal-vuċijiet" fil-lingwa tal-Maja ta' Itza. Madankollu, Tikal mhuwiex l-isem antik tas-sit iżda pjuttost l-isem li ġie adottat ftit wara l-iskoperta tas-sit fis-snin 40 tas-seklu 19.<ref>Drew 1999, p. 136.</ref> Il-kitbiet ġeroglifiċi fil-fdalijiet jirreferu għall-belt antika bħala ''Yax Mutal'' jew ''Yax Mutul'', li tfisser "l-ewwel Mutal". Tikal jaf bdiet tissejjaħ hekk minħabba li Dos Pilas beda juża l-istess glifiċi emblematiċi; il-mexxejja tal-belt x'aktarx li riedu jiddistingwu bejn il-bliet b'dan il-mod.<ref>Schele & Mathews 1999, p. 64.</ref> Ir-renju kollu kien jissejjaħ sempliċement ''Mutul'', li huwa l-interpretazzjoni tal-glifiċi emblematiċi tal-"qatta' xagħar" fir-ritratt fuq il-lemin. It-tifsira preċiża għadha mhux ċerta.<ref>Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 1.</ref> == Ġeografija == [[Stampa:Mayamap.png|daqsminuri|280x280px|Mappa taż-żona tal-Maja fir-reġjun Mesoamerikan. Kemm Tikal kif ukoll Calakmul jinsabu qrib iċ-ċentru taż-żona.]] L-eqreb insedjamenti kbar moderni huma Flores u Santa Elena, bejn wieħed u ieħor xi 64 kilometru (40 mil) bogħod bit-triq lejn il-Lbiċ.<ref>Kelly 1996, pp. 111-112.</ref> Tikal tinsab xi 303 kilometri (188 mil) fit-Tramuntana tal-[[Belt tal-Gwatemala]]. Tinsab 19-il kilometru (12-il mil) fin-Nofsinhar tal-belt tal-Maja kontemporanja ta' [[Uaxactun]] u 30 kilometru (19-il mil) fil-Majjistral ta' [[Yaxha]].<ref>Webster 2002, p. 118.</ref> Il-belt tinsab 100 kilometru (62 mil) fix-Xlokk tar-rivali l-kbira tagħha tal-Perjodu Klassiku, [[Calakmul]], u 85 kilometru (53 mil) fil-Majjistral tal-alleat ta' Calakmul, [[Caracol]], li issa tinsab fil-[[Beliże|Belize]].<ref>Webster 2002, p. 118.</ref> Il-belt ġiet immappjata għalkollox u kienet tkopri erja ikbar minn 16-il kilometru kwadru (6.2 mili kwadri) li kienet tinkludi madwar 3,000 struttura.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 104.</ref> It-topografija tas-sit tikkonsisti minn sensiela ta' rdumijiet paralleli tal-[[ġebla tal-ġir]] 'il fuq minn artijiet baxxi u mtajna. L-arkitettura maġġuri tas-sit hija raggruppata f'żoni iktar għoljin li huma kkollegati b'toroq olzati minn naħa għall-oħra tal-artijiet bassasa.<ref>Drew 1999, p. 185.</ref> Iż-żona madwar Tikal ġiet iddikjarata bħala l-Park Nazzjonali ta' Tikal u ż-żona ppreservata tkopri 570 kilometru kwadru (220 mil kwadru).<ref>Kelly 1996, p. 140.</ref> Dan il-park inħoloq fis-26 ta' Mejju 1955 taħt il-patroċinju tal-Instituto de Antropología e Historia u kien l-ewwel żona protetta fil-Gwatemala.<ref>Kelly 1996, p. 140.</ref> Il-fdalijiet jinsabu fost il-foresti tropikali tat-Tramuntana tal-Gwatemala li kienu jiffurmaw in-nieqa taċ-ċivilizzazzjoni tal-Maja fl-artijiet baxxi. Il-belt stess kienet tinsab qalb art għammiela abbundanti, u jaf iddominat rotta kummerċjali naturali mil-Lvant għall-Punent tul il-[[Peniżola]] tal-Yucatan. Fost is-siġar il-kbar tal-Park Nazzjonali ta' Tikal hemm il-kapok ġgantesk (''Ceiba pentandra'') li kienet is-siġra sagra tal-Maja; iċ-ċedru tropikali (''Cedrela odorata''), u l-kawba tal-[[Ħonduras]] (''Swietenia macrophylla''). Fir-rigward tal-fawna, wieħed jista' jara regolarment l-aguti, il-koati ta' mnieħru abjad, il-volpi griż, ix-xadin ta' Geoffroy, ix-xadin li jgħajjat, l-ajkla arpija, il-falkun, id-dundjan tal-foresti, il-gwan, it-tukan, il-pappagall aħdar u n-nemel li jaqta' l-weraq. Jingħad ukoll li l-ġagwar, l-ocelot u l-cougar jgħixu fil-park.<ref>Coe 1967, pp. 9-10. Hidinger 1996, p. 52.</ref> Tikal ma kellha l-ebda ilma għajr dak li kien jinġabar mill-ilma tax-xita u jinħażen f'għaxar ġibjuni. L-arkeologi li ħadmu f'Tikal matul is-seklu 20 sewwew wieħed minn dawn il-ġibjuni antiki biex jaħżnu l-ilma għalihom stess.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 124.</ref> Ix-xita annwali medja li tinżel f'Tikal tammonta għal 1,945 millimetru (76.6 pulzier). Madankollu, ix-xita ġieli tinżel għal għarrieda, u perjodi twal ta' nixfa setgħu jseħħu qabel ma l-għelejjel isiru, li kienet theddida serja għall-abitanti tal-belt antika.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 239.</ref> == Popolazzjoni == L-istimi tal-popolazzjoni ta' Tikal ivarjaw minn 10,000 sa saħansitra 90,000 abitant. Il-popolazzjoni ta' Tikal bdiet kurva kontinwa ta' tkabbir mill-bidu tal-Perjodu Preklassiku (bejn wieħed u ieħor fl-2000 Q.K. – 200 W.K.), bl-eqqel livell fil-Perjodu Klassiku Aħħari, fejn il-popolazzjoni kibret b'mod rapidu mis-700 W.K. sat-830, u mbagħad kien hemm deklin qawwi. Għaż-żona ta' 120 kilometru kwadru (46 mil kwadru) fi ħdan id-difiżi bit-tajn tal-periferija, l-ogħla popolazzjoni hija stmata li kienet 517-il persuna għal kull kilometru kwadru (1,340 persuna għal kull mil kwadru). F'żona fi ħdan raġġ ta' 12-il kilometru (7.5 mili) tal-qalba tas-sit, l-ogħla popolazzjoni hija stmata li kienet tlaħħaq il-120,000 ruħ; id-densità tal-popolazzjoni hija stmata li kienet 265 persuna għal kull kilometru kwadru (689 persuna għal kull mil kwadru). F'reġjun fi ħdan raġġ ta' 25 kilometru (16-il mil) mill-qalba tas-sit u inkluż xi siti anċillari, l-ogħla popolazzjoni hija stmata li kienet tlaħħaq l-425,000 ruħ b'densità ta' 216-il persuna għal kull kilometru kwadru (515-il persuna għal kull mil kwadru). Dawn iċ-ċifri rigward il-popolazzjoni huma ferm iktar impressjonanti minħabba l-artijiet bassasa estensiva li ma kinux adattati għall-abitazzjoni jew għall-agrikoltura. Madankollu, xi arkeologi, bħal [[David Webster]], jemmnu li dawn iċ-ċifri huma wisq għoljin.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 264.</ref> == Sit ta' Wirt Dinji == Il-Park Nazzjonali ta' Tikal ġie ddeżinjat bħala Sit ta' Wirt Dinji tal-UNESCO fl-1979.<ref name=":0" /> Il-valur universali straordinarju tas-sit ġie rrikonoxxut abbażi ta' ħames kriterji tal-għażla tal-UNESCO bħala sit kulturali u naturali mħallat: il-'''kriterju (i)''' "Rappreżentazzjoni ta' kapulavur frott il-kreattività tal-bniedem"; il-'''kriterju (iii)''' "Xhieda unika jew minn tal-inqas eċċezzjonali ta' tradizzjoni kulturali jew ta' ċivilizzazzjoni li għadha ħajja jew li għebet"; il-'''kriterju (iv)''' "Eżempju straordinarju ta' tip ta' bini, ta' grupp ta' siti jew ta' pajsaġġ arkitettoniku jew teknoloġiku li joħroġ fid-dieher stadju/i sinifikanti fl-istorja tal-bniedem"; il-'''kriterju (ix)''' "Eżempju straordinarju li jirrappreżenta proċessi ekoloġiċi u bijoloġiċi kontinwi sinifikanti fl-evoluzzjoni u fl-iżvilupp ta' ekosistemi u ta' komunitajiet ta' pjanti u ta' annimali terrestri, tal-ilma ħelu, kostali u tal-baħar"; u l-'''kriterju (x)''' "Post fejn hemm l-iktar ħabitats naturali importanti u sinifikanti għall-konservazzjoni fil-post tad-diversità bijoloġika, inkluż fejn hemm speċijiet mhedda ta' valur universali straordinarju mill-perspettiva tax-xjenza jew tal-konservazzjoni".<ref name=":0" /> == Storja == === Preklassika === [[Stampa:Maya-Maske.jpg|daqsminuri|Maskra tal-Maja li nstabet f'Tikal]] Hemm traċċi ta' biedja bikrija fis-sit li jmorru lura saħansitra sal-1000 Q.K., fil-Preklassiku Nofsani.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 262.</ref> Ġabra ta' bċejjeċ taċ-ċeramika ta' Mamon li jmorru lura għal madwar is-700 u l-400 Q.K. instabu f'''chultun'' issiġillat, jiġifieri f'kompartiment taħt l-art b'għamla ta' flixkun.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 55.</ref> Fil-perjodu Preklassiku Aħħar f'Tikal diġà kienet qed issir kostruzzjoni maġġuri, u l-ewwel binjiet tfaċċaw għall-ħabta tal-400 u t-300 Q.K., inkluż il-kostruzzjoni ta' piramidi u pjattaformi maġġuri, għalkemm il-belt kienet għadha ferm iżgħar minn siti oħra iktar fin-Nofsinhar bħal [[El Mirador]] u [[Nakbe]].<ref>Coe 1999, p. 55.</ref> F'dak iż-żmien, Tikal ipparteċipat fil-kultura mifruxa ta' Chikanel li ddominat iż-żoni Ċentrali u tat-Tramuntana tal-Maja dak iż-żmien – reġjun li kien jinkludi l-Peniżola tal-Yucatan kollha inkluż it-Tramuntana u l-Lvant tal-Gwatemala u l-Belize kollu.<ref>Coe 1999, pp. 73, 80.</ref> Żewġ tempji li jmorru lura għaż-żminijiet aħħarin ta' Chikanel kellhom superstrutturi b'ħitan bix-xogħol fil-ġebel li jaf kienu bil-volti apposta li jħallu arkata jew spazju vojt fi ħdanhom, għalkemm ma nstabux provi ta' dan. Wieħed minnhom kellu affreski elaborati mal-ħitan ta' barra li juru figuri umani fuq sfond ta' tiżjin ripetut bl-[[isfar]], bl-[[iswed]], bir-roża u bl-[[aħmar]].<ref>Coe 1999, p. 75.</ref> Fl-ewwel seklu W.K. tfaċċaw l-ewwel oqbra għonja u Tikal iffjorixxiet politikament u kulturalment, filwaqt li l-ġirien ġganteski tagħha fit-Tramuntana majnaw. Lejn l-aħħar tal-Preklassiku Aħħari, l-istil tal-arti u tal-arkitettura Izapan mill-Kosta [[Oċean Paċifiku|Paċifika]] beda jinfluwenza lil Tikal, kif joħroġ fid-dieher minn skultura miksura mill-akropoli u mill-affreski bikrin fil-belt.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 78.</ref> === Klassika Bikrija === It-tmexxija dinastika fl-artijiet baxxi tal-Maja hija ankrata l-iktar fil-fond f'Tikal. Skont sejbiet ġeroglifiċi li saru iktar 'il quddiem, id-dinastija ġiet stabbilita minn [[Yax Ehb Xook]], x'aktarx fl-ewwel seklu W.K.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 90.</ref> Fil-bidu tal-perjodu Klassiku Bikri, il-poter fir-reġjun tal-Maja kien ikkonċentrat f'Tikal u f'Calakmul, fil-qalba tat-territorju tal-Maja.<ref>Miller 1999, pp. 88-89.</ref> Tikal jaf ibbenefikat mill-waqgħa tal-istati Preklassiċi l-kbar bħal El Mirador. Fil-perjodu Klassiku Bikri Tikal malajr żviluppat fl-iżjed belt dinamika fir-reġjun tal-Maja, u xprunat l-iżvilupp ta' bliet tal-Maja oħrajn fl-inħawi.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 191.</ref> Madankollu, is-sit spiss kien imdaħħal fi gwerer u mill-kitbiet imnaqqxa nafu li kien hemm diversi alleanzi u kunflitti ma' stati oħra tal-Maja, inkluż Uaxactun, Caracol, [[Naranjo]] u Calakmul. Is-sit ġarrab telfa fl-aħħar tal-perjodu Klassiku Bikri kontra Caracol, li ħadet post Tikal bħala ċ-ċentru ewlieni fl-artijiet baxxi tan-Nofsinhar tal-Maja.<ref>Sharer 1994, p. 265.</ref> Fil-parti iktar bikrija tal-Klassiku Bikri kien hemm ostilitajiet bejn Tikal u l-ġar tagħha Uaxactun. F'Uaxactun fil-fatt instabu dokumentazzjonijiet dwar il-qbid ta' priġunieri minn Tikal.<ref>Kelly 1996, p. 129.</ref> Milli jidher kien hemm waqfa fis-suċċessjoni dinastika minn raġel għal ieħor lejn it-317 W.K., meta [[Unen Bahlam]] għamlet ċerimonja ta' tmiem ''katun'', x'aktarx bħala r-reġina tal-belt.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, p. 27.</ref> ==== Tikal u Teotihuacan ==== [[Stampa:Mexico SunMoonPyramid.jpg|daqsminuri|Jidher li l-metropoli l-kbira ta' Teotihuacan fil-Wied tal-Messiku intervjeniet b'mod deċiżiv fil-politka ta' Tikal.]] Diġà fil-200 W.K. Teotihuacan kellha ambaxxati f'Tikal.<ref>The Origins & Collapse of the Preclassic Maya in the Mirador Basin - Richard Hansen at The Library of Congress (2014)</ref> L-erbatax-il re ta' Tikal kien Chak Tok Ich'aak (li tfisser litteralment "Sieq tal-Ġagwar il-Kbir"). Chak Tok Ich'aak bena palazz li ġie ppreservat u żviluppat mill-mexxejja ta' warajh sakemm sar il-qalba tal-Akropoli Ċentrali.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 192.</ref> Ma tantx nafu wisq dwar Chak Tok Ich'aak għajr li nqatel fl-14 ta' Jannar 378 W.K. Fl-istess jum, wasal Siyah K'ak' (li tfisser litteralment "Twieled in-Nar") mill-Punent, wara li għadda minn [[El Peru]], sit fil-Punent ta' Tikal, fit-8 ta' Jannar. Fuq l-iStele 31 jissemma bħala s-"Sinjur tal-Punent".<ref>Drew 1999, p. 199.</ref> Siyah K'ak' x'aktarx li kien ġeneral barrani, irrappreżentat minn kitba ġeroglifika mhux tal-Maja ta' wieħed li jwaddab il-lanez flimkien ma' kokka, kitba ġeroglifika magħrufa sew mill-metropoli l-kbira ta' Teotihuacan fil-Wied tal-Messiku daqstant 'il bogħod. Siyah K'ak' jaf kien anke l-mexxej ta' Teotihuacan. Dawn l-avvenimenti rreġistrati fil-kitba ġeroglifika tal-Maja jissuġġerixxu b'mod qawwi li Siyah K'ak' mexxa invażjoni ta' Tikal min-naħa ta' Teotihuacan u r-re nattiv ta' Tikal ġarrab telfa, inqabad mill-għadu u ġie ġġustizzjat minnufih.<ref>Coe 1999, pp. 90-91.</ref> Milli jidher Siyah K'ak' ġie megħjun minn fazzjoni politika b'saħħitha f'Tikal stess<ref>Webster 2002, p. 133.</ref>; bejn wieħed u ieħor fl-istess żmien tal-ħakma, grupp ta' nattivi ta' Teotihuacan kienu qed jirresjedu qrib il-kumpless tad-Dinja Mitlufa.<ref>Drew 1999, p. 201.</ref> Huwa eżerċita kontroll ukoll fuq bliet oħra fl-inħawi, fosthom Uaxactun, fejn sar re, iżda ma ħax it-tron ta' Tikal għalih innifsu.<ref name=":1">Drew 1999, p. 200.</ref> Fi żmien sena, ibnu, Yax Nuun Ayiin I (l-"Ewwel Kukkudrill") sar il-ħmistax-il re ta' Tikal meta kien għadu tifel, u ngħata t-tron fit-13 ta' Settembru 379.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 97.</ref> Huwa rrenja għal 47 sena bħala r-re ta' Tikal, u baqa' vassall ta' Siyah K'ak' sa ma dan miet. X'aktarx li Yax Nuun Ayiin I ħa mara mid-dinastija ta' Tikal ta' qablu u b'hekk leġittimizza d-dritt ta' tmexxija għal ibnu, Siyaj Chan K'awiil II.<ref name=":1" /> [[Río Azul]], sit żgħir madwar 100 kilometru (62 mil) fil-Grigal ta' Tikal, inħakem minn Tikal matul ir-renju ta' Yax Nuun Ayiin I. Is-sit sar qisu tarka ta' Tikal u kien jiddefendiha mill-bliet ostili iktar lejn it-Tramuntana, u sar kollegament kummerċjali mal-[[Baħar Karibew|Karibew]].<ref>Drew 1999, pp. 201-202.</ref> Għalkemm il-mexxejja l-ġodda ta' Tikal kienu barranin, id-dixxendenti tagħhom malajr saru midħla tal-Maja. Tikal saret l-alleat u l-imsieħeb kummerċjali ewlieni ta' Teotihuacan fl-artijiet baxxi tal-Maja. Wara li nħakmet minn Teotihuacan, Tikal malajr iddominat ir-reġjun ta' Peten fit-Tramuntana u fil-Lvant. Uaxactun, flimkien ma' rħula żgħar oħra fir-reġjun, ġew assorbiti fir-renju ta' Tikal. Siti oħra, bħal [[Bejucal]] u [[Motul de San José]] ħdejn il-Lag ta' Petén Itzá saru vassalli tal-ġar iktar setgħan tagħhom lejn it-Tramuntana. Sa nofs is-seklu 5 Tikal kellha territorju ewlieni ta' mill-inqas 25 kilometru (16-il mil) f'kull direzzjoni. Għall-ħabta tas-seklu 5 inbniet sistema impressjonanti ta' fortifikazzjonijiet b'fosos u bi ħniedaq tul il-periferija tat-Tramuntana ta' Tikal, flimkien mad-difiżi naturali pprovduti minn żoni kbar ta' artijiet bassasa fil-Lvant u fil-Punent tal-belt. X'aktarx li nbnew ukoll fortifikazzjonijiet oħra lejn in-Nofsinhar. Dawn id-difiżi pproteġew lill-popolazzjoni ewlenija u r-riżorsi agrikoli ta' Tikal, f'erja ta' madwar 120 kilometru kwadru (46 mil kwadru). Riċerka reċenti tissuġġerixxi li l-ħniedaq kienu jintużaw bħala sistema ta' ġbir tal-ilma iktar milli għad-difiża.<ref>Silverstein 2009.</ref> ==== Tikal u Copán ==== Fis-seklu 5 il-poter tal-belt kien iwassal saħansitra sa Copán fin-Nofsinhar, u l-fundatur tagħha, K'inich Yax K'uk' Mo', kellu rabtiet ċari ma' Tikal. Copán stess ma kinitx f'reġjun etniku tal-Maja u l-istabbiliment tad-dinastija ta' Copán x'aktarx li kienet tinvolvi l-intervent dirett ta' Tikal.<ref>Wyllys Andrews & Fash 2005, p. 407.</ref> K'inich Yax K'uk' Mo' wasal f'Copán f'Diċembru 426 u mill-analiżi tal-għadam tiegħu nafu li qatta' tfulitu u żgħożitu f'Tikal.<ref>Fash & Agurcia Fasquelle 2005, p. 26.</ref> Individwu magħruf bħala Ajaw K'uk' Mo' (jew is-Sinjur K'uk' Mo') jissemma f'test bikri f'Tikal u jaf kien l-istess persuna.<ref>Looper 2003, p. 37.</ref> Il-qabar tiegħu kellu karatteristiċi ta' Teotihuacan u iktar 'il quddiem ġie mpinġi bl-ilbies tal-ġellieda ta' Teotihuacan. Kitbiet ġeroglifiċi jirreferu għalih bħala s-"Sinjur tal-Punent", l-istess bħal Siyah K'ak'. Fl-istess żmien, fl-aħħar tal-426, Copán stabbiliet is-sit ta' [[Quiriguá]] fil-qrib, possibbilment sponsorjata minn Tikal stess. L-istabbiliment ta' dawn iż-żewġ ċentri jaf kien parti minn sforz biex tiġi imposta l-awtorità ta' Tikal fuq il-parti tax-Xlokk tar-reġjun tal-Maja.<ref>Looper 2003, p. 38.</ref> L-interazzjoni bejn dawn is-siti u Tikal kienet waħda intensiva matul it-tliet sekli ta' wara.<ref>Looper 1999, p. 263.</ref> Rivalità twila bejn Tikal u Calakmul bdiet fis-seklu 6, u kull waħda miż-żewġt ibliet iffurmat in-network tagħha ta' alleanzi ostili għal xulxin, u dan x'aktarx wassal għal gwerra twila bejn iż-żewġ superpotenzi tal-Maja. Ir-rejiet ta' dawn iż-żewġ bliet kapitali adottaw it-titlu ta' ''kaloomte''', terminu li ġiex tradott b'mod preċiż iżda li jimplika xi ħaġa bħal "re għoli".<ref>Webster 2002, pp. 168-169.</ref> Fil-bidu tas-seklu 6 laħqet reġina oħra bħala mexxejja tal-belt, magħrufa bħala s-"Sinjura ta' Tikal", li x'aktarx kienet bint Chak Tok Ich'aak II. Milli jidher qatt ma mexxiet waħedha, iżda dejjem kellha magħha mexxejja rġiel. L-ewwel wieħed minnhom kien Kaloomte' B'alam, li milli jidher kellu karriera twila bħala ġeneral f'Tikal qabel ma sar mexxej mar-reġina u fid-19-il post fis-sekwenza dinastika. Is-Sinjura ta' Tikal stess ma ġietx magħduda fis-sekwenza dinastika numerika. Iktar 'il quddiem x'aktarx li ngħaqad magħha bħala mexxej is-Sinjur "Difer ta' [[Għasfur]]", li jingħad li kien l-20 mexxej.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, pp. 38-39.</ref> === Klassika Aħħarija === ==== Pawża fil-kontinwità tal-poter ta' Tikal ==== [[Stampa:Tikal-Plaza-And-North-Acropolis.jpg|daqsminuri|280x280px|Il-pjazza prinċipali matul iċ-ċelebrazzjonijiet tas-solstizju tax-xitwa]] F'nofs is-seklu 6, milli jidher Caracol saret alleata ta' Calakmul u għelbu lil Tikal, u b'hekk temmew il-perjodu Klassiku Bikri.<ref>Miller 1999, p. 89.</ref> Din il-pawża fil-kontinwità tal-poter ta' Tikal x'aktarx li seħħet bejn l-aħħar tas-seklu 6 u l-aħħar tas-seklu 7 fejn kien hemm qabża fil-kitba tal-kitbiet imnaqqxa u fil-kostruzzjoni fuq skala kbira f'Tikal. Fl-aħħar nofs tas-seklu 6 W.K., il-belt għaddiet minn kriżi kbira, fejn ma tħejjiet l-ebda stele ġdida u fejn kien hemm mutilazzjoni mifruxa tal-iskulturi pubbliċi.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 94.</ref> Din il-pawża fl-attività kontinwa ta' Tikal kienet misteru għal żmien twil, iżda mbagħad ġew iddeċifrati epigrafi oħra li identifikaw li dak il-perjodu seħħ wara t-telfa komprensiva li ġarrbet Tikal kontra l-alleanza ta' Calakmul u ta' Caracol fil-562, telfa li milli jidher irriżultat fil-qbid u fis-sagrifiċċju tar-re ta' Tikal. L-Artal 21 f'Caracol, ħafna minnu miekul mill-elementi, jiddeskrivi kif Tikal ġarrbet din it-telfa diżastruża fi gwerra maġġuri li seħħet f'April 562.<ref>Historical Dictionary of Mesoamerica by Walter Robert Thurmond Witschey and Clifford T. Brown, p. 313.</ref> Milli jidher Caracol alleat ruħha ma' Calakmul fil-kunflitt usa' bejn il-belt u Tikal, u t-telfa ta' Tikal kellha impatt kbir għal żmien twil fuq il-belt. Ir-rikkezzi ta' Tikal ma ġewx misruqa iżda l-poter u l-influwenza li kellha ntilfu.<ref>Webster 2002, pp. 192-193.</ref> Wara r-rebħa kbira tagħha, Caracol kibret malajr u parti mill-popolazzjoni ta' Tikal jaf ġiet rilokata hemmhekk. Matul il-pawża fil-kontinwità tal-poter ta' Tikal, mill-inqas mexxej wieħed ta' Tikal fittex refuġju ma' Janaab' Pakal ta' Palenque, vittma ieħor ta' Calakmul.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 193.</ref> Calakmul stagħnat matul il-pawża twila fil-kontinwità tal-poter ta' Tikal.<ref name=":2">Webster 2002, p. 194.</ref> Din il-pawża serviet bħala markatur li l-arkeologi jużaw biex jiddistingwu bejn il-perjodu Klassiku tal-kronoloġija Mesoamerikana u l-perjodu Klassiku Bikri u Aħħari.<ref>Miller u Taube 1993, p. 20.</ref> ==== Tikal u Dos Pilas ==== Fis-629 Tikal stabbiliet lil [[Dos Pilas]], xi 110 kilometri (68 mil) fil-Lbiċ, bħala stazzjonament militari sabiex tikkontrolla l-kummerċ tul ix-xmara [[Pasión]].<ref>Salisbury et al. 2002, p. 1.</ref> B'alaj Chan K'awiil tela' fuq it-tron tal-istazzjonament il-ġdid meta kellu erba' snin, fis-635. Meta kiber, għal bosta snin serva bħala vassall leali u ġġieled għal ħuh, ir-re ta' Tikal.<ref>Salisbury et al. 2002, pp. 2-3.</ref> Bejn wieħed u ieħor għoxrin sena wara, Dos Pilas ġie attakkat minn Calakmul u ġarrab telfa kbira. B'alaj Chan K'awiil inqabad mir-re ta' Calakmul iżda, minflok ġie ssagrifikat, reġa' ngħata t-tron bħala vassall tal-eks għadu tiegħu.<ref>Salisbury et al. 2002, p. 2.</ref> Huwa attakka lil Tikal fis-657, u ġiegħel lil Nuun Ujol Chaak, ir-re ta' Tikal ta' dak iż-żmien, jabbanduna l-belt temporanjament. L-ewwel żewġ mexxejja ta' Dos Pilas komplew jużaw il-ġeroglifiċi emblematiċi ta' Mutal li kienu ta' Tikal, u x'aktarx li ħassew li kienu leġittimi biex jieħdu t-tron ta' Tikal stess. Għall-istess raġuni, B'alaj Chan K'awiil ma sarx il-mexxej il-ġdid ta' Tikal; u minflok baqa' f'Dos Pilas. Tikal wettqet kontroattakk kontra Dos Pilas fis-672, u wasslet biex B'alaj Chan K'awiil jaħrab f'eżilju li dam ħames snin.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 276.</ref> Calakmul ipprovat tiċċirkonda lil Tikal fi ħdan żona ddominata mill-alleati tagħha, fosthom El Peru, Dos Pilas, u Caracol.<ref>Hammond 2000, p. 220.</ref> Fis-682, Jasaw Chan K'awiil I bena l-ewwel [[monument]] datat f'Tikal f'120 sena u ħa t-titlu ta' ''kaloomte''', u b'hekk temm din il-pawża fil-poter. Huwa ta bidu għal programm ġdid ta' kostruzzjoni u ħadha qatta' bla ħabel kontra Calakmul sakemm fis-695, irnexxielu jaqbad il-mexxej tal-għadu u b'hekk xeħet lill-istat għadu tiegħu f'perjodu twil ta' deklin li qatt ma rkupra minnu għalkollox. Wara dan l-avveniment, Calakmul qatt ma reġgħet bniet monument biex tiċċelebra xi rebħa militari.<ref name=":2" /> ==== Tikal wara Teotihuacan ==== Sas-seklu 7, ma kien hemm l-ebda preżenza attiva ta' Teotihuacan f'xi sit tal-Maja u ċ-ċentru ta' Teotihuacan inqered sas-sena 700. Anke wara dan il-perjodu, l-ilbies militari formali mnaqqax jew impinġi fuq il-monumenti kellu stil ta' Teotihuacan.<ref>Miller 1999, p. 105.</ref> Jasaw Chan K'awiil I u l-eredi tiegħu Yik'in Chan K'awiil komplew l-ostilitajiet kontra Calakmul u l-alleati tagħha u imponew kontroll reġjonali rigoruż fuq iż-żona madwar Tikal, estiża saħansitra sat-territorju madwar il-Lag ta' Petén Itzá. Dan iż-żewġ mexxejja kienu responsabbli għall-biċċa l-kbira tal-arkitettura impressjonanti viżibbli llum il-ġurnata.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 263.</ref> Fis-738, Quiriguá, li kienet vassall ta' Copán, l-alleat ewlieni ta' Tikal fin-Nofsinhar, qalbet l-alleanza tagħha favur Calakmul, rebħet kontra Copán u kisbet l-indipendenza tagħha stess. Milli jidher dan kien sforz konxju min-naħa ta' Calakmul sabiex twassal għall-qerda tal-alleati ta' Tikal fin-Nofsinhar.<ref>Looper 2003, p. 79.</ref> Dan biddel il-bilanċ fil-poter taż-żona tan-Nofsinhar tal-Maja u wassal għal deklin rapidu ta' Copán.<ref>Wyllys Andrews & Fash 2005, p. 408.</ref> Fis-seklu 8, il-mexxejja ta' Tikal ġabru xi monumenti mill-belt u tellgħuhom quddiem l-Akropoli tat-Tramuntana. Sal-aħħar tas-seklu 8 u l-bidu tas-seklu 9, l-attività f'Tikal majnat. Xorta waħda nbniet arkitettura impressjonanti iżda ftit kitbiet ġeroglifiċi jirreferi għall-mexxejja li ġew wara.<ref>Miller 1999, p. 33.</ref> === Klassika Terminali === [[Stampa:Tikal12.jpg|daqsminuri|259x259px|Veduta tal-qalba ta' Tikal min-Nofsinhar, bit-Tempju I fin-nofs, l-Akropolit tat-Tramuntana fuq ix-xellug u l-Akropoli Ċentrali fuq il-lemin.]] By the 9th century, the crisis of the Classic Maya collapse was sweeping across the region, with populations plummeting and city after city falling into silence. Increasingly endemic warfare in the Maya region caused Tikal's supporting population to heavily concentrate close to the city itself, accelerating the use of intensive agriculture and the corresponding environmental decline. Construction continued at the beginning of the century, with the erection of Temple 3, the last of the city's major pyramids, and the erection of monuments to mark the 19th K'atun in 810. The beginning of the 10th Bak'tun in 830 passed uncelebrated, and marks the beginning of a 60-year hiatus, probably resulting from the collapse of central control in the city. During this hiatus, satellite sites traditionally under Tikal's control began to erect their own monuments featuring local rulers and using the Mutal emblem glyph, with Tikal apparently lacking the authority or the power to crush these bids for independence. In 849, Jewel K'awiil is mentioned on a stela at Seibal as visiting that city as the Divine Lord of Tikal but he is not recorded elsewhere and Tikal's once-great power was little more than a memory. The sites of Ixlu and Jimbal had by now inherited the once exclusive Mutal emblem glyph. As Tikal and its hinterland reached peak population, the area suffered deforestation, erosion and nutrient loss followed by a rapid decline in population levels. Recent analysis also indicates that the city's freshwater sources became highly contaminated with mercury, phosphate and cyanobacteria leading to the accumulation of toxins. Tikal and its immediate surroundings seem to have lost most of their population between 830 and 950 and central authority seems to have collapsed rapidly. There is not much evidence from Tikal that the city was directly affected by the endemic warfare that afflicted parts of the Maya region during the Terminal Classic, although an influx of refugees from the Petexbatún region may have exacerbated problems resulting from the already stretched environmental resources. The site core seen from the south, with Temple I at center, the North Acropolis to the left and Central Acropolis to the right In the latter half of the 9th century there was an attempt to revive royal power at the much-diminished city of Tikal, as evidenced by a stela erected in the Great Plaza by Jasaw Chan K'awiil II in 869. This was the last monument erected at Tikal before the city finally fell into silence. The former satellites of Tikal, such as Jimbal and Uaxactun, did not last much longer, erecting their final monuments in 889. By the end of the 9th century the vast majority of Tikal's population had deserted the city, its royal palaces were occupied by squatters and simple thatched dwellings were being erected in the city's ceremonial plazas. The squatters blocked some doorways in the rooms they reoccupied in the monumental structures of the site and left rubbish that included a mixture of domestic refuse and non-utilitarian items such as musical instruments. These inhabitants reused the earlier monuments for their own ritual activities, far removed from those of the royal dynasty that had erected them. Some monuments were vandalized and some were moved to new locations. Before its final abandonment all respect for the old rulers had disappeared, with the tombs of the North Acropolis being explored for jade and the easier-to-find tombs were looted. After 950, Tikal was all but deserted, although a remnant population may have survived in perishable huts interspersed among the ruins. Even these final inhabitants abandoned the city in the 10th or 11th centuries and the rainforest claimed the ruins for the next thousand years. Some of Tikal's population may have migrated to the Peten Lakes region, which remained heavily populated in spite of a plunge in population levels in the first half of the 9th century. The most likely cause of collapse at Tikal is overpopulation and agrarian failure. The fall of Tikal was a blow to the heart of Classic Maya civilization, the city having been at the forefront of courtly life, art and architecture for over a thousand years, with an ancient ruling dynasty. However, new research regarding paleoenvironmental proxies from the Tikal reservoir system suggests that a meteorological drought may have led to the abandonment of Tikal, fouling some reservoirs near the temple and palace with algae blooms, while other reservoirs remained drinkable. Buildings were painted with mercury-bearing cinnabar, which were washed off by rain and polluted some reservoirs. Works of Kohler and colleagues showed that this city reached an unsustainable level of inequalities at the end.^{[''clarification needed'']} === Moderna === In 1525, the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés passed within a few kilometers of the ruins of Tikal but did not mention them in his letters. After Spanish friar Andrés de Avendaño became lost in the Petén forests in early 1696 he described a ruin that may well have been Tikal. As is often the case with huge ancient ruins, knowledge of the site was never completely lost in the region. It seems that local people never forgot about Tikal and they guided Guatemalan expeditions to the ruins in the 1850s. Some second- or third-hand accounts of Tikal appeared in print starting in the 17th century, continuing through the writings of John Lloyd Stephens in the early 19th century (Stephens and his illustrator Frederick Catherwood heard rumors of a lost city, with white building tops towering above the jungle, during their 1839–40 travels in the region). Because of the site's remoteness from modern towns, however, no explorers visited Tikal until Modesto Méndez and Ambrosio Tut, respectively the commissioner and the governor of Petén, visited it in 1848. Artist Eusebio Lara accompanied them and their account was published in Germany in 1853. Several other expeditions came to further investigate, map, and photograph Tikal in the 19th century (including Alfred P. Maudslay in 1881-82) and the early 20th century. Pioneering archeologists started to clear, map and record the ruins in the 1880s. In 1951, a small airstrip was built at the ruins, which previously could only be reached by several days' travel through the jungle on foot or mule. In 1956 the Tikal project began to map the city on a scale not previously seen in the Maya area. From 1956 through 1970, major archeological excavations were carried out by the University of Pennsylvania Tikal Project. They mapped much of the site and excavated and restored many of the structures. Excavations directed by Edwin M. Shook and later by William Coe of the university investigated the North Acropolis and the Central Plaza from 1957 to 1969. The Tikal Project recorded over 200 monuments at the site. In 1979, the Guatemalan government began a further archeological project at Tikal, which continued through to 1984. Filmmaker George Lucas used Tikal as a filming location for the fictional moon Yavin 4 in the first ''Star Wars'' film, ''Episode IV: A New Hope'', which premiered in 1977. Temple I at Tikal was featured on the reverse of the 50 centavo banknote. Eon Productions used the site for the James Bond film ''Moonraker''. Tikal is now a major tourist attraction surrounded by its own national park. A site museum has been built at Tikal; it was completed in 1964. == Deskrizzjoni tas-sit == Tikal has been partially restored by the University of Pennsylvania and the government of Guatemala. It was one of the largest of the Classic period Maya cities and was one of the largest cities in the Americas. The architecture of the ancient city is built from limestone and includes the remains of temples that tower over 70 meters (230 ft) high, large royal palaces, in addition to a number of smaller pyramids, palaces, residences, administrative buildings, platforms and inscribed stone monuments. There is even a building which seemed to have been a jail, originally with wooden bars across the windows and doors. There are also seven courts for playing the Mesoamerican ballgame, including a set of 3 in the Seven Temples Plaza, a unique feature in Mesoamerica. The limestone used for construction was local and quarried on-site. The depressions formed by the extraction of stone for building were plastered to waterproof them and were used as reservoirs, together with some waterproofed natural depressions. The main plazas were surfaced with stucco and laid at a gradient that channelled rainfall into a system of canals that fed the reservoirs. The residential area of Tikal covers an estimated 60 square kilometers (23 sq mi), much of which has not yet been cleared, mapped, or excavated. The 16 square kilometers (6.2 sq mi) area around the site core has been intensively mapped; it may have enclosed an area of some 125 square kilometers (48 sq mi) (see below). A huge set of earthworks discovered by Dennis E. Puleston and Donald Callender in the 1960s rings Tikal with a 6-meter (20 ft) wide trench behind a rampart. Recently, a project exploring the defensive earthworks has shown that the scale of the earthworks is highly variable and that in many places it is inconsequential as a defensive feature. In addition, some parts of the earthwork were integrated into a canal system. The earthwork of Tikal varies significantly in coverage from what was originally proposed and it is much more complex and multifaceted than originally thought. === Toroq === By the Late Classic, a network of ''sacbeob'' (causeways) linked various parts of the city, running for several kilometers through its urban core. These linked the Great Plaza with Temple 4 (located about 750 meters (2,460 feet) to the west) and the Temple of the Inscriptions (about 1 kilometer (0.62 mi) to the southeast). These broad causeways were built of packed and plastered limestone and have been named after early explorers and archeologists; the Maler, Maudslay, Tozzer and Méndez causeways. They assisted the passage of everyday traffic during the rain season and also served as dams. The '''Maler Causeway''' runs north from behind Temple I to Group H. A large bas-relief is carved onto limestone bedrock upon the course of the causeway just south of Group H. It depicts two bound captives and dates to the Late Classic. The '''Maudsley Causeway''' runs 0.8 kilometers (0.50 mi) northeast from Temple IV to Group H. The '''Mendez Causeway''' runs southeast from the East Plaza to Temple VI, a distance of about 1.3 kilometers (0.81 mi). The '''Tozzer Causeway''' runs west from the Great Plaza to Temple IV. === Gruppi arkitettoniċi === The '''Great Plaza''' lies at the core of the site; it is flanked on the east and west sides by two great temple-pyramids. On the north side it is bordered by the North Acropolis and on the south by the Central Acropolis. The '''Central Acropolis''' is a palace complex just south of the Great Plaza. The '''North Acropolis''', together with the Great Plaza immediately to the south, is one of the most studied architectural groups in the Maya area; the Tikal Project excavated a massive trench across the complex, thoroughly investigating its construction history. It is a complex group with construction beginning in the Preclassic Period, around 350 BC. It developed into a funerary complex for the ruling dynasty of the Classic Period, with each additional royal burial adding new temples on top of the older structures. After AD 400 a row of tall pyramids was added to the earlier Northern Platform, which measured 100 by 80 meters (330 by 260 ft), gradually hiding it from view. Eight temple pyramids were built in the 6th century AD, each of them had an elaborate roofcomb and a stairway flanked by masks of the gods. By the 9th century AD, 43 stelae and 30 altars had been erected in the North Acropolis; 18 of these monuments were carved with hieroglyphic texts and royal portraits. The North Acropolis continued to receive burials into the Postclassic Period. The '''South Acropolis''' is found next to Temple V. It was built upon a large basal platform that covers an area of more than 20,000 square meters (220,000 sq ft). The '''Plaza of the Seven Temples''' is to the west of the South Acropolis. It is bordered on the east side by a row of nearly identical temples, by palaces on the south and west sides and by an unusual triple ballcourt on the north side. The '''Mundo Perdido''' is to the west of the Plaza of the Seven Temples. It is the largest ceremonial complex dating from the Preclassic period at Tikal. The complex was organized as a large E-Group consisting of a pyramid aligned with a platform to the east that supported three temples. The Mundo Perdido complex was rebuilt many times over the course of its history. By AD 250–300 its architectural style was influenced by the great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico, including the use of the ''talud-tablero'' form. During the Early Classic period (c. 250–600) the Mundo Perdido became one of the twin foci of the city, the other being the North Acropolis. From AD 250 to 378 it may have served as the royal necropolis. The Mundo Perdido complex was given its name by the archeologists of the University of Pennsylvania; it is centered upon the Lost World Pyramid and a small platform to the west of it. To the south of Mundo Perdido, recent 2021 excavations have revealed a one-third size replication of La Ciudadela, or The Citadel, in Teotihuacan. This area may have been used as a diplomatic headquarters and as an effort to further stamp Teotihuacan culture upon the residents of Tikal. '''Group G''' lies just south of the Mendez Causeway. The complex dates to the Late Classic and consists of palace-type structures and is one of the largest groups of its type at Tikal. It has two stories but most of the rooms are on the lower floor, a total of 29 vaulted chambers. The remains of two further chambers belong to the upper story. One of the entrances to the group was framed by a gigantic mask. '''Group H''' is centered on a large plaza to the north of the Great Plaza. It is bordered by temples dating to the Late Classic. There are nine '''Twin-Pyramid Complexes''' at Tikal, one of which was completely dismantled in ancient times and some others were partly destroyed. They vary in size but consist of two pyramids facing each other on an east–west axis. These pyramids are flat-topped and have stairways on all four sides. A row of plain stelae is placed immediately to the west of the eastern pyramid and to the north of the pyramids. Lying roughly equidistant from them, there is usually a sculpted stela and altar pair. On the south side of these complexes there is a long vaulted building containing a single room with nine doorways. The entire complex was built at once and these complexes were built at 20-year (or ''k'atun'') intervals during the Late Classic. The first twin pyramid complex was built in the early 6th century in the East Plaza. It was once thought that these complexes were unique to Tikal but rare examples have now been found at other sites, such as Yaxha and Ixlu, and they may reflect the extent of Tikal's political dominance in the Late Classic. '''Group Q''' is a twin-pyramid complex, and is one of the largest at Tikal. It was built by Yax Nuun Ayiin II in 771 in order to mark the end of the 17th K'atun. Most of it has been restored and its monuments have been re-erected. '''Group R''' is another twin-pyramid complex, dated to 790. It is close to the Maler Causeway. === Strutturi === There are thousands of ancient structures at Tikal and only a fraction of these have been excavated, after decades of archeological work. The most prominent surviving buildings include six very large pyramids, labelled Temples I – VI, each of which support a temple structure on their summits. Some of these pyramids are over 60 meters (200 feet) high. They were numbered sequentially during the early survey of the site. It is estimated that each of these major temples could have been built in as little as two years. '''Temple I''' (also known as the ''Temple of Ah Cacao'' or ''Temple of the Great Jaguar'') is a funerary pyramid dedicated to Jasaw Chan K'awil, who was entombed in the structure in AD 734, the pyramid was completed around 740–750. The temple rises 47 meters (154 ft) high. The massive roofcomb that topped the temple was originally decorated with a giant sculpture of the enthroned king, although little of this decoration survives. The tomb of the king was discovered by Aubrey Trik of the University of Pennsylvania in 1962. Among items recovered from the Late Classic tomb were a large collection of inscribed human and animal bone tubes and strips with sophisticated scenes depicting deities and people, finely carved and rubbed with vermilion, as well as jade and shell ornaments and ceramic vessels filled with offerings of food and drink. The shrine at the summit of the pyramid has three chambers, each behind the next, with the doorways spanned by wooden lintels fashioned from multiple beams. The outermost lintel is plain but the two inner lintels were carved, some of the beams were removed in the 19th century and their location is unknown, while others were taken to museums in Europe. '''Temple II''' (also known as the ''Temple of the Mask'') it was built around AD 700 and stands 38 meters (125 ft) high. Like other major temples at Tikal, the summit shrine had three consecutive chambers with the doorways spanned by wooden lintels, only the middle of which was carved. The temple was dedicated to the wife of Jasaw Chan K'awil, although no tomb was found. The queen's portrait was carved into the lintel spanning the doorway of the summit shrine. One of the beams from this lintel is now in the American Museum of Natural History in New York City. '''Temple III''' (also known as the ''Temple of the Jaguar Priest'') was the last of the great pyramids to be built at Tikal. It stood 55 meters (180 ft) tall and contained an elaborately sculpted but damaged roof lintel, possibly showing Dark Sun engaged in a ritual dance around AD 810. The temple shrine possesses two chambers. '''Temple IV''' is the tallest temple-pyramid at Tikal, measuring 70 meters (230 ft) from the plaza floor level to the top of its roof comb. Temple IV marks the reign of Yik’in Chan Kawil (Ruler B, the son of Ruler A or Jasaw Chan K'awiil I) and two carved wooden lintels over the doorway that leads into the temple on the pyramid's summit record a long count date (9.15.10.0.0) that corresponds to CE 741 (Sharer 1994:169). Temple IV is the largest pyramid built anywhere in the Maya region in the 8th century, and as it currently stands is the tallest pre-Columbian structure in the Americas although the Pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacan may originally have been taller, as may have been one of the structures at El Mirador. '''Temple V''' stands south of the Central Acropolis and is the mortuary pyramid of an as yet unidentified ruler. The temple stands 57 meters (187 ft) high, making it the second tallest structure at Tikal – only Temple IV is taller. The temple has been dated to about AD 700, in the Late Classic period, via radiocarbon analysis and the dating of ceramics associated with the structure places its construction during the reign of Nun Bak Chak in the second half of the 7th century. '''Temple VI''' is also known as the ''Temple of the Inscriptions'' and was dedicated in AD 766. It is notable for its 12-meter (39 ft) high roof-comb. Panels of hieroglyphs cover the back and sides of the roof-comb. The temple faces onto a plaza to the west and its front is unrestored. '''Temple 33''' was a funerary pyramid erected over the tomb of Siyaj Chan K'awiil I (known as Burial 48) in the North Acropolis. It started life in the Early Classic as a wide basal platform decorated with large stucco masks that flanked the stairway. Later in the Early Classic a new superstructure was added, with its own masks and decorated panels. During the Hiatus a third stage was built over the earlier constructions, the stairway was demolished and another royal burial, of an unidentified ruler, was set into the structure (Burial 23). While the new pyramid was being built another high ranking tomb (Burial 24) was inserted into the rubble core of the building. The pyramid was then completed, standing 33 meters (108 ft) tall. The final version of Temple 33 was completely dismantled by archeologists in 1965 in order to arrive at the earlier stages of construction. '''Structure 34''' is a pyramid in the North Acropolis that was built by Siyaj Chan K'awiil II over the tomb of his father, Yax Nuun Ayiin I. The pyramid was topped by a three chambered shrine, the rooms situated one behind the other. Detail of Teotihuacan-related imagery decorating the sloping ''talud'' sections of the ''talud-tablero'' sides of Structure 5D-43. '''Structure 5D-43''' is an unusual radial temple in the East Plaza, built over a pre-existing twin pyramid complex. It is built into the end of the East Plaza Ballcourt and possessed four entry doorways and three stairways, the fourth (south) side was too close to the Central Acropolis for a stairway on that side. The building has a ''talud-tablero'' platform profile, modified from the original style found at Teotihuacan. In fact, it has been suggested that the style of the building has closer affinities with El Tajin and Xochicalco than with Teotihuacan itself. The vertical ''tablero'' panels are set between sloping ''talud'' panels and are decorated with paired disc symbols. Large flower symbols are set into the sloping ''talud'' panels, related to the Venus and star symbols used at Teotihuacan. The roof of the structure was decorated with friezes although only fragments now remain, showing a monstrous face, perhaps that of a jaguar, with another head emerging from the mouth. The second head possesses a bifurcated tongue but is probably not that of a snake. The temple, and its associated ballcourt, probably date to the reign of Nuun Ujol Chaak or that of his son Jasaw Chan K'awiil I, in the later part of the 7th century. '''Structure 5C-49''' possesses a clear Teotihuacan-linked architectural style; it has balustrades, an architectural feature that is very rare in the Maya region, and a ''talud-tablero'' façade; it dates to the 4th century AD. It is located near to the Lost World pyramid. '''Structure 5C-53''' is a small Teotihuacan-style platform that dates to about AD 600. It had stairways on all four sides and did not possess a superstructure. The '''Lost World Pyramid''' (Structure 5C-54) is the largest structure in the Mundo Perdido complex. It lies in the southwest portion of Tikal's central core, south of Temple III and west of Temple V. It was decorated with stucco masks of the sun god and dates to the Late Preclassic; this pyramid is part of an enclosed complex of structures that remained intact and un-impacted by later building activity at Tikal. By the end of the Late Preclassic this pyramid was one of the largest structures in the Maya region. It attained its final form during the reign of Chak Tok Ich'aak in the 4th century AD, in the Early Classic, standing more than 30 meters (98 ft) high with stairways on all four sides and a flat top that possibly supported a superstructure built from perishable materials. Although the plaza later suffered significant alteration, the organization of a group of temples on the east side of this complex adheres to the layout that defines the so-called E-Groups, identified as solar observatories. '''Structure 5D-96''' is the central temple on the east side of the Plaza of the Seven Temples. It has been restored and its rear outer wall is decorated with skull-and-crossbones motifs. '''Group 6C-16''' is an elite residential complex that has been thoroughly excavated. It lies a few hundred m south of the Lost World Complex and the excavations have revealed elaborate stucco masks, ballplayer murals, relief sculptures and buildings with Teotihuacan characteristics. The '''Great Plaza Ballcourt''' is a small ballcourt that lies between Temple I and the Central Acropolis. The '''Bat Palace''' is also known as the Palace of Windows and lies to the west of Temple III. It has two storeys, with a double range of chambers on the lower storey and a single range in the upper storey, which has been restored. The palace has ancient graffiti and possesses low windows. '''Complex N''' lies to the west of the Bat Palace and Temple III. The complex dates to AD 711. In 2018, 60,000 uncharted structures were revealed by archeologists with help of Lidar. Thanks to the new findings, some archeologists believe that 7-11 million Maya people inhabited in the northern Guatemala during the late classical period from 650 to 800 A.D. Lidar digitally removed the tree canopy to reveal ancient remains and showed that Maya cities like Tikal were bigger than previously thought. The project was mapped near the Maya Biosphere Reserve in the Petén region of Guatemala. === Artali === '''Altar 5''' is carved with two nobles, one of whom is probably Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. They are performing a ritual using the bones of an important woman. Altar 5 was found in Complex N, which lies to the west of Temple III. '''Altar 8''' is sculpted with a bound captive. It was found within Complex P in Group H and is now in the Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología in Guatemala City. '''Altar 9''' is associated with Stela 21 and bears the sculpture of a bound captive. It is located in front of Temple VI. '''Altar 10''' is carved with a captive tied to a scaffold. It is in the northern enclosure of Group Q, a twin-pyramid complex and has suffered from erosion. '''Altar 35''' is a plain monument associated with Stela 43. The stela-altar pair is centrally located at the base of the stairway of Temple IV. === Lintels === The elaborately carved wooden Lintel 3 from Temple IV. It celebrates a military victory by Yik'in Chan K'awiil in 743. At Tikal, beams of sapodilla wood were placed as lintels spanning the inner doorways of temples. These are the most elaborately carved wooden lintels to have survived anywhere in the Maya region. '''Lintel 3''' from Temple IV was taken to Basel in Switzerland in the 19th century. It was in almost perfect condition and depicts Yik'in Chan K'awiil seated on a palanquin. === Steli === Stelae are carved stone shafts, often sculpted with figures and hieroglyphs. A selection of the most notable stelae at Tikal follows: '''Stela 1''' dates to the 5th century and depicts the king Siyaj Chan K'awiil II in a standing position. '''Stela 4''' is dated to AD 396, during the reign of Yax Nuun Ayiin after the intrusion of Teotihuacan in the Maya area. The stela displays a mix of Maya and Teotihuacan qualities, and deities from both cultures. It has a portrait of the king with the Underworld Jaguar God under one arm and the Mexican Tlaloc under the other. His helmet is a simplified version of the Teotihuacan War Serpent. Unusually for Maya sculpture, but typically for Teotihuacan, Yax Nuun Ayiin is depicted with a frontal face, rather than in profile. '''Stela 5''' was dedicated in 744 by Yik'in Chan K'awiil. '''Stela 6''' is a badly damaged monument dating to 514 and bears the name of the "Lady of Tikal" who celebrated the end of the 4th K'atun in that year. '''Stela 10''' is twinned with Stela 12 but is badly damaged. It described the accession of Kaloomte' B'alam in the early 6th century and earlier events in his career, including the capture of a prisoner depicted on the monument. '''Stela 11''' was the last monument ever erected at Tikal; it was dedicated in 869 by Jasaw Chan K'awiil II. '''Stela 12''' is linked to the queen known as the "Lady of Tikal" and king Kaloomte' B'alam. The queen is described as performing the year-ending rituals but the monument was dedicated in honor of the king. '''Stela 16''' was dedicated in 711, during the reign of Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. The sculpture, including a portrait of the king and a hieroglyphic text, are limited to the front face of the monument. It was found in Complex N, west of Temple III. '''Stela 18''' was one of two stelae erected by Yax Nuun Ayiin I to celebrate the ''k'atun''-ending of AD 396. It was re-erected at the base of Temple 34, his funerary shrine. '''Stela 19''' was dedicated in 790 by Yax Nuun Ayiin II. '''Stela 20''' was found in Complex P, in Group H, and was moved to the Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología in Guatemala City. '''Stela 21''' was dedicated in 736 by Yik'in Chan K'awiil. Only the bottom of the stela is intact, the rest having been mutilated in ancient times. The surviving sculpture is of fine quality, consisting of the feet of a figure and of accompanying hieroglyphic text. The stela is associated with Altar 9 and is located in front of Temple VI. '''Stela 22''' was dedicated in 771 by Yax Nuun Ayiin II in the northern enclosure of Group Q, a twin-pyramid complex. The face of the figure on the stela has been mutilated. '''Stela 23''' was broken in antiquity and was re-erected in a residential complex. The defaced portrait on the monument is that of the so-called "Lady of Tikal", a daughter of Chak Tok Ich'aak II who became queen at the age of six but never ruled in her own right, being paired with male co-rulers. It dates to the early 6th century. '''Stela 24''' was erected at the foot of Temple 3 in 810, accompanied by Altar 7. Both were broken into fragments in ancient times, although the name of Dark Sun survives on three fragments. '''Stela 26''' was found in the summit shrine of Temple 34, underneath a broken masonry altar. The monument had originally been erected at the base of the temple during the Early Classic period and was later broken, probably at the beginning of the Late Classic. Its remains were then interred within the temple shrine. '''Stela 29''' bears a Long Count (8.12.14.8.15) date equivalent to AD 292, the earliest surviving Long Count date from the Maya lowlands. The stela is also the earliest monument to bear the Tikal emblem glyph. It bears a sculpture of the king facing to the right, holding the head of an underworld jaguar god, one of the patron deities of the city. The stela was deliberately smashed during the 6th century or some time later, the upper portion was dragged away and dumped in a rubbish tip close to Temple III, to be uncovered by archeologists in 1959. '''Stela 30''' is the first surviving monument to be erected after the Hiatus. Its style and iconography is similar to that of Caracol, one of the more important of Tikal's enemies. Stela 31, with the sculpted image of Siyaj Chan K'awiil II '''Stela 31''' is the accession monument of Siyaj Chan K'awiil II, also bearing two portraits of his father, Yax Nuun Ayiin, as a youth dressed as a Teotihuacan warrior. He carries a spearthrower in one hand and bears a shield decorated with the face of Tlaloc, the Teotihuacan war god. In ancient times the sculpture was broken and the upper portion was moved to the summit of Temple 33 and ritually buried. Stela 31 has been described as the greatest Early Classic sculpture to survive at Tikal. A long hieroglyphic text is carved onto the back of the monument, the longest to survive from the Early Classic, which describes the arrival of Siyah K'ak' at El Peru and Tikal in January 378. It was also the first stela at Tikal to be carved on all four faces. '''Stela 32''' is a fragmented monument with a foreign Teotihuacan-style sculpture apparently depicting the lord of that city with the attributes of the central Mexican storm god Tlaloc, including his goggle eyes and tasselled headdress. '''Stela 39''' is a broken monument that was erected in the Lost World complex. The upper portion of the stela is missing but the lower portion shows the lower body and legs of Chak Tok Ich'aak, holding a flint axe in his left hand. He is trampling the figure of a bound, richly dressed captive. The monument is dated to AD 376. The text on the back of the monument describes a bloodletting ritual to celebrate a Katun-ending. The stela also names Chak Tok Ich'aak I's father as K'inich Muwaan Jol. '''Stela 40''' bears a portrait of Kan Chitam and dates to AD 468. '''Stela 43''' is paired with Altar 35. It is a plain monument at the base of the stairway of Temple IV. === Oqbra === A ceramic censer representing an elderly deity, found in Burial 10. '''Burial 1''' is a tomb in the Lost World complex. A fine ceramic bowl was recovered from the tomb, with the handle formed from three-dimensional head and neck of a bird emerging from the two-dimensional body painted on the lid. '''Burial 10''' is the tomb of Yax Nuun Ayiin. It is located beneath Structure 34 in the North Acropolis. The tomb contained a rich array of offerings, including ceramic vessels and food, and nine youths were sacrificed to accompany the dead king. A dog was also entombed with the deceased king. Pots in the tomb were stuccoed and painted and many demonstrated a blend of Maya and Teotihuacan styles. Among the offerings was an incense-burner in the shape of an elderly underworld god, sitting on a stool made of human bones and holding a severed head in his hands. The tomb was sealed with a corbel vault, then the pyramid was built on top. '''Burial 48''' is generally accepted as the tomb of Sihyaj Chan Kʼawiil II. It is located beneath Temple 33 in the North Acropolis. The chamber of the tomb was cut from the bedrock and contained the remains of the king himself together with those of two adolescents who had been sacrificed in order to accompany the deceased ruler. The walls of the tomb were covered with white stucco painted with hieroglyphs that included the Long Count date equivalent to 20 March 457, probably the date of either the death or interment of the king. The king's skeleton was missing its skull, its femurs and one of its hands while the skeletons of the sacrificial victims were intact. '''Burial 85''' dates to the Late Preclassic and was enclosed by a platform, with a primitive corbel vault. The tomb contained a single male skeleton, which lacked a skull and its thighbones. The dynastic founder of Tikal, Yax Ehb' Xook, has been linked to this tomb, which lies deep in the heart of the North Acropolis. The deceased had probably died in battle with his body being mutilated by his enemies before being recovered and interred by his followers. The bones were wrapped carefully in textiles to form an upright bundle. The missing head was replaced by a small greenstone mask with shell-inlaid teeth and eyes and bearing a three-pointed royal headband. This head wears an emblem of rulership on its forehead and is a rare Preclassic lowland Maya portrait of a king. Among the contents of the tomb were a stingray spine, a spondylus shell and twenty-six ceramic vessels. '''Burial 116''' is the tomb of Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. It is a large vaulted chamber deep within the pyramid, below the level of the Great Plaza. The tomb contained rich offerings of jadeite, ceramics, shell and works of art. The body of the king was covered with large quantities of jade ornaments including an enormous necklace with especially large beads, as depicted in sculpted portraits of the king. One of the outstanding pieces recovered from the tomb was an ornate jade mosaic vessel with the lid bearing a sculpted portrait of the king himself. '''Burial 195''' was flooded with mud in antiquity. This flood had covered wooden objects that had completely rotted away by the time the tomb was excavated, leaving hollows in the dried mud. Archeologists filled these hollows with stucco and thus excavated four effigies of the god K'awiil, the wooden originals long gone. '''Burial 196''' is a Late Classic royal tomb that contained a jade mosaic vessel topped with the head of the Maize God. == Biblijografija == * Adams, Richard E.W. (2000). "Introduction to a Survey of the Native Prehistoric Cultures of Mesoamerica". In Richard E.W. Adams; Murdo J. Macleod (eds.). The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas. Vol. II: Mesoamerica, part 1. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–44. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-521-35165-2</nowiki>. OCLC 33359444. * Andrews, E. Wyllys; William L. Fash (2005). "Issues in Copán Archaeology". In E. Wyllys Andrews; William L. Fash (eds.). Copán: The History of an Ancient Maya Kingdom. Santa Fe and Oxford: School of American Research Press and James Currey Ltd. pp. 395–425. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-85255-981-9</nowiki>. OCLC 56194789. * Banco de Guatemala. "Monedas" (in Spanish). Banco de Guatemala. Retrieved 13 November 2009. * Berlin, Heinrich (April 1967). "The Destruction of Structure 5D-33-1st at Tikal". American Antiquity. 32 (2): 241–242. doi:10.2307/277915. ISSN 0002-7316. JSTOR 277915. OCLC 754651089. S2CID 163207109. * Coe, Michael D. (1999). The Maya. Ancient peoples and places series (6th, fully revised and expanded ed.). London and New York: Thames & Hudson. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-500-28066-9</nowiki>. OCLC 59432778. * Coe, William R. (1988) [1967]. Tikal: Guía de las Antiguas Ruinas Mayas (in Spanish). Guatemala: Piedra Santa. <nowiki>ISBN 978-84-8377-246-1</nowiki>. * Drew, David (1999). The Lost Chronicles of the Mayan Kings. Los Angeles: University of California Press. * Fash, William L.; Ricardo Agurcia Fasquelle (2005). "Contributions and Controversies in the Archaeology and History of Copán". In E. Wyllys Andrews; William L. Fash (eds.). Copán: The History of an Ancient Maya Kingdom. Santa Fe and Oxford: School of American Research Press and James Currey Ltd. pp. 3–32. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-85255-981-9</nowiki>. OCLC 56194789. * Gill, Richardson B. (2000). The Great Maya Droughts: Water, Life, and Death. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-8263-2194-7</nowiki>. OCLC 43567384. * Hammond, Norman (2000). "The Maya Lowlands: Pioneer Farmers to Merchant Princes". In Richard E.W. Adams; Murdo J. Macleod (eds.). The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas. Vol. II: Mesoamerica, part 1. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 197–249. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-521-35165-2</nowiki>. OCLC 33359444. * Harrison, Peter D. (2006). "Maya Architecture at Tikal". In Nikolai Grube (ed.). Maya: Divine Kings of the Rain Forest. Eva Eggebrecht and Matthias Seidel (assistant eds.). Köln: Könemann. pp. 218–231. <nowiki>ISBN 978-3-8331-1957-6</nowiki>. OCLC 71165439. * Hidinger, Lori A. (1996). "Measuring the Impacts of Ecotourism on Animal Populations: A Case Study of Tikal National Park, Guatemala" (PDF). Yale Forestry & Environment Bulletin. 99 (1): 45–59. * Jones, Grant D. (1998). The Conquest of the Last Maya Kingdom. Stanford, California, USA: Stanford University Press. <nowiki>ISBN 9780804735223</nowiki>. OCLC 38747674. * Kelly, Joyce (1996). An Archaeological Guide to Northern Central America: Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-8061-2858-0</nowiki>. OCLC 34658843. * Kerr, Justin (n.d.). "A Precolumbian Portfolio" (online database). FAMSI Research Materials. Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies, Inc. Retrieved 13 June 2007. * Looper, Matthew G. (1999). "New Perspectives on the Late Classic Political History of Quirigua, Guatemala". Ancient Mesoamerica. 10 (2): 263–280. doi:10.1017/S0956536199101135. ISSN 0956-5361. OCLC 86542758. S2CID 161977572. * Looper, Matthew G. (2003). Lightning Warrior: Maya Art and Kingship at Quirigua. Linda Schele series in Maya and pre-Columbian studies. Austin: University of Texas Press. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-292-70556-2</nowiki>. OCLC 52208614. * Martin, Simon; Nikolai Grube (2000). Chronicle of the Maya Kings and Queens: Deciphering the Dynasties of the Ancient Maya. London and New York: Thames & Hudson. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-500-05103-0</nowiki>. OCLC 47358325. * Martin, Simon; Nikolai Grube (2008). Chronicle of the Maya Kings and Queens: Deciphering the Dynasties of the Ancient Maya (2nd revised ed.). London and New York: Thames & Hudson. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-500-28726-2</nowiki>. OCLC 191753193. * Martínez, Horacio; David Webster; Jay Silverstein; Timothy Murtha; Kirk Straight; Irinna Montepeque (2004). J.P. Laporte; B. Arroyo; H. Escobedo; H. Mejía (eds.). "Reconocimiento en la periferia de Tikal: Los Terraplenes Norte, Oeste y Este, nuevas exploraciones y perspectivas" (PDF). XVII Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala, 2003 (in Spanish). Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología, Guatemala. pp. 635–641. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 September 2011. Retrieved 24 June 2009. * Means, Philip Ainsworth (1917). History of the Spanish Conquest of Yucatan and of the Itzas . Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University. Vol. VII. Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology. OCLC 681599. * Miller, Mary Ellen (1999). Maya Art and Architecture. London and New York: Thames & Hudson. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-500-20327-9</nowiki>. OCLC 41659173. * Miller, Mary; Karl Taube (1993). The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya: An Illustrated Dictionary of Mesoamerican Religion. London: Thames & Hudson. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-500-05068-2</nowiki>. OCLC 27667317. * Morales, Tirso; Benito Burgos; Miguel Acosta; Sergio Pinelo; Marco Tulio Castellanos; Leopoldo González; Francisco Castañeda; Edy Barrios; Rudy Larios; et al. (2008). J.P. Laporte; B. Arroyo; H. Mejía (eds.). "Trabajos realizados por la Unidad de Arqueología del Parque Nacional Tikal, 2006-2007" (PDF). XXI Simposio de Arqueología en Guatemala, 2007 (in Spanish): 413–436. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 September 2011. Retrieved 21 June 2011. * Puleston, Dennis E.; Donald W. Callender, Jr. (1967). "Defensive Earthworks at Tikal". Expedition. University of Pennsylvania. 9 (3): 40–48. ISSN 0014-4738. OCLC 1568625. * Salisbury, David; Mimi Koumenalis; Barbara Moffett (19 September 2002). "Newly revealed hieroglyphs tell story of superpower conflict in the Maya world" (PDF). Exploration: The Online Research Journal of Vanderbilt University. OCLC 50324967. Archived from the original (PDF online publication) on 2 November 2014. Retrieved 22 September 2009. * Schele, Linda; Peter Mathews (1999). The Code of Kings: The language of seven Maya temples and tombs. New York: Simon & Schuster. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-684-85209-6</nowiki>. OCLC 41423034. * Sharer, Robert J.; Loa P. Traxler (2006). The Ancient Maya (6th, fully revised ed.). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-8047-4817-9</nowiki>. OCLC 57577446. * Silverstein, Jay; David Webster; Horacio Martinez; Alvaro Soto (2009). Rethinking the Earthworks of Tikal: A Hydraulic Hypothesis for the Classic Maya Polity. Ancient Mesoamerican 20(1), Cambridge Journals. * StarWars.com. "Star Wars: Episode IV A New Hope". Lucasfilm. Archived from the original on 29 December 2009. Retrieved 13 November 2009. * Torres, Estuardo. "Parque Nacional Tikal" (in Spanish). Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. Archived from the original on 18 December 2009. Retrieved 30 July 2014. * UNESCO World Heritage Center. "Tikal National Park". UNESCO World Heritage Center. Retrieved 13 November 2009. * Valdés, Juan Antonio; Fahsen, Federico (2005). "Disaster in Sight: The Terminal Classic at Tikal and Uaxactun". In Arthur A. Demarest; Prudence M. Rice; Don S. Rice (eds.). The Terminal Classic in the Maya lowlands: Collapse, transition, and transformation. Boulder: University Press of Colorado. pp. 162–194. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-87081-822-6</nowiki>. OCLC 61719499. * Webster, David L. (2002). The Fall of the Ancient Maya: Solving the Mystery of the Maya Collapse. London: Thames & Hudson. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-500-05113-9</nowiki>. OCLC 48753878. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Siti arkeoloġiċi]] [[Kategorija:Siti ta' Wirt Dinji]] [[Kategorija:Parks Nazzjonali]] [[Kategorija:Maja]] [[Kategorija:Gwatemala]] hx8x2x4y42bokkgjn6seqln22mdegyh 279124 279115 2022-08-15T10:22:58Z Trigcly 17859 żieda kontenut wikitext text/x-wiki [[Stampa:Tikal Temple1 2006 08 11.JPG|daqsminuri|It-Tempju I ta' Tikal huwa għoli 47 metru (154 pied).]] '''Tikal''' (/tiˈkɑːl/; ''Tik’al'' bl-ortografija moderna tal-[[Maja]]) hija l-fdal ta' belt antika, li x'aktarx kienet tissejjaħ '''Yax Mutal'''<ref>Tokovinine, Alexandre (2008). "Lords of Tikal: Narratives and Identities". ''Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology''. Harvard University: 4.</ref>, u li tinsab f'foresta tropikali fil-[[Gwatemala]].<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.cyark.org/projects/tikal/overview|titlu=CyArk|sit=CyArk|data-aċċess=2022-08-14}}</ref> Hija wieħed mill-ikbar siti [[Arkeoloġija|arkeoloġiċi]] u ċentri urbani taċ-ċivilizzazzjoni tal-Maja pre-Kolumbjana. Tinsab fir-reġjun arkeoloġiku tal-Baċir ta' Petén fit-territorju attwali tat-Tramuntana tal-Gwatemala. Is-sit jinsab fid-dipartiment ta' El Petén u huwa parti mill-Park Nazzjonali ta' Tikal. Fl-1979 sar [[Sit ta' Wirt Dinji]] tal-[[UNESCO]].<ref name=":0">{{Ċita web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/64/|titlu=Tikal National Park|kunjom=Centre|isem=UNESCO World Heritage|sit=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2022-08-14}}</ref> Tikal kienet il-[[belt kapitali]] ta' stat ħakkiem li sar wieħed mill-iżjed renji setgħana tal-Maja tal-qedem.<ref>Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 1. Hammond 2000, p. 233.</ref> Għalkemm l-arkitettura [[Monument|monumentali]] tas-sit tmur lura saħansitra tas-seklu 4 [[Ante Christum natum|Q.K]]., Tikal laħqet il-quċċata tagħha matul il-Perjodu Klassiku, għall-ħabta tal-200 sad-900. Matul dak iż-żmien, il-belt iddominat il-biċċa l-kbira tar-reġjun tal-Maja [[Politika|politikament]], ekonomikament u militarment, filwaqt li interaġixxiet ma' żoni fil-Mesoamerka kollha, bħall-metropoli l-kbira ta' [[Teotihuacan]] fil-Wied tal-Messiku daqstant 'il bogħod. Hemm evidenza li Tikal inħakmet minn Teotihuacan fis-seklu 4 W.K.<ref>Martin & Grube 2008, pp. 29-32.</ref> Wara t-tmiem tal-Perjodu Klassiku Aħħari, ma nbena l-ebda monument maġġuri f'Tikal u hemm evidenza li l-palazzi tal-elit ingħataw in-nar. Dan l-avvenimenti mexew id f'id ma' tnaqqis gradwali fil-popolazzjoni, u laħqu l-qofol tagħhom fl-abbandun tas-sit sal-aħħar tas-seklu 10. Tikal hija l-iżjed belt mifhuma minn kwalunkwe waħda mill-bliet tal-Maja l-kbar fl-artijiet baxxi, b'lista twila ta' mexxejja dinastiċi, bl-iskoperta tal-oqbra ta' bosta mill-mexxejja fuq din il-lista u bl-investigazzjoni tal-monumenti, tat-tempji u tal-palazzi tagħhom.<ref>Adams 2000, p. 34.</ref> == Etimoloġija == [[Stampa:Tikalemblem.jpg|daqsminuri|Glifiċi emblematiċi ta' isem Tikal]] L-isem ''Tikal'' jaf oriġina minn ''ti ak'al'' fil-lingwa tal-Maja tal-[[Yucatan]]; jingħad li huwa isem relattivament modern li jfisser "f'ġibjun". Milli jidher l-isem ingħata lil wieħed mill-ġibjuni antiki tas-sit mill-kaċċaturi u mill-vjaġġaturi fir-reġjun.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, p. 30.</ref> Interpretazzjoni oħra tal-isem hi li jfisser "il-post tal-vuċijiet" fil-lingwa tal-Maja ta' Itza. Madankollu, Tikal mhuwiex l-isem antik tas-sit iżda pjuttost l-isem li ġie adottat ftit wara l-iskoperta tas-sit fis-snin 40 tas-seklu 19.<ref>Drew 1999, p. 136.</ref> Il-kitbiet ġeroglifiċi fil-fdalijiet jirreferu għall-belt antika bħala ''Yax Mutal'' jew ''Yax Mutul'', li tfisser "l-ewwel Mutal". Tikal jaf bdiet tissejjaħ hekk minħabba li Dos Pilas beda juża l-istess glifiċi emblematiċi; il-mexxejja tal-belt x'aktarx li riedu jiddistingwu bejn il-bliet b'dan il-mod.<ref>Schele & Mathews 1999, p. 64.</ref> Ir-renju kollu kien jissejjaħ sempliċement ''Mutul'', li huwa l-interpretazzjoni tal-glifiċi emblematiċi tal-"qatta' xagħar" fir-ritratt fuq il-lemin. It-tifsira preċiża għadha mhux ċerta.<ref>Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 1.</ref> == Ġeografija == [[Stampa:Mayamap.png|daqsminuri|280x280px|Mappa taż-żona tal-Maja fir-reġjun Mesoamerikan. Kemm Tikal kif ukoll Calakmul jinsabu qrib iċ-ċentru taż-żona.]] L-eqreb insedjamenti kbar moderni huma Flores u Santa Elena, bejn wieħed u ieħor xi 64 kilometru (40 mil) bogħod bit-triq lejn il-Lbiċ.<ref>Kelly 1996, pp. 111-112.</ref> Tikal tinsab xi 303 kilometri (188 mil) fit-Tramuntana tal-[[Belt tal-Gwatemala]]. Tinsab 19-il kilometru (12-il mil) fin-Nofsinhar tal-belt tal-Maja kontemporanja ta' [[Uaxactun]] u 30 kilometru (19-il mil) fil-Majjistral ta' [[Yaxha]].<ref>Webster 2002, p. 118.</ref> Il-belt tinsab 100 kilometru (62 mil) fix-Xlokk tar-rivali l-kbira tagħha tal-Perjodu Klassiku, [[Calakmul]], u 85 kilometru (53 mil) fil-Majjistral tal-alleat ta' Calakmul, [[Caracol]], li issa tinsab fil-[[Beliże|Belize]].<ref>Webster 2002, p. 118.</ref> Il-belt ġiet immappjata għalkollox u kienet tkopri erja ikbar minn 16-il kilometru kwadru (6.2 mili kwadri) li kienet tinkludi madwar 3,000 struttura.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 104.</ref> It-topografija tas-sit tikkonsisti minn sensiela ta' rdumijiet paralleli tal-[[ġebla tal-ġir]] 'il fuq minn artijiet baxxi u mtajna. L-arkitettura maġġuri tas-sit hija raggruppata f'żoni iktar għoljin li huma kkollegati b'toroq olzati minn naħa għall-oħra tal-artijiet bassasa.<ref>Drew 1999, p. 185.</ref> Iż-żona madwar Tikal ġiet iddikjarata bħala l-Park Nazzjonali ta' Tikal u ż-żona ppreservata tkopri 570 kilometru kwadru (220 mil kwadru).<ref>Kelly 1996, p. 140.</ref> Dan il-park inħoloq fis-26 ta' Mejju 1955 taħt il-patroċinju tal-Instituto de Antropología e Historia u kien l-ewwel żona protetta fil-Gwatemala.<ref>Kelly 1996, p. 140.</ref> Il-fdalijiet jinsabu fost il-foresti tropikali tat-Tramuntana tal-Gwatemala li kienu jiffurmaw in-nieqa taċ-ċivilizzazzjoni tal-Maja fl-artijiet baxxi. Il-belt stess kienet tinsab qalb art għammiela abbundanti, u jaf iddominat rotta kummerċjali naturali mil-Lvant għall-Punent tul il-[[Peniżola]] tal-Yucatan. Fost is-siġar il-kbar tal-Park Nazzjonali ta' Tikal hemm il-kapok ġgantesk (''Ceiba pentandra'') li kienet is-siġra sagra tal-Maja; iċ-ċedru tropikali (''Cedrela odorata''), u l-kawba tal-[[Ħonduras]] (''Swietenia macrophylla''). Fir-rigward tal-fawna, wieħed jista' jara regolarment l-aguti, il-koati ta' mnieħru abjad, il-volpi griż, ix-xadin ta' Geoffroy, ix-xadin li jgħajjat, l-ajkla arpija, il-falkun, id-dundjan tal-foresti, il-gwan, it-tukan, il-pappagall aħdar u n-nemel li jaqta' l-weraq. Jingħad ukoll li l-ġagwar, l-ocelot u l-cougar jgħixu fil-park.<ref>Coe 1967, pp. 9-10. Hidinger 1996, p. 52.</ref> Tikal ma kellha l-ebda ilma għajr dak li kien jinġabar mill-ilma tax-xita u jinħażen f'għaxar ġibjuni. L-arkeologi li ħadmu f'Tikal matul is-seklu 20 sewwew wieħed minn dawn il-ġibjuni antiki biex jaħżnu l-ilma għalihom stess.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 124.</ref> Ix-xita annwali medja li tinżel f'Tikal tammonta għal 1,945 millimetru (76.6 pulzier). Madankollu, ix-xita ġieli tinżel għal għarrieda, u perjodi twal ta' nixfa setgħu jseħħu qabel ma l-għelejjel isiru, li kienet theddida serja għall-abitanti tal-belt antika.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 239.</ref> == Popolazzjoni == L-istimi tal-popolazzjoni ta' Tikal ivarjaw minn 10,000 sa saħansitra 90,000 abitant. Il-popolazzjoni ta' Tikal bdiet kurva kontinwa ta' tkabbir mill-bidu tal-Perjodu Preklassiku (bejn wieħed u ieħor fl-2000 Q.K. – 200 W.K.), bl-eqqel livell fil-Perjodu Klassiku Aħħari, fejn il-popolazzjoni kibret b'mod rapidu mis-700 W.K. sat-830, u mbagħad kien hemm deklin qawwi. Għaż-żona ta' 120 kilometru kwadru (46 mil kwadru) fi ħdan id-difiżi bit-tajn tal-periferija, l-ogħla popolazzjoni hija stmata li kienet 517-il persuna għal kull kilometru kwadru (1,340 persuna għal kull mil kwadru). F'żona fi ħdan raġġ ta' 12-il kilometru (7.5 mili) tal-qalba tas-sit, l-ogħla popolazzjoni hija stmata li kienet tlaħħaq il-120,000 ruħ; id-densità tal-popolazzjoni hija stmata li kienet 265 persuna għal kull kilometru kwadru (689 persuna għal kull mil kwadru). F'reġjun fi ħdan raġġ ta' 25 kilometru (16-il mil) mill-qalba tas-sit u inkluż xi siti anċillari, l-ogħla popolazzjoni hija stmata li kienet tlaħħaq l-425,000 ruħ b'densità ta' 216-il persuna għal kull kilometru kwadru (515-il persuna għal kull mil kwadru). Dawn iċ-ċifri rigward il-popolazzjoni huma ferm iktar impressjonanti minħabba l-artijiet bassasa estensiva li ma kinux adattati għall-abitazzjoni jew għall-agrikoltura. Madankollu, xi arkeologi, bħal [[David Webster]], jemmnu li dawn iċ-ċifri huma wisq għoljin.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 264.</ref> == Sit ta' Wirt Dinji == Il-Park Nazzjonali ta' Tikal ġie ddeżinjat bħala Sit ta' Wirt Dinji tal-UNESCO fl-1979.<ref name=":0" /> Il-valur universali straordinarju tas-sit ġie rrikonoxxut abbażi ta' ħames kriterji tal-għażla tal-UNESCO bħala sit kulturali u naturali mħallat: il-'''kriterju (i)''' "Rappreżentazzjoni ta' kapulavur frott il-kreattività tal-bniedem"; il-'''kriterju (iii)''' "Xhieda unika jew minn tal-inqas eċċezzjonali ta' tradizzjoni kulturali jew ta' ċivilizzazzjoni li għadha ħajja jew li għebet"; il-'''kriterju (iv)''' "Eżempju straordinarju ta' tip ta' bini, ta' grupp ta' siti jew ta' pajsaġġ arkitettoniku jew teknoloġiku li joħroġ fid-dieher stadju/i sinifikanti fl-istorja tal-bniedem"; il-'''kriterju (ix)''' "Eżempju straordinarju li jirrappreżenta proċessi ekoloġiċi u bijoloġiċi kontinwi sinifikanti fl-evoluzzjoni u fl-iżvilupp ta' ekosistemi u ta' komunitajiet ta' pjanti u ta' annimali terrestri, tal-ilma ħelu, kostali u tal-baħar"; u l-'''kriterju (x)''' "Post fejn hemm l-iktar ħabitats naturali importanti u sinifikanti għall-konservazzjoni fil-post tad-diversità bijoloġika, inkluż fejn hemm speċijiet mhedda ta' valur universali straordinarju mill-perspettiva tax-xjenza jew tal-konservazzjoni".<ref name=":0" /> == Storja == === Preklassika === [[Stampa:Maya-Maske.jpg|daqsminuri|Maskra tal-Maja li nstabet f'Tikal]] Hemm traċċi ta' biedja bikrija fis-sit li jmorru lura saħansitra sal-1000 Q.K., fil-Preklassiku Nofsani.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 262.</ref> Ġabra ta' bċejjeċ taċ-ċeramika ta' Mamon li jmorru lura għal madwar is-700 u l-400 Q.K. instabu f'''chultun'' issiġillat, jiġifieri f'kompartiment taħt l-art b'għamla ta' flixkun.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 55.</ref> Fil-perjodu Preklassiku Aħħar f'Tikal diġà kienet qed issir kostruzzjoni maġġuri, u l-ewwel binjiet tfaċċaw għall-ħabta tal-400 u t-300 Q.K., inkluż il-kostruzzjoni ta' piramidi u pjattaformi maġġuri, għalkemm il-belt kienet għadha ferm iżgħar minn siti oħra iktar fin-Nofsinhar bħal [[El Mirador]] u [[Nakbe]].<ref>Coe 1999, p. 55.</ref> F'dak iż-żmien, Tikal ipparteċipat fil-kultura mifruxa ta' Chikanel li ddominat iż-żoni Ċentrali u tat-Tramuntana tal-Maja dak iż-żmien – reġjun li kien jinkludi l-Peniżola tal-Yucatan kollha inkluż it-Tramuntana u l-Lvant tal-Gwatemala u l-Belize kollu.<ref>Coe 1999, pp. 73, 80.</ref> Żewġ tempji li jmorru lura għaż-żminijiet aħħarin ta' Chikanel kellhom superstrutturi b'ħitan bix-xogħol fil-ġebel li jaf kienu bil-volti apposta li jħallu arkata jew spazju vojt fi ħdanhom, għalkemm ma nstabux provi ta' dan. Wieħed minnhom kellu affreski elaborati mal-ħitan ta' barra li juru figuri umani fuq sfond ta' tiżjin ripetut bl-[[isfar]], bl-[[iswed]], bir-roża u bl-[[aħmar]].<ref>Coe 1999, p. 75.</ref> Fl-ewwel seklu W.K. tfaċċaw l-ewwel oqbra għonja u Tikal iffjorixxiet politikament u kulturalment, filwaqt li l-ġirien ġganteski tagħha fit-Tramuntana majnaw. Lejn l-aħħar tal-Preklassiku Aħħari, l-istil tal-arti u tal-arkitettura Izapan mill-Kosta [[Oċean Paċifiku|Paċifika]] beda jinfluwenza lil Tikal, kif joħroġ fid-dieher minn skultura miksura mill-akropoli u mill-affreski bikrin fil-belt.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 78.</ref> === Klassika Bikrija === It-tmexxija dinastika fl-artijiet baxxi tal-Maja hija ankrata l-iktar fil-fond f'Tikal. Skont sejbiet ġeroglifiċi li saru iktar 'il quddiem, id-dinastija ġiet stabbilita minn [[Yax Ehb Xook]], x'aktarx fl-ewwel seklu W.K.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 90.</ref> Fil-bidu tal-perjodu Klassiku Bikri, il-poter fir-reġjun tal-Maja kien ikkonċentrat f'Tikal u f'Calakmul, fil-qalba tat-territorju tal-Maja.<ref>Miller 1999, pp. 88-89.</ref> Tikal jaf ibbenefikat mill-waqgħa tal-istati Preklassiċi l-kbar bħal El Mirador. Fil-perjodu Klassiku Bikri Tikal malajr żviluppat fl-iżjed belt dinamika fir-reġjun tal-Maja, u xprunat l-iżvilupp ta' bliet tal-Maja oħrajn fl-inħawi.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 191.</ref> Madankollu, is-sit spiss kien imdaħħal fi gwerer u mill-kitbiet imnaqqxa nafu li kien hemm diversi alleanzi u kunflitti ma' stati oħra tal-Maja, inkluż Uaxactun, Caracol, [[Naranjo]] u Calakmul. Is-sit ġarrab telfa fl-aħħar tal-perjodu Klassiku Bikri kontra Caracol, li ħadet post Tikal bħala ċ-ċentru ewlieni fl-artijiet baxxi tan-Nofsinhar tal-Maja.<ref>Sharer 1994, p. 265.</ref> Fil-parti iktar bikrija tal-Klassiku Bikri kien hemm ostilitajiet bejn Tikal u l-ġar tagħha Uaxactun. F'Uaxactun fil-fatt instabu dokumentazzjonijiet dwar il-qbid ta' priġunieri minn Tikal.<ref>Kelly 1996, p. 129.</ref> Milli jidher kien hemm waqfa fis-suċċessjoni dinastika minn raġel għal ieħor lejn it-317 W.K., meta [[Unen Bahlam]] għamlet ċerimonja ta' tmiem ''katun'', x'aktarx bħala r-reġina tal-belt.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, p. 27.</ref> ==== Tikal u Teotihuacan ==== [[Stampa:Mexico SunMoonPyramid.jpg|daqsminuri|Jidher li l-metropoli l-kbira ta' Teotihuacan fil-Wied tal-Messiku intervjeniet b'mod deċiżiv fil-politka ta' Tikal.]] Diġà fil-200 W.K. Teotihuacan kellha ambaxxati f'Tikal.<ref>The Origins & Collapse of the Preclassic Maya in the Mirador Basin - Richard Hansen at The Library of Congress (2014)</ref> L-erbatax-il re ta' Tikal kien Chak Tok Ich'aak (li tfisser litteralment "Sieq tal-Ġagwar il-Kbir"). Chak Tok Ich'aak bena palazz li ġie ppreservat u żviluppat mill-mexxejja ta' warajh sakemm sar il-qalba tal-Akropoli Ċentrali.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 192.</ref> Ma tantx nafu wisq dwar Chak Tok Ich'aak għajr li nqatel fl-14 ta' Jannar 378 W.K. Fl-istess jum, wasal Siyah K'ak' (li tfisser litteralment "Twieled in-Nar") mill-Punent, wara li għadda minn [[El Peru]], sit fil-Punent ta' Tikal, fit-8 ta' Jannar. Fuq l-iStele 31 jissemma bħala s-"Sinjur tal-Punent".<ref>Drew 1999, p. 199.</ref> Siyah K'ak' x'aktarx li kien ġeneral barrani, irrappreżentat minn kitba ġeroglifika mhux tal-Maja ta' wieħed li jwaddab il-lanez flimkien ma' kokka, kitba ġeroglifika magħrufa sew mill-metropoli l-kbira ta' Teotihuacan fil-Wied tal-Messiku daqstant 'il bogħod. Siyah K'ak' jaf kien anke l-mexxej ta' Teotihuacan. Dawn l-avvenimenti rreġistrati fil-kitba ġeroglifika tal-Maja jissuġġerixxu b'mod qawwi li Siyah K'ak' mexxa invażjoni ta' Tikal min-naħa ta' Teotihuacan u r-re nattiv ta' Tikal ġarrab telfa, inqabad mill-għadu u ġie ġġustizzjat minnufih.<ref>Coe 1999, pp. 90-91.</ref> Milli jidher Siyah K'ak' ġie megħjun minn fazzjoni politika b'saħħitha f'Tikal stess<ref>Webster 2002, p. 133.</ref>; bejn wieħed u ieħor fl-istess żmien tal-ħakma, grupp ta' nattivi ta' Teotihuacan kienu qed jirresjedu qrib il-kumpless tad-Dinja Mitlufa.<ref>Drew 1999, p. 201.</ref> Huwa eżerċita kontroll ukoll fuq bliet oħra fl-inħawi, fosthom Uaxactun, fejn sar re, iżda ma ħax it-tron ta' Tikal għalih innifsu.<ref name=":1">Drew 1999, p. 200.</ref> Fi żmien sena, ibnu, Yax Nuun Ayiin I (l-"Ewwel Kukkudrill") sar il-ħmistax-il re ta' Tikal meta kien għadu tifel, u ngħata t-tron fit-13 ta' Settembru 379.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 97.</ref> Huwa rrenja għal 47 sena bħala r-re ta' Tikal, u baqa' vassall ta' Siyah K'ak' sa ma dan miet. X'aktarx li Yax Nuun Ayiin I ħa mara mid-dinastija ta' Tikal ta' qablu u b'hekk leġittimizza d-dritt ta' tmexxija għal ibnu, Siyaj Chan K'awiil II.<ref name=":1" /> [[Río Azul]], sit żgħir madwar 100 kilometru (62 mil) fil-Grigal ta' Tikal, inħakem minn Tikal matul ir-renju ta' Yax Nuun Ayiin I. Is-sit sar qisu tarka ta' Tikal u kien jiddefendiha mill-bliet ostili iktar lejn it-Tramuntana, u sar kollegament kummerċjali mal-[[Baħar Karibew|Karibew]].<ref>Drew 1999, pp. 201-202.</ref> Għalkemm il-mexxejja l-ġodda ta' Tikal kienu barranin, id-dixxendenti tagħhom malajr saru midħla tal-Maja. Tikal saret l-alleat u l-imsieħeb kummerċjali ewlieni ta' Teotihuacan fl-artijiet baxxi tal-Maja. Wara li nħakmet minn Teotihuacan, Tikal malajr iddominat ir-reġjun ta' Peten fit-Tramuntana u fil-Lvant. Uaxactun, flimkien ma' rħula żgħar oħra fir-reġjun, ġew assorbiti fir-renju ta' Tikal. Siti oħra, bħal [[Bejucal]] u [[Motul de San José]] ħdejn il-Lag ta' Petén Itzá saru vassalli tal-ġar iktar setgħan tagħhom lejn it-Tramuntana. Sa nofs is-seklu 5 Tikal kellha territorju ewlieni ta' mill-inqas 25 kilometru (16-il mil) f'kull direzzjoni. Għall-ħabta tas-seklu 5 inbniet sistema impressjonanti ta' fortifikazzjonijiet b'fosos u bi ħniedaq tul il-periferija tat-Tramuntana ta' Tikal, flimkien mad-difiżi naturali pprovduti minn żoni kbar ta' artijiet bassasa fil-Lvant u fil-Punent tal-belt. X'aktarx li nbnew ukoll fortifikazzjonijiet oħra lejn in-Nofsinhar. Dawn id-difiżi pproteġew lill-popolazzjoni ewlenija u r-riżorsi agrikoli ta' Tikal, f'erja ta' madwar 120 kilometru kwadru (46 mil kwadru). Riċerka reċenti tissuġġerixxi li l-ħniedaq kienu jintużaw bħala sistema ta' ġbir tal-ilma iktar milli għad-difiża.<ref>Silverstein 2009.</ref> ==== Tikal u Copán ==== Fis-seklu 5 il-poter tal-belt kien iwassal saħansitra sa Copán fin-Nofsinhar, u l-fundatur tagħha, K'inich Yax K'uk' Mo', kellu rabtiet ċari ma' Tikal. Copán stess ma kinitx f'reġjun etniku tal-Maja u l-istabbiliment tad-dinastija ta' Copán x'aktarx li kienet tinvolvi l-intervent dirett ta' Tikal.<ref>Wyllys Andrews & Fash 2005, p. 407.</ref> K'inich Yax K'uk' Mo' wasal f'Copán f'Diċembru 426 u mill-analiżi tal-għadam tiegħu nafu li qatta' tfulitu u żgħożitu f'Tikal.<ref>Fash & Agurcia Fasquelle 2005, p. 26.</ref> Individwu magħruf bħala Ajaw K'uk' Mo' (jew is-Sinjur K'uk' Mo') jissemma f'test bikri f'Tikal u jaf kien l-istess persuna.<ref>Looper 2003, p. 37.</ref> Il-qabar tiegħu kellu karatteristiċi ta' Teotihuacan u iktar 'il quddiem ġie mpinġi bl-ilbies tal-ġellieda ta' Teotihuacan. Kitbiet ġeroglifiċi jirreferu għalih bħala s-"Sinjur tal-Punent", l-istess bħal Siyah K'ak'. Fl-istess żmien, fl-aħħar tal-426, Copán stabbiliet is-sit ta' [[Quiriguá]] fil-qrib, possibbilment sponsorjata minn Tikal stess. L-istabbiliment ta' dawn iż-żewġ ċentri jaf kien parti minn sforz biex tiġi imposta l-awtorità ta' Tikal fuq il-parti tax-Xlokk tar-reġjun tal-Maja.<ref>Looper 2003, p. 38.</ref> L-interazzjoni bejn dawn is-siti u Tikal kienet waħda intensiva matul it-tliet sekli ta' wara.<ref>Looper 1999, p. 263.</ref> Rivalità twila bejn Tikal u Calakmul bdiet fis-seklu 6, u kull waħda miż-żewġt ibliet iffurmat in-network tagħha ta' alleanzi ostili għal xulxin, u dan x'aktarx wassal għal gwerra twila bejn iż-żewġ superpotenzi tal-Maja. Ir-rejiet ta' dawn iż-żewġ bliet kapitali adottaw it-titlu ta' ''kaloomte''', terminu li ġiex tradott b'mod preċiż iżda li jimplika xi ħaġa bħal "re għoli".<ref>Webster 2002, pp. 168-169.</ref> Fil-bidu tas-seklu 6 laħqet reġina oħra bħala mexxejja tal-belt, magħrufa bħala s-"Sinjura ta' Tikal", li x'aktarx kienet bint Chak Tok Ich'aak II. Milli jidher qatt ma mexxiet waħedha, iżda dejjem kellha magħha mexxejja rġiel. L-ewwel wieħed minnhom kien Kaloomte' B'alam, li milli jidher kellu karriera twila bħala ġeneral f'Tikal qabel ma sar mexxej mar-reġina u fid-19-il post fis-sekwenza dinastika. Is-Sinjura ta' Tikal stess ma ġietx magħduda fis-sekwenza dinastika numerika. Iktar 'il quddiem x'aktarx li ngħaqad magħha bħala mexxej is-Sinjur "Difer ta' [[Għasfur]]", li jingħad li kien l-20 mexxej.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, pp. 38-39.</ref> === Klassika Aħħarija === ==== Pawża fil-kontinwità tal-poter ta' Tikal ==== [[Stampa:Tikal-Plaza-And-North-Acropolis.jpg|daqsminuri|280x280px|Il-pjazza prinċipali matul iċ-ċelebrazzjonijiet tas-solstizju tax-xitwa]] F'nofs is-seklu 6, milli jidher Caracol saret alleata ta' Calakmul u għelbu lil Tikal, u b'hekk temmew il-perjodu Klassiku Bikri.<ref>Miller 1999, p. 89.</ref> Din il-pawża fil-kontinwità tal-poter ta' Tikal x'aktarx li seħħet bejn l-aħħar tas-seklu 6 u l-aħħar tas-seklu 7 fejn kien hemm qabża fil-kitba tal-kitbiet imnaqqxa u fil-kostruzzjoni fuq skala kbira f'Tikal. Fl-aħħar nofs tas-seklu 6 W.K., il-belt għaddiet minn kriżi kbira, fejn ma tħejjiet l-ebda stele ġdida u fejn kien hemm mutilazzjoni mifruxa tal-iskulturi pubbliċi.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 94.</ref> Din il-pawża fl-attività kontinwa ta' Tikal kienet misteru għal żmien twil, iżda mbagħad ġew iddeċifrati epigrafi oħra li identifikaw li dak il-perjodu seħħ wara t-telfa komprensiva li ġarrbet Tikal kontra l-alleanza ta' Calakmul u ta' Caracol fil-562, telfa li milli jidher irriżultat fil-qbid u fis-sagrifiċċju tar-re ta' Tikal. L-Artal 21 f'Caracol, ħafna minnu miekul mill-elementi, jiddeskrivi kif Tikal ġarrbet din it-telfa diżastruża fi gwerra maġġuri li seħħet f'April 562.<ref>Historical Dictionary of Mesoamerica by Walter Robert Thurmond Witschey and Clifford T. Brown, p. 313.</ref> Milli jidher Caracol alleat ruħha ma' Calakmul fil-kunflitt usa' bejn il-belt u Tikal, u t-telfa ta' Tikal kellha impatt kbir għal żmien twil fuq il-belt. Ir-rikkezzi ta' Tikal ma ġewx misruqa iżda l-poter u l-influwenza li kellha ntilfu.<ref>Webster 2002, pp. 192-193.</ref> Wara r-rebħa kbira tagħha, Caracol kibret malajr u parti mill-popolazzjoni ta' Tikal jaf ġiet rilokata hemmhekk. Matul il-pawża fil-kontinwità tal-poter ta' Tikal, mill-inqas mexxej wieħed ta' Tikal fittex refuġju ma' Janaab' Pakal ta' Palenque, vittma ieħor ta' Calakmul.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 193.</ref> Calakmul stagħnat matul il-pawża twila fil-kontinwità tal-poter ta' Tikal.<ref name=":2">Webster 2002, p. 194.</ref> Din il-pawża serviet bħala markatur li l-arkeologi jużaw biex jiddistingwu bejn il-perjodu Klassiku tal-kronoloġija Mesoamerikana u l-perjodu Klassiku Bikri u Aħħari.<ref>Miller u Taube 1993, p. 20.</ref> ==== Tikal u Dos Pilas ==== Fis-629 Tikal stabbiliet lil [[Dos Pilas]], xi 110 kilometri (68 mil) fil-Lbiċ, bħala stazzjonament militari sabiex tikkontrolla l-kummerċ tul ix-xmara [[Pasión]].<ref>Salisbury et al. 2002, p. 1.</ref> B'alaj Chan K'awiil tela' fuq it-tron tal-istazzjonament il-ġdid meta kellu erba' snin, fis-635. Meta kiber, għal bosta snin serva bħala vassall leali u ġġieled għal ħuh, ir-re ta' Tikal.<ref>Salisbury et al. 2002, pp. 2-3.</ref> Bejn wieħed u ieħor għoxrin sena wara, Dos Pilas ġie attakkat minn Calakmul u ġarrab telfa kbira. B'alaj Chan K'awiil inqabad mir-re ta' Calakmul iżda, minflok ġie ssagrifikat, reġa' ngħata t-tron bħala vassall tal-eks għadu tiegħu.<ref>Salisbury et al. 2002, p. 2.</ref> Huwa attakka lil Tikal fis-657, u ġiegħel lil Nuun Ujol Chaak, ir-re ta' Tikal ta' dak iż-żmien, jabbanduna l-belt temporanjament. L-ewwel żewġ mexxejja ta' Dos Pilas komplew jużaw il-ġeroglifiċi emblematiċi ta' Mutal li kienu ta' Tikal, u x'aktarx li ħassew li kienu leġittimi biex jieħdu t-tron ta' Tikal stess. Għall-istess raġuni, B'alaj Chan K'awiil ma sarx il-mexxej il-ġdid ta' Tikal; u minflok baqa' f'Dos Pilas. Tikal wettqet kontroattakk kontra Dos Pilas fis-672, u wasslet biex B'alaj Chan K'awiil jaħrab f'eżilju li dam ħames snin.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 276.</ref> Calakmul ipprovat tiċċirkonda lil Tikal fi ħdan żona ddominata mill-alleati tagħha, fosthom El Peru, Dos Pilas, u Caracol.<ref>Hammond 2000, p. 220.</ref> Fis-682, Jasaw Chan K'awiil I bena l-ewwel [[monument]] datat f'Tikal f'120 sena u ħa t-titlu ta' ''kaloomte''', u b'hekk temm din il-pawża fil-poter. Huwa ta bidu għal programm ġdid ta' kostruzzjoni u ħadha qatta' bla ħabel kontra Calakmul sakemm fis-695, irnexxielu jaqbad il-mexxej tal-għadu u b'hekk xeħet lill-istat għadu tiegħu f'perjodu twil ta' deklin li qatt ma rkupra minnu għalkollox. Wara dan l-avveniment, Calakmul qatt ma reġgħet bniet monument biex tiċċelebra xi rebħa militari.<ref name=":2" /> ==== Tikal wara Teotihuacan ==== Sas-seklu 7, ma kien hemm l-ebda preżenza attiva ta' Teotihuacan f'xi sit tal-Maja u ċ-ċentru ta' Teotihuacan inqered sas-sena 700. Anke wara dan il-perjodu, l-ilbies militari formali mnaqqax jew impinġi fuq il-monumenti kellu stil ta' Teotihuacan.<ref>Miller 1999, p. 105.</ref> Jasaw Chan K'awiil I u l-eredi tiegħu Yik'in Chan K'awiil komplew l-ostilitajiet kontra Calakmul u l-alleati tagħha u imponew kontroll reġjonali rigoruż fuq iż-żona madwar Tikal, estiża saħansitra sat-territorju madwar il-Lag ta' Petén Itzá. Dan iż-żewġ mexxejja kienu responsabbli għall-biċċa l-kbira tal-arkitettura impressjonanti viżibbli llum il-ġurnata.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 263.</ref> Fis-738, Quiriguá, li kienet vassall ta' Copán, l-alleat ewlieni ta' Tikal fin-Nofsinhar, qalbet l-alleanza tagħha favur Calakmul, rebħet kontra Copán u kisbet l-indipendenza tagħha stess. Milli jidher dan kien sforz konxju min-naħa ta' Calakmul sabiex twassal għall-qerda tal-alleati ta' Tikal fin-Nofsinhar.<ref>Looper 2003, p. 79.</ref> Dan biddel il-bilanċ fil-poter taż-żona tan-Nofsinhar tal-Maja u wassal għal deklin rapidu ta' Copán.<ref>Wyllys Andrews & Fash 2005, p. 408.</ref> Fis-seklu 8, il-mexxejja ta' Tikal ġabru xi monumenti mill-belt u tellgħuhom quddiem l-Akropoli tat-Tramuntana. Sal-aħħar tas-seklu 8 u l-bidu tas-seklu 9, l-attività f'Tikal majnat. Xorta waħda nbniet arkitettura impressjonanti iżda ftit kitbiet ġeroglifiċi jirreferi għall-mexxejja li ġew wara.<ref>Miller 1999, p. 33.</ref> === Klassika Terminali === [[Stampa:Tikal12.jpg|daqsminuri|259x259px|Veduta tal-qalba ta' Tikal min-Nofsinhar, bit-Tempju I fin-nofs, l-Akropolit tat-Tramuntana fuq ix-xellug u l-Akropoli Ċentrali fuq il-lemin.]] Sas-seklu 9, il-kriżi tal-waqgħa tal-Maja tal-perjodu Klassiku kienet qed taħkem ir-reġjun kollu, il-popolazzjonijiet bdew jonqsu drastikament, u belt wara l-oħra bdiet tispiċċa fix-xejn.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, pp. 52-53.</ref> Kulma jmur, gwerer endemiċi fir-reġjun tal-Maja wasslu biex il-popolazzjoni ta' Tikal tkun ikkonċentrata b'mod massiċċ qrib il-belt stess, u b'hekk ġie aċċellerat l-użu tal-agrikoltura intensiva li kkontribwixxa għad-deklin ambjentali korrispondenti.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 340.</ref> Il-kostruzzjoni kompliet fil-bidu tas-seklu, bil-bini tat-Tempju 3, l-aħħar tal-piramidi maġġuri tal-belt, kif ukoll il-bini ta' monumenti li mmarkaw il-waslu tad-19-il K'atun fit-810.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, p. 52.</ref> Il-bidu tal-għaxar Bak'tun fit-830 sar bla ċelebrazzjonijiet, u jimmarka l-bidu ta' pawża ta' 60 sena fil-kontinwità tal-attività f'Tikal, li probabbilment irriżultat mill-kollass tal-kontrol ċentrali fil-belt. Matul din il-pawża, siti anċillari li tradizzjonalment kienu taħt il-kontroll ta' Tikal bdew jibnu l-monumenti tagħhom stess biex jiċċelebraw lill-mexxejja lokali u xorta waħda użaw il-glifiċi emblematiċi ta' Mutal.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, p. 53.</ref> Kulma jmur Tikal milli jidher ma kellhiex iktar l-awtorità jew il-poter biex twaqqaf ħesrem dawn it-tentattivi ta' indipendenza. Fit-849, Jewel K'awiil jissemma fuq stele f'[[Seibal]] u jingħad li żar il-belt bħala s-Sinjur Divin ta' Tikal għalkemm ma ġie rreġistrat imkien iktar u l-poter li xi darba kellha Tikal kien kważi spiċċa fix-xejn. Sa dak iż-żmien is-siti ta' [[Ixlu]] u [[Jimbal]] kienu wirtu l-glifiċi emblematiċi ta' Mutal li fl-imgħoddi kien esklużivi.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, p. 53.</ref> [[Stampa:EdShookCropped.jpg|xellug|daqsminuri|L-arkeologu [[Edwin M. Shook]], direttur fuq il-post tal-Proġett ta' Tikal; Shook kien strumentali wkoll biex jiġi stabbilit l-ewwel Park Nazzjonali tal-Gwatemala f'Tikal.]] Meta Tikal u l-periferija tagħha laħqu l-ogħla popolazzjoni, iż-żona batiet minħabba d-deforestazzjoni, l-erożjoni u t-telf tan-nutrijenti, li ġew segwiti minn deklin rapidu fil-livelli tal-popolazzjoni. Analiżi reċenti tindika wkoll li l-għejun tal-ilma ħelu tal-belt saru kkontaminati ferm bil-[[Merkurju (kimika)|merkurju]], bil-fosfati u biċ-ċjanobatterji, u dan wassal biex jakkumulaw it-tossini.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.sustainability-times.com/environmental-protection/the-mayan-city-of-tikal-succumbed-to-water-pollution-experts-say/|titlu=The Mayan city of Tikal succumbed to 'water pollution'|kunjom=Cross|isem=Daniel T.|data=2020-07-03|lingwa=en-GB|data-aċċess=2022-08-15}}</ref> Tikal u l-inħawi tal-madwar milli jidher tilfu l-biċċa l-kbira tal-popolazzjoni tagħhom bejn it-830 u d-950, u magħha l-awtorità ċentrali wkoll. Ma tantx hemm evidenza minn Tikal li l-belt kienet affettwata direttament minn xi gwerer endemiċi li affettwaw partijiet mir-reġjun tal-Maja matul il-perjodu Klassiku Terminali, għalkemm influss ta' refuġjati mir-reġjun ta' Petexbatún jaf żied il-problemi li rriżultaw mir-riżorsi ambjentali li diġà kienu minimi.<ref name=":3">Webster 2002, p. 273.</ref> Fl-aħħar nofs tas-seklu 9 kien hemm tentattiv biex il-poter irjali fil-belt imċekkna ferm ta' Tikal jerġa' jingħata l-ħajja, kif joħroġ fid-dieher minn stele li ttellgħet fil-Pjazza l-Kbira minn Jasaw Chan K'awiil II fit-869. Dan kien l-aħħar monument li nbena jew li ttella' f'Tikal qabel ma l-belt sfat fix-xejn. L-eks siti anċillari ta' Tikal, bħal Jimbal u Uaxactun, ma tantx damu wisq iktar, u tellgħu l-aħħar monumenti tagħhom fit-889. Sal-aħħar tas-seklu 9, il-maġġoranza l-kbira tal-popolazzjoni ta' Tikal telqet mill-belt, il-palazzi rjali tagħha ġew okkupati b'mod abbużiv u bdew jinbnew abitazzjonijiet sempliċi bil-ħuxlief fil-pjazez ċerimonjali tal-belt. Dawk li kienu qed jokkupaw il-binjiet b'mod abbużiv imblukkaw xi daħliet fil-kmamar li kienu qed jokkupaw fl-istrutturi monumentali tas-sit u ħallew bosta skart, li kien jinkludi taħlita ta' skart domestiku u oġġetti mhux utilitarji bħal strumenti mużikali. Dawn l-abitanti reġgħu użaw il-monumenti bikrin għall-attivitajiet ritwali tagħhom stess, ferm differenti minn dawk tad-dinastija rjali li kienet bniethom. Xi monumenti ġew ivvandalizzati u wħud tressqu f'postijiet ġodda. Qabel l-abbandun finali tas-sit, kull rispett għall-mexxejja antiki kien għeb, u l-oqbra tal-Akropoli tat-Tramuntana ġew esplorati għall-ġada, filwaqt li r-rikkezzi tal-oqbra iktar aċċessibbli ġew misruqa. Wara d-950, Tikal kienet kważi vojta għalkollox, għalkemm jaf kien għad fadal xi popolazzjoni żgħira f'xi għorfiet qalb il-fdalijiet. Anke dawn l-abitanti finali abbandunaw il-belt fis-sekli 10 u 11 u l-foresta tropikali għattiet il-fdalijiet għall-elf sena ta' wara. Ftit mill-popolazzjoni ta' Tikal jaf marret tgħix fir-reġjun tal-Lagi ta' Peten, li baqgħu b'popolazzjoni kbira minkejja t-tnaqqis fil-livelli tal-popolazzjoni fl-ewwel nofs tas-seklu 9.<ref name=":3" /> L-iżjed kawża probabbli tal-waqgħa ta' Tikal hija l-popolazzjoni eċċessiva u l-falliment agrarju. Il-waqgħa ta' Tikal kienet daqqa ta' ħarta għall-qalba taċ-ċivilizzazzjoni tal-Maja Klassika, peress li l-belt kienet minn ta' quddiem fil-ħajja tal-qorti, fl-[[arti]] u fl-arkitettura għal iżjed minn elf sena, b'dinastija mexxejja antika.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 274.</ref> Madankollu, riċerka ġdida rigward elementi paleoambjentali mis-sistema ta' ġibjuni ta' Tikal tissuġġerixxi li nixfa meteoroloġika jaf wasslet għall-abbandun ta' Tikal<ref>{{Ċita teżi|kunjom1=Tamberino|isem1=Anthony T.|data=2013|titlu=Ancient Maya Reservoirs and their Role in the Abandonment of Tikal, Guatemala: A Multi-Proxy Investigation of Solid Sediment Cores.|url=https://etd.ohiolink.edu/apexprod/rws_olink/r/1501/10?clear=10&p10_accession_num=ucin1377866689|data-aċċess=2022-08-15|lingwa=en}}</ref>, minħabba l-kontaminazzjoni ta' xi ġibjuni qrib it-tempju u l-palazz bl-algi, filwaqt li l-ilma minn ġibjuni oħra baqa' tajjeb għax-xorb. Il-binjiet ġew impittra biċ-ċinabru b'kontenut tal-merkurju, li jaf inġarr mal-ilma tax-xita u niġġes xi ġibjuni. Ix-xogħlijiet ta' Kohler u kollegi tiegħu wrew li din il-belt kienet laħqet livell mhux sostenibbli ta' inugwaljanzi lejn l-aħħar tagħha.<ref>Lentz, David L.; Hamilton, Trinity L.; Dunning, Nicholas P.; Scarborough, Vernon L.; Luxton, Todd P.; Vonderheide, Anne; Tepe, Eric J.; Perfetta, Cory J.; Brunemann, James; Grazioso, Liwy; Valdez, Fred; Tankersley, Kenneth B.; Weiss, Alison A. (2020). "Molecular genetic and geochemical assays reveal severe contamination of drinking water reservoirs at the ancient Maya city of Tikal". ''Scientific Reports''. '''10''' (1): 10316.</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://phys.org/news/2020-06-ancient-maya-reservoirs-toxic-pollution.html|titlu=Ancient Maya reservoirs contained toxic pollution: study|kunjom=Miller|isem=Michael|kunjom2=Cincinnati|isem2=University of|sit=phys.org|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2022-08-15}}</ref><ref>Kohler et al. (2017) Greater post-Neolithic wealth disparities in Eurasia than in North America and Mesoamerica. Nature (551) : 619–622.</ref> === Moderna === [[Stampa:Tikal1882.jpeg|daqsminuri|248x248px|Wieħed mir-ritratti ta' Tikal ta' Maudsley tal-1882, li ttieħed wara t-tneħħija tal-veġetazzjoni.]] In 1525, the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés passed within a few kilometers of the ruins of Tikal but did not mention them in his letters. After Spanish friar Andrés de Avendaño became lost in the Petén forests in early 1696 he described a ruin that may well have been Tikal. As is often the case with huge ancient ruins, knowledge of the site was never completely lost in the region. It seems that local people never forgot about Tikal and they guided Guatemalan expeditions to the ruins in the 1850s. Some second- or third-hand accounts of Tikal appeared in print starting in the 17th century, continuing through the writings of John Lloyd Stephens in the early 19th century (Stephens and his illustrator Frederick Catherwood heard rumors of a lost city, with white building tops towering above the jungle, during their 1839–40 travels in the region). Because of the site's remoteness from modern towns, however, no explorers visited Tikal until Modesto Méndez and Ambrosio Tut, respectively the commissioner and the governor of Petén, visited it in 1848. Artist Eusebio Lara accompanied them and their account was published in Germany in 1853. Several other expeditions came to further investigate, map, and photograph Tikal in the 19th century (including Alfred P. Maudslay in 1881-82) and the early 20th century. Pioneering archeologists started to clear, map and record the ruins in the 1880s. [[Stampa:Tikal (Eusebio Lara).jpg|daqsminuri|Tpinġija ta' Tikal li saret minn Eusebio Lara, viżitatur ta' nofs is-seklu 19.]] In 1951, a small airstrip was built at the ruins, which previously could only be reached by several days' travel through the jungle on foot or mule. In 1956 the Tikal project began to map the city on a scale not previously seen in the Maya area. From 1956 through 1970, major archeological excavations were carried out by the University of Pennsylvania Tikal Project. They mapped much of the site and excavated and restored many of the structures. Excavations directed by Edwin M. Shook and later by William Coe of the university investigated the North Acropolis and the Central Plaza from 1957 to 1969. The Tikal Project recorded over 200 monuments at the site. In 1979, the Guatemalan government began a further archeological project at Tikal, which continued through to 1984. Filmmaker George Lucas used Tikal as a filming location for the fictional moon Yavin 4 in the first ''Star Wars'' film, ''Episode IV: A New Hope'', which premiered in 1977. Temple I at Tikal was featured on the reverse of the 50 centavo banknote. Eon Productions used the site for the James Bond film ''Moonraker''. Tikal is now a major tourist attraction surrounded by its own national park. A site museum has been built at Tikal; it was completed in 1964. == Deskrizzjoni tas-sit == Tikal has been partially restored by the University of Pennsylvania and the government of Guatemala. It was one of the largest of the Classic period Maya cities and was one of the largest cities in the Americas. The architecture of the ancient city is built from limestone and includes the remains of temples that tower over 70 meters (230 ft) high, large royal palaces, in addition to a number of smaller pyramids, palaces, residences, administrative buildings, platforms and inscribed stone monuments. There is even a building which seemed to have been a jail, originally with wooden bars across the windows and doors. There are also seven courts for playing the Mesoamerican ballgame, including a set of 3 in the Seven Temples Plaza, a unique feature in Mesoamerica. The limestone used for construction was local and quarried on-site. The depressions formed by the extraction of stone for building were plastered to waterproof them and were used as reservoirs, together with some waterproofed natural depressions. The main plazas were surfaced with stucco and laid at a gradient that channelled rainfall into a system of canals that fed the reservoirs. The residential area of Tikal covers an estimated 60 square kilometers (23 sq mi), much of which has not yet been cleared, mapped, or excavated. The 16 square kilometers (6.2 sq mi) area around the site core has been intensively mapped; it may have enclosed an area of some 125 square kilometers (48 sq mi) (see below). A huge set of earthworks discovered by Dennis E. Puleston and Donald Callender in the 1960s rings Tikal with a 6-meter (20 ft) wide trench behind a rampart. Recently, a project exploring the defensive earthworks has shown that the scale of the earthworks is highly variable and that in many places it is inconsequential as a defensive feature. In addition, some parts of the earthwork were integrated into a canal system. The earthwork of Tikal varies significantly in coverage from what was originally proposed and it is much more complex and multifaceted than originally thought. === Toroq === By the Late Classic, a network of ''sacbeob'' (causeways) linked various parts of the city, running for several kilometers through its urban core. These linked the Great Plaza with Temple 4 (located about 750 meters (2,460 feet) to the west) and the Temple of the Inscriptions (about 1 kilometer (0.62 mi) to the southeast). These broad causeways were built of packed and plastered limestone and have been named after early explorers and archeologists; the Maler, Maudslay, Tozzer and Méndez causeways. They assisted the passage of everyday traffic during the rain season and also served as dams. The '''Maler Causeway''' runs north from behind Temple I to Group H. A large bas-relief is carved onto limestone bedrock upon the course of the causeway just south of Group H. It depicts two bound captives and dates to the Late Classic. The '''Maudsley Causeway''' runs 0.8 kilometers (0.50 mi) northeast from Temple IV to Group H. The '''Mendez Causeway''' runs southeast from the East Plaza to Temple VI, a distance of about 1.3 kilometers (0.81 mi). The '''Tozzer Causeway''' runs west from the Great Plaza to Temple IV. === Gruppi arkitettoniċi === The '''Great Plaza''' lies at the core of the site; it is flanked on the east and west sides by two great temple-pyramids. On the north side it is bordered by the North Acropolis and on the south by the Central Acropolis. The '''Central Acropolis''' is a palace complex just south of the Great Plaza. The '''North Acropolis''', together with the Great Plaza immediately to the south, is one of the most studied architectural groups in the Maya area; the Tikal Project excavated a massive trench across the complex, thoroughly investigating its construction history. It is a complex group with construction beginning in the Preclassic Period, around 350 BC. It developed into a funerary complex for the ruling dynasty of the Classic Period, with each additional royal burial adding new temples on top of the older structures. After AD 400 a row of tall pyramids was added to the earlier Northern Platform, which measured 100 by 80 meters (330 by 260 ft), gradually hiding it from view. Eight temple pyramids were built in the 6th century AD, each of them had an elaborate roofcomb and a stairway flanked by masks of the gods. By the 9th century AD, 43 stelae and 30 altars had been erected in the North Acropolis; 18 of these monuments were carved with hieroglyphic texts and royal portraits. The North Acropolis continued to receive burials into the Postclassic Period. The '''South Acropolis''' is found next to Temple V. It was built upon a large basal platform that covers an area of more than 20,000 square meters (220,000 sq ft). The '''Plaza of the Seven Temples''' is to the west of the South Acropolis. It is bordered on the east side by a row of nearly identical temples, by palaces on the south and west sides and by an unusual triple ballcourt on the north side. The '''Mundo Perdido''' is to the west of the Plaza of the Seven Temples. It is the largest ceremonial complex dating from the Preclassic period at Tikal. The complex was organized as a large E-Group consisting of a pyramid aligned with a platform to the east that supported three temples. The Mundo Perdido complex was rebuilt many times over the course of its history. By AD 250–300 its architectural style was influenced by the great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico, including the use of the ''talud-tablero'' form. During the Early Classic period (c. 250–600) the Mundo Perdido became one of the twin foci of the city, the other being the North Acropolis. From AD 250 to 378 it may have served as the royal necropolis. The Mundo Perdido complex was given its name by the archeologists of the University of Pennsylvania; it is centered upon the Lost World Pyramid and a small platform to the west of it. To the south of Mundo Perdido, recent 2021 excavations have revealed a one-third size replication of La Ciudadela, or The Citadel, in Teotihuacan. This area may have been used as a diplomatic headquarters and as an effort to further stamp Teotihuacan culture upon the residents of Tikal. '''Group G''' lies just south of the Mendez Causeway. The complex dates to the Late Classic and consists of palace-type structures and is one of the largest groups of its type at Tikal. It has two stories but most of the rooms are on the lower floor, a total of 29 vaulted chambers. The remains of two further chambers belong to the upper story. One of the entrances to the group was framed by a gigantic mask. '''Group H''' is centered on a large plaza to the north of the Great Plaza. It is bordered by temples dating to the Late Classic. There are nine '''Twin-Pyramid Complexes''' at Tikal, one of which was completely dismantled in ancient times and some others were partly destroyed. They vary in size but consist of two pyramids facing each other on an east–west axis. These pyramids are flat-topped and have stairways on all four sides. A row of plain stelae is placed immediately to the west of the eastern pyramid and to the north of the pyramids. Lying roughly equidistant from them, there is usually a sculpted stela and altar pair. On the south side of these complexes there is a long vaulted building containing a single room with nine doorways. The entire complex was built at once and these complexes were built at 20-year (or ''k'atun'') intervals during the Late Classic. The first twin pyramid complex was built in the early 6th century in the East Plaza. It was once thought that these complexes were unique to Tikal but rare examples have now been found at other sites, such as Yaxha and Ixlu, and they may reflect the extent of Tikal's political dominance in the Late Classic. '''Group Q''' is a twin-pyramid complex, and is one of the largest at Tikal. It was built by Yax Nuun Ayiin II in 771 in order to mark the end of the 17th K'atun. Most of it has been restored and its monuments have been re-erected. '''Group R''' is another twin-pyramid complex, dated to 790. It is close to the Maler Causeway. === Strutturi === There are thousands of ancient structures at Tikal and only a fraction of these have been excavated, after decades of archeological work. The most prominent surviving buildings include six very large pyramids, labelled Temples I – VI, each of which support a temple structure on their summits. Some of these pyramids are over 60 meters (200 feet) high. They were numbered sequentially during the early survey of the site. It is estimated that each of these major temples could have been built in as little as two years. '''Temple I''' (also known as the ''Temple of Ah Cacao'' or ''Temple of the Great Jaguar'') is a funerary pyramid dedicated to Jasaw Chan K'awil, who was entombed in the structure in AD 734, the pyramid was completed around 740–750. The temple rises 47 meters (154 ft) high. The massive roofcomb that topped the temple was originally decorated with a giant sculpture of the enthroned king, although little of this decoration survives. The tomb of the king was discovered by Aubrey Trik of the University of Pennsylvania in 1962. Among items recovered from the Late Classic tomb were a large collection of inscribed human and animal bone tubes and strips with sophisticated scenes depicting deities and people, finely carved and rubbed with vermilion, as well as jade and shell ornaments and ceramic vessels filled with offerings of food and drink. The shrine at the summit of the pyramid has three chambers, each behind the next, with the doorways spanned by wooden lintels fashioned from multiple beams. The outermost lintel is plain but the two inner lintels were carved, some of the beams were removed in the 19th century and their location is unknown, while others were taken to museums in Europe. '''Temple II''' (also known as the ''Temple of the Mask'') it was built around AD 700 and stands 38 meters (125 ft) high. Like other major temples at Tikal, the summit shrine had three consecutive chambers with the doorways spanned by wooden lintels, only the middle of which was carved. The temple was dedicated to the wife of Jasaw Chan K'awil, although no tomb was found. The queen's portrait was carved into the lintel spanning the doorway of the summit shrine. One of the beams from this lintel is now in the American Museum of Natural History in New York City. '''Temple III''' (also known as the ''Temple of the Jaguar Priest'') was the last of the great pyramids to be built at Tikal. It stood 55 meters (180 ft) tall and contained an elaborately sculpted but damaged roof lintel, possibly showing Dark Sun engaged in a ritual dance around AD 810. The temple shrine possesses two chambers. '''Temple IV''' is the tallest temple-pyramid at Tikal, measuring 70 meters (230 ft) from the plaza floor level to the top of its roof comb. Temple IV marks the reign of Yik’in Chan Kawil (Ruler B, the son of Ruler A or Jasaw Chan K'awiil I) and two carved wooden lintels over the doorway that leads into the temple on the pyramid's summit record a long count date (9.15.10.0.0) that corresponds to CE 741 (Sharer 1994:169). Temple IV is the largest pyramid built anywhere in the Maya region in the 8th century, and as it currently stands is the tallest pre-Columbian structure in the Americas although the Pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacan may originally have been taller, as may have been one of the structures at El Mirador. '''Temple V''' stands south of the Central Acropolis and is the mortuary pyramid of an as yet unidentified ruler. The temple stands 57 meters (187 ft) high, making it the second tallest structure at Tikal – only Temple IV is taller. The temple has been dated to about AD 700, in the Late Classic period, via radiocarbon analysis and the dating of ceramics associated with the structure places its construction during the reign of Nun Bak Chak in the second half of the 7th century. '''Temple VI''' is also known as the ''Temple of the Inscriptions'' and was dedicated in AD 766. It is notable for its 12-meter (39 ft) high roof-comb. Panels of hieroglyphs cover the back and sides of the roof-comb. The temple faces onto a plaza to the west and its front is unrestored. '''Temple 33''' was a funerary pyramid erected over the tomb of Siyaj Chan K'awiil I (known as Burial 48) in the North Acropolis. It started life in the Early Classic as a wide basal platform decorated with large stucco masks that flanked the stairway. Later in the Early Classic a new superstructure was added, with its own masks and decorated panels. During the Hiatus a third stage was built over the earlier constructions, the stairway was demolished and another royal burial, of an unidentified ruler, was set into the structure (Burial 23). While the new pyramid was being built another high ranking tomb (Burial 24) was inserted into the rubble core of the building. The pyramid was then completed, standing 33 meters (108 ft) tall. The final version of Temple 33 was completely dismantled by archeologists in 1965 in order to arrive at the earlier stages of construction. '''Structure 34''' is a pyramid in the North Acropolis that was built by Siyaj Chan K'awiil II over the tomb of his father, Yax Nuun Ayiin I. The pyramid was topped by a three chambered shrine, the rooms situated one behind the other. Detail of Teotihuacan-related imagery decorating the sloping ''talud'' sections of the ''talud-tablero'' sides of Structure 5D-43. '''Structure 5D-43''' is an unusual radial temple in the East Plaza, built over a pre-existing twin pyramid complex. It is built into the end of the East Plaza Ballcourt and possessed four entry doorways and three stairways, the fourth (south) side was too close to the Central Acropolis for a stairway on that side. The building has a ''talud-tablero'' platform profile, modified from the original style found at Teotihuacan. In fact, it has been suggested that the style of the building has closer affinities with El Tajin and Xochicalco than with Teotihuacan itself. The vertical ''tablero'' panels are set between sloping ''talud'' panels and are decorated with paired disc symbols. Large flower symbols are set into the sloping ''talud'' panels, related to the Venus and star symbols used at Teotihuacan. The roof of the structure was decorated with friezes although only fragments now remain, showing a monstrous face, perhaps that of a jaguar, with another head emerging from the mouth. The second head possesses a bifurcated tongue but is probably not that of a snake. The temple, and its associated ballcourt, probably date to the reign of Nuun Ujol Chaak or that of his son Jasaw Chan K'awiil I, in the later part of the 7th century. '''Structure 5C-49''' possesses a clear Teotihuacan-linked architectural style; it has balustrades, an architectural feature that is very rare in the Maya region, and a ''talud-tablero'' façade; it dates to the 4th century AD. It is located near to the Lost World pyramid. '''Structure 5C-53''' is a small Teotihuacan-style platform that dates to about AD 600. It had stairways on all four sides and did not possess a superstructure. The '''Lost World Pyramid''' (Structure 5C-54) is the largest structure in the Mundo Perdido complex. It lies in the southwest portion of Tikal's central core, south of Temple III and west of Temple V. It was decorated with stucco masks of the sun god and dates to the Late Preclassic; this pyramid is part of an enclosed complex of structures that remained intact and un-impacted by later building activity at Tikal. By the end of the Late Preclassic this pyramid was one of the largest structures in the Maya region. It attained its final form during the reign of Chak Tok Ich'aak in the 4th century AD, in the Early Classic, standing more than 30 meters (98 ft) high with stairways on all four sides and a flat top that possibly supported a superstructure built from perishable materials. Although the plaza later suffered significant alteration, the organization of a group of temples on the east side of this complex adheres to the layout that defines the so-called E-Groups, identified as solar observatories. '''Structure 5D-96''' is the central temple on the east side of the Plaza of the Seven Temples. It has been restored and its rear outer wall is decorated with skull-and-crossbones motifs. '''Group 6C-16''' is an elite residential complex that has been thoroughly excavated. It lies a few hundred m south of the Lost World Complex and the excavations have revealed elaborate stucco masks, ballplayer murals, relief sculptures and buildings with Teotihuacan characteristics. The '''Great Plaza Ballcourt''' is a small ballcourt that lies between Temple I and the Central Acropolis. The '''Bat Palace''' is also known as the Palace of Windows and lies to the west of Temple III. It has two storeys, with a double range of chambers on the lower storey and a single range in the upper storey, which has been restored. The palace has ancient graffiti and possesses low windows. '''Complex N''' lies to the west of the Bat Palace and Temple III. The complex dates to AD 711. In 2018, 60,000 uncharted structures were revealed by archeologists with help of Lidar. Thanks to the new findings, some archeologists believe that 7-11 million Maya people inhabited in the northern Guatemala during the late classical period from 650 to 800 A.D. Lidar digitally removed the tree canopy to reveal ancient remains and showed that Maya cities like Tikal were bigger than previously thought. The project was mapped near the Maya Biosphere Reserve in the Petén region of Guatemala. === Artali === '''Altar 5''' is carved with two nobles, one of whom is probably Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. They are performing a ritual using the bones of an important woman. Altar 5 was found in Complex N, which lies to the west of Temple III. '''Altar 8''' is sculpted with a bound captive. It was found within Complex P in Group H and is now in the Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología in Guatemala City. '''Altar 9''' is associated with Stela 21 and bears the sculpture of a bound captive. It is located in front of Temple VI. '''Altar 10''' is carved with a captive tied to a scaffold. It is in the northern enclosure of Group Q, a twin-pyramid complex and has suffered from erosion. '''Altar 35''' is a plain monument associated with Stela 43. The stela-altar pair is centrally located at the base of the stairway of Temple IV. === Lintels === The elaborately carved wooden Lintel 3 from Temple IV. It celebrates a military victory by Yik'in Chan K'awiil in 743. At Tikal, beams of sapodilla wood were placed as lintels spanning the inner doorways of temples. These are the most elaborately carved wooden lintels to have survived anywhere in the Maya region. '''Lintel 3''' from Temple IV was taken to Basel in Switzerland in the 19th century. It was in almost perfect condition and depicts Yik'in Chan K'awiil seated on a palanquin. === Steli === Stelae are carved stone shafts, often sculpted with figures and hieroglyphs. A selection of the most notable stelae at Tikal follows: '''Stela 1''' dates to the 5th century and depicts the king Siyaj Chan K'awiil II in a standing position. '''Stela 4''' is dated to AD 396, during the reign of Yax Nuun Ayiin after the intrusion of Teotihuacan in the Maya area. The stela displays a mix of Maya and Teotihuacan qualities, and deities from both cultures. It has a portrait of the king with the Underworld Jaguar God under one arm and the Mexican Tlaloc under the other. His helmet is a simplified version of the Teotihuacan War Serpent. Unusually for Maya sculpture, but typically for Teotihuacan, Yax Nuun Ayiin is depicted with a frontal face, rather than in profile. '''Stela 5''' was dedicated in 744 by Yik'in Chan K'awiil. '''Stela 6''' is a badly damaged monument dating to 514 and bears the name of the "Lady of Tikal" who celebrated the end of the 4th K'atun in that year. '''Stela 10''' is twinned with Stela 12 but is badly damaged. It described the accession of Kaloomte' B'alam in the early 6th century and earlier events in his career, including the capture of a prisoner depicted on the monument. '''Stela 11''' was the last monument ever erected at Tikal; it was dedicated in 869 by Jasaw Chan K'awiil II. '''Stela 12''' is linked to the queen known as the "Lady of Tikal" and king Kaloomte' B'alam. The queen is described as performing the year-ending rituals but the monument was dedicated in honor of the king. '''Stela 16''' was dedicated in 711, during the reign of Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. The sculpture, including a portrait of the king and a hieroglyphic text, are limited to the front face of the monument. It was found in Complex N, west of Temple III. '''Stela 18''' was one of two stelae erected by Yax Nuun Ayiin I to celebrate the ''k'atun''-ending of AD 396. It was re-erected at the base of Temple 34, his funerary shrine. '''Stela 19''' was dedicated in 790 by Yax Nuun Ayiin II. '''Stela 20''' was found in Complex P, in Group H, and was moved to the Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología in Guatemala City. '''Stela 21''' was dedicated in 736 by Yik'in Chan K'awiil. Only the bottom of the stela is intact, the rest having been mutilated in ancient times. The surviving sculpture is of fine quality, consisting of the feet of a figure and of accompanying hieroglyphic text. The stela is associated with Altar 9 and is located in front of Temple VI. '''Stela 22''' was dedicated in 771 by Yax Nuun Ayiin II in the northern enclosure of Group Q, a twin-pyramid complex. The face of the figure on the stela has been mutilated. '''Stela 23''' was broken in antiquity and was re-erected in a residential complex. The defaced portrait on the monument is that of the so-called "Lady of Tikal", a daughter of Chak Tok Ich'aak II who became queen at the age of six but never ruled in her own right, being paired with male co-rulers. It dates to the early 6th century. '''Stela 24''' was erected at the foot of Temple 3 in 810, accompanied by Altar 7. Both were broken into fragments in ancient times, although the name of Dark Sun survives on three fragments. '''Stela 26''' was found in the summit shrine of Temple 34, underneath a broken masonry altar. The monument had originally been erected at the base of the temple during the Early Classic period and was later broken, probably at the beginning of the Late Classic. Its remains were then interred within the temple shrine. '''Stela 29''' bears a Long Count (8.12.14.8.15) date equivalent to AD 292, the earliest surviving Long Count date from the Maya lowlands. The stela is also the earliest monument to bear the Tikal emblem glyph. It bears a sculpture of the king facing to the right, holding the head of an underworld jaguar god, one of the patron deities of the city. The stela was deliberately smashed during the 6th century or some time later, the upper portion was dragged away and dumped in a rubbish tip close to Temple III, to be uncovered by archeologists in 1959. '''Stela 30''' is the first surviving monument to be erected after the Hiatus. Its style and iconography is similar to that of Caracol, one of the more important of Tikal's enemies. Stela 31, with the sculpted image of Siyaj Chan K'awiil II '''Stela 31''' is the accession monument of Siyaj Chan K'awiil II, also bearing two portraits of his father, Yax Nuun Ayiin, as a youth dressed as a Teotihuacan warrior. He carries a spearthrower in one hand and bears a shield decorated with the face of Tlaloc, the Teotihuacan war god. In ancient times the sculpture was broken and the upper portion was moved to the summit of Temple 33 and ritually buried. Stela 31 has been described as the greatest Early Classic sculpture to survive at Tikal. A long hieroglyphic text is carved onto the back of the monument, the longest to survive from the Early Classic, which describes the arrival of Siyah K'ak' at El Peru and Tikal in January 378. It was also the first stela at Tikal to be carved on all four faces. '''Stela 32''' is a fragmented monument with a foreign Teotihuacan-style sculpture apparently depicting the lord of that city with the attributes of the central Mexican storm god Tlaloc, including his goggle eyes and tasselled headdress. '''Stela 39''' is a broken monument that was erected in the Lost World complex. The upper portion of the stela is missing but the lower portion shows the lower body and legs of Chak Tok Ich'aak, holding a flint axe in his left hand. He is trampling the figure of a bound, richly dressed captive. The monument is dated to AD 376. The text on the back of the monument describes a bloodletting ritual to celebrate a Katun-ending. The stela also names Chak Tok Ich'aak I's father as K'inich Muwaan Jol. '''Stela 40''' bears a portrait of Kan Chitam and dates to AD 468. '''Stela 43''' is paired with Altar 35. It is a plain monument at the base of the stairway of Temple IV. === Oqbra === A ceramic censer representing an elderly deity, found in Burial 10. '''Burial 1''' is a tomb in the Lost World complex. A fine ceramic bowl was recovered from the tomb, with the handle formed from three-dimensional head and neck of a bird emerging from the two-dimensional body painted on the lid. '''Burial 10''' is the tomb of Yax Nuun Ayiin. It is located beneath Structure 34 in the North Acropolis. The tomb contained a rich array of offerings, including ceramic vessels and food, and nine youths were sacrificed to accompany the dead king. A dog was also entombed with the deceased king. Pots in the tomb were stuccoed and painted and many demonstrated a blend of Maya and Teotihuacan styles. Among the offerings was an incense-burner in the shape of an elderly underworld god, sitting on a stool made of human bones and holding a severed head in his hands. The tomb was sealed with a corbel vault, then the pyramid was built on top. '''Burial 48''' is generally accepted as the tomb of Sihyaj Chan Kʼawiil II. It is located beneath Temple 33 in the North Acropolis. The chamber of the tomb was cut from the bedrock and contained the remains of the king himself together with those of two adolescents who had been sacrificed in order to accompany the deceased ruler. The walls of the tomb were covered with white stucco painted with hieroglyphs that included the Long Count date equivalent to 20 March 457, probably the date of either the death or interment of the king. The king's skeleton was missing its skull, its femurs and one of its hands while the skeletons of the sacrificial victims were intact. '''Burial 85''' dates to the Late Preclassic and was enclosed by a platform, with a primitive corbel vault. The tomb contained a single male skeleton, which lacked a skull and its thighbones. The dynastic founder of Tikal, Yax Ehb' Xook, has been linked to this tomb, which lies deep in the heart of the North Acropolis. The deceased had probably died in battle with his body being mutilated by his enemies before being recovered and interred by his followers. The bones were wrapped carefully in textiles to form an upright bundle. The missing head was replaced by a small greenstone mask with shell-inlaid teeth and eyes and bearing a three-pointed royal headband. This head wears an emblem of rulership on its forehead and is a rare Preclassic lowland Maya portrait of a king. Among the contents of the tomb were a stingray spine, a spondylus shell and twenty-six ceramic vessels. '''Burial 116''' is the tomb of Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. 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The Fall of the Ancient Maya: Solving the Mystery of the Maya Collapse. London: Thames & Hudson. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-500-05113-9</nowiki>. OCLC 48753878. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Siti arkeoloġiċi]] [[Kategorija:Siti ta' Wirt Dinji]] [[Kategorija:Parks Nazzjonali]] [[Kategorija:Maja]] [[Kategorija:Gwatemala]] t92iif5fyffbd0wjxs8yk25jp0ovv01 279127 279124 2022-08-15T10:55:11Z Trigcly 17859 /* Moderna */ żieda kontenut wikitext text/x-wiki [[Stampa:Tikal Temple1 2006 08 11.JPG|daqsminuri|It-Tempju I ta' Tikal huwa għoli 47 metru (154 pied).]] '''Tikal''' (/tiˈkɑːl/; ''Tik’al'' bl-ortografija moderna tal-[[Maja]]) hija l-fdal ta' belt antika, li x'aktarx kienet tissejjaħ '''Yax Mutal'''<ref>Tokovinine, Alexandre (2008). "Lords of Tikal: Narratives and Identities". ''Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology''. Harvard University: 4.</ref>, u li tinsab f'foresta tropikali fil-[[Gwatemala]].<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.cyark.org/projects/tikal/overview|titlu=CyArk|sit=CyArk|data-aċċess=2022-08-14}}</ref> Hija wieħed mill-ikbar siti [[Arkeoloġija|arkeoloġiċi]] u ċentri urbani taċ-ċivilizzazzjoni tal-Maja pre-Kolumbjana. Tinsab fir-reġjun arkeoloġiku tal-Baċir ta' Petén fit-territorju attwali tat-Tramuntana tal-Gwatemala. Is-sit jinsab fid-dipartiment ta' El Petén u huwa parti mill-Park Nazzjonali ta' Tikal. Fl-1979 sar [[Sit ta' Wirt Dinji]] tal-[[UNESCO]].<ref name=":0">{{Ċita web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/64/|titlu=Tikal National Park|kunjom=Centre|isem=UNESCO World Heritage|sit=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2022-08-14}}</ref> Tikal kienet il-[[belt kapitali]] ta' stat ħakkiem li sar wieħed mill-iżjed renji setgħana tal-Maja tal-qedem.<ref>Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 1. Hammond 2000, p. 233.</ref> Għalkemm l-arkitettura [[Monument|monumentali]] tas-sit tmur lura saħansitra tas-seklu 4 [[Ante Christum natum|Q.K]]., Tikal laħqet il-quċċata tagħha matul il-Perjodu Klassiku, għall-ħabta tal-200 sad-900. Matul dak iż-żmien, il-belt iddominat il-biċċa l-kbira tar-reġjun tal-Maja [[Politika|politikament]], ekonomikament u militarment, filwaqt li interaġixxiet ma' żoni fil-Mesoamerka kollha, bħall-metropoli l-kbira ta' [[Teotihuacan]] fil-Wied tal-Messiku daqstant 'il bogħod. Hemm evidenza li Tikal inħakmet minn Teotihuacan fis-seklu 4 W.K.<ref>Martin & Grube 2008, pp. 29-32.</ref> Wara t-tmiem tal-Perjodu Klassiku Aħħari, ma nbena l-ebda monument maġġuri f'Tikal u hemm evidenza li l-palazzi tal-elit ingħataw in-nar. Dan l-avvenimenti mexew id f'id ma' tnaqqis gradwali fil-popolazzjoni, u laħqu l-qofol tagħhom fl-abbandun tas-sit sal-aħħar tas-seklu 10. Tikal hija l-iżjed belt mifhuma minn kwalunkwe waħda mill-bliet tal-Maja l-kbar fl-artijiet baxxi, b'lista twila ta' mexxejja dinastiċi, bl-iskoperta tal-oqbra ta' bosta mill-mexxejja fuq din il-lista u bl-investigazzjoni tal-monumenti, tat-tempji u tal-palazzi tagħhom.<ref>Adams 2000, p. 34.</ref> == Etimoloġija == [[Stampa:Tikalemblem.jpg|daqsminuri|Glifiċi emblematiċi ta' isem Tikal]] L-isem ''Tikal'' jaf oriġina minn ''ti ak'al'' fil-lingwa tal-Maja tal-[[Yucatan]]; jingħad li huwa isem relattivament modern li jfisser "f'ġibjun". Milli jidher l-isem ingħata lil wieħed mill-ġibjuni antiki tas-sit mill-kaċċaturi u mill-vjaġġaturi fir-reġjun.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, p. 30.</ref> Interpretazzjoni oħra tal-isem hi li jfisser "il-post tal-vuċijiet" fil-lingwa tal-Maja ta' Itza. Madankollu, Tikal mhuwiex l-isem antik tas-sit iżda pjuttost l-isem li ġie adottat ftit wara l-iskoperta tas-sit fis-snin 40 tas-seklu 19.<ref>Drew 1999, p. 136.</ref> Il-kitbiet ġeroglifiċi fil-fdalijiet jirreferu għall-belt antika bħala ''Yax Mutal'' jew ''Yax Mutul'', li tfisser "l-ewwel Mutal". Tikal jaf bdiet tissejjaħ hekk minħabba li Dos Pilas beda juża l-istess glifiċi emblematiċi; il-mexxejja tal-belt x'aktarx li riedu jiddistingwu bejn il-bliet b'dan il-mod.<ref>Schele & Mathews 1999, p. 64.</ref> Ir-renju kollu kien jissejjaħ sempliċement ''Mutul'', li huwa l-interpretazzjoni tal-glifiċi emblematiċi tal-"qatta' xagħar" fir-ritratt fuq il-lemin. It-tifsira preċiża għadha mhux ċerta.<ref>Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 1.</ref> == Ġeografija == [[Stampa:Mayamap.png|daqsminuri|280x280px|Mappa taż-żona tal-Maja fir-reġjun Mesoamerikan. Kemm Tikal kif ukoll Calakmul jinsabu qrib iċ-ċentru taż-żona.]] L-eqreb insedjamenti kbar moderni huma Flores u Santa Elena, bejn wieħed u ieħor xi 64 kilometru (40 mil) bogħod bit-triq lejn il-Lbiċ.<ref>Kelly 1996, pp. 111-112.</ref> Tikal tinsab xi 303 kilometri (188 mil) fit-Tramuntana tal-[[Belt tal-Gwatemala]]. Tinsab 19-il kilometru (12-il mil) fin-Nofsinhar tal-belt tal-Maja kontemporanja ta' [[Uaxactun]] u 30 kilometru (19-il mil) fil-Majjistral ta' [[Yaxha]].<ref>Webster 2002, p. 118.</ref> Il-belt tinsab 100 kilometru (62 mil) fix-Xlokk tar-rivali l-kbira tagħha tal-Perjodu Klassiku, [[Calakmul]], u 85 kilometru (53 mil) fil-Majjistral tal-alleat ta' Calakmul, [[Caracol]], li issa tinsab fil-[[Beliże|Belize]].<ref>Webster 2002, p. 118.</ref> Il-belt ġiet immappjata għalkollox u kienet tkopri erja ikbar minn 16-il kilometru kwadru (6.2 mili kwadri) li kienet tinkludi madwar 3,000 struttura.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 104.</ref> It-topografija tas-sit tikkonsisti minn sensiela ta' rdumijiet paralleli tal-[[ġebla tal-ġir]] 'il fuq minn artijiet baxxi u mtajna. L-arkitettura maġġuri tas-sit hija raggruppata f'żoni iktar għoljin li huma kkollegati b'toroq olzati minn naħa għall-oħra tal-artijiet bassasa.<ref>Drew 1999, p. 185.</ref> Iż-żona madwar Tikal ġiet iddikjarata bħala l-Park Nazzjonali ta' Tikal u ż-żona ppreservata tkopri 570 kilometru kwadru (220 mil kwadru).<ref>Kelly 1996, p. 140.</ref> Dan il-park inħoloq fis-26 ta' Mejju 1955 taħt il-patroċinju tal-Instituto de Antropología e Historia u kien l-ewwel żona protetta fil-Gwatemala.<ref>Kelly 1996, p. 140.</ref> Il-fdalijiet jinsabu fost il-foresti tropikali tat-Tramuntana tal-Gwatemala li kienu jiffurmaw in-nieqa taċ-ċivilizzazzjoni tal-Maja fl-artijiet baxxi. Il-belt stess kienet tinsab qalb art għammiela abbundanti, u jaf iddominat rotta kummerċjali naturali mil-Lvant għall-Punent tul il-[[Peniżola]] tal-Yucatan. Fost is-siġar il-kbar tal-Park Nazzjonali ta' Tikal hemm il-kapok ġgantesk (''Ceiba pentandra'') li kienet is-siġra sagra tal-Maja; iċ-ċedru tropikali (''Cedrela odorata''), u l-kawba tal-[[Ħonduras]] (''Swietenia macrophylla''). Fir-rigward tal-fawna, wieħed jista' jara regolarment l-aguti, il-koati ta' mnieħru abjad, il-volpi griż, ix-xadin ta' Geoffroy, ix-xadin li jgħajjat, l-ajkla arpija, il-falkun, id-dundjan tal-foresti, il-gwan, it-tukan, il-pappagall aħdar u n-nemel li jaqta' l-weraq. Jingħad ukoll li l-ġagwar, l-ocelot u l-cougar jgħixu fil-park.<ref>Coe 1967, pp. 9-10. Hidinger 1996, p. 52.</ref> Tikal ma kellha l-ebda ilma għajr dak li kien jinġabar mill-ilma tax-xita u jinħażen f'għaxar ġibjuni. L-arkeologi li ħadmu f'Tikal matul is-seklu 20 sewwew wieħed minn dawn il-ġibjuni antiki biex jaħżnu l-ilma għalihom stess.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 124.</ref> Ix-xita annwali medja li tinżel f'Tikal tammonta għal 1,945 millimetru (76.6 pulzier). Madankollu, ix-xita ġieli tinżel għal għarrieda, u perjodi twal ta' nixfa setgħu jseħħu qabel ma l-għelejjel isiru, li kienet theddida serja għall-abitanti tal-belt antika.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 239.</ref> == Popolazzjoni == L-istimi tal-popolazzjoni ta' Tikal ivarjaw minn 10,000 sa saħansitra 90,000 abitant. Il-popolazzjoni ta' Tikal bdiet kurva kontinwa ta' tkabbir mill-bidu tal-Perjodu Preklassiku (bejn wieħed u ieħor fl-2000 Q.K. – 200 W.K.), bl-eqqel livell fil-Perjodu Klassiku Aħħari, fejn il-popolazzjoni kibret b'mod rapidu mis-700 W.K. sat-830, u mbagħad kien hemm deklin qawwi. Għaż-żona ta' 120 kilometru kwadru (46 mil kwadru) fi ħdan id-difiżi bit-tajn tal-periferija, l-ogħla popolazzjoni hija stmata li kienet 517-il persuna għal kull kilometru kwadru (1,340 persuna għal kull mil kwadru). F'żona fi ħdan raġġ ta' 12-il kilometru (7.5 mili) tal-qalba tas-sit, l-ogħla popolazzjoni hija stmata li kienet tlaħħaq il-120,000 ruħ; id-densità tal-popolazzjoni hija stmata li kienet 265 persuna għal kull kilometru kwadru (689 persuna għal kull mil kwadru). F'reġjun fi ħdan raġġ ta' 25 kilometru (16-il mil) mill-qalba tas-sit u inkluż xi siti anċillari, l-ogħla popolazzjoni hija stmata li kienet tlaħħaq l-425,000 ruħ b'densità ta' 216-il persuna għal kull kilometru kwadru (515-il persuna għal kull mil kwadru). Dawn iċ-ċifri rigward il-popolazzjoni huma ferm iktar impressjonanti minħabba l-artijiet bassasa estensiva li ma kinux adattati għall-abitazzjoni jew għall-agrikoltura. Madankollu, xi arkeologi, bħal [[David Webster]], jemmnu li dawn iċ-ċifri huma wisq għoljin.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 264.</ref> == Sit ta' Wirt Dinji == Il-Park Nazzjonali ta' Tikal ġie ddeżinjat bħala Sit ta' Wirt Dinji tal-UNESCO fl-1979.<ref name=":0" /> Il-valur universali straordinarju tas-sit ġie rrikonoxxut abbażi ta' ħames kriterji tal-għażla tal-UNESCO bħala sit kulturali u naturali mħallat: il-'''kriterju (i)''' "Rappreżentazzjoni ta' kapulavur frott il-kreattività tal-bniedem"; il-'''kriterju (iii)''' "Xhieda unika jew minn tal-inqas eċċezzjonali ta' tradizzjoni kulturali jew ta' ċivilizzazzjoni li għadha ħajja jew li għebet"; il-'''kriterju (iv)''' "Eżempju straordinarju ta' tip ta' bini, ta' grupp ta' siti jew ta' pajsaġġ arkitettoniku jew teknoloġiku li joħroġ fid-dieher stadju/i sinifikanti fl-istorja tal-bniedem"; il-'''kriterju (ix)''' "Eżempju straordinarju li jirrappreżenta proċessi ekoloġiċi u bijoloġiċi kontinwi sinifikanti fl-evoluzzjoni u fl-iżvilupp ta' ekosistemi u ta' komunitajiet ta' pjanti u ta' annimali terrestri, tal-ilma ħelu, kostali u tal-baħar"; u l-'''kriterju (x)''' "Post fejn hemm l-iktar ħabitats naturali importanti u sinifikanti għall-konservazzjoni fil-post tad-diversità bijoloġika, inkluż fejn hemm speċijiet mhedda ta' valur universali straordinarju mill-perspettiva tax-xjenza jew tal-konservazzjoni".<ref name=":0" /> == Storja == === Preklassika === [[Stampa:Maya-Maske.jpg|daqsminuri|Maskra tal-Maja li nstabet f'Tikal]] Hemm traċċi ta' biedja bikrija fis-sit li jmorru lura saħansitra sal-1000 Q.K., fil-Preklassiku Nofsani.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 262.</ref> Ġabra ta' bċejjeċ taċ-ċeramika ta' Mamon li jmorru lura għal madwar is-700 u l-400 Q.K. instabu f'''chultun'' issiġillat, jiġifieri f'kompartiment taħt l-art b'għamla ta' flixkun.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 55.</ref> Fil-perjodu Preklassiku Aħħar f'Tikal diġà kienet qed issir kostruzzjoni maġġuri, u l-ewwel binjiet tfaċċaw għall-ħabta tal-400 u t-300 Q.K., inkluż il-kostruzzjoni ta' piramidi u pjattaformi maġġuri, għalkemm il-belt kienet għadha ferm iżgħar minn siti oħra iktar fin-Nofsinhar bħal [[El Mirador]] u [[Nakbe]].<ref>Coe 1999, p. 55.</ref> F'dak iż-żmien, Tikal ipparteċipat fil-kultura mifruxa ta' Chikanel li ddominat iż-żoni Ċentrali u tat-Tramuntana tal-Maja dak iż-żmien – reġjun li kien jinkludi l-Peniżola tal-Yucatan kollha inkluż it-Tramuntana u l-Lvant tal-Gwatemala u l-Belize kollu.<ref>Coe 1999, pp. 73, 80.</ref> Żewġ tempji li jmorru lura għaż-żminijiet aħħarin ta' Chikanel kellhom superstrutturi b'ħitan bix-xogħol fil-ġebel li jaf kienu bil-volti apposta li jħallu arkata jew spazju vojt fi ħdanhom, għalkemm ma nstabux provi ta' dan. Wieħed minnhom kellu affreski elaborati mal-ħitan ta' barra li juru figuri umani fuq sfond ta' tiżjin ripetut bl-[[isfar]], bl-[[iswed]], bir-roża u bl-[[aħmar]].<ref>Coe 1999, p. 75.</ref> Fl-ewwel seklu W.K. tfaċċaw l-ewwel oqbra għonja u Tikal iffjorixxiet politikament u kulturalment, filwaqt li l-ġirien ġganteski tagħha fit-Tramuntana majnaw. Lejn l-aħħar tal-Preklassiku Aħħari, l-istil tal-arti u tal-arkitettura Izapan mill-Kosta [[Oċean Paċifiku|Paċifika]] beda jinfluwenza lil Tikal, kif joħroġ fid-dieher minn skultura miksura mill-akropoli u mill-affreski bikrin fil-belt.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 78.</ref> === Klassika Bikrija === It-tmexxija dinastika fl-artijiet baxxi tal-Maja hija ankrata l-iktar fil-fond f'Tikal. Skont sejbiet ġeroglifiċi li saru iktar 'il quddiem, id-dinastija ġiet stabbilita minn [[Yax Ehb Xook]], x'aktarx fl-ewwel seklu W.K.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 90.</ref> Fil-bidu tal-perjodu Klassiku Bikri, il-poter fir-reġjun tal-Maja kien ikkonċentrat f'Tikal u f'Calakmul, fil-qalba tat-territorju tal-Maja.<ref>Miller 1999, pp. 88-89.</ref> Tikal jaf ibbenefikat mill-waqgħa tal-istati Preklassiċi l-kbar bħal El Mirador. Fil-perjodu Klassiku Bikri Tikal malajr żviluppat fl-iżjed belt dinamika fir-reġjun tal-Maja, u xprunat l-iżvilupp ta' bliet tal-Maja oħrajn fl-inħawi.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 191.</ref> Madankollu, is-sit spiss kien imdaħħal fi gwerer u mill-kitbiet imnaqqxa nafu li kien hemm diversi alleanzi u kunflitti ma' stati oħra tal-Maja, inkluż Uaxactun, Caracol, [[Naranjo]] u Calakmul. Is-sit ġarrab telfa fl-aħħar tal-perjodu Klassiku Bikri kontra Caracol, li ħadet post Tikal bħala ċ-ċentru ewlieni fl-artijiet baxxi tan-Nofsinhar tal-Maja.<ref>Sharer 1994, p. 265.</ref> Fil-parti iktar bikrija tal-Klassiku Bikri kien hemm ostilitajiet bejn Tikal u l-ġar tagħha Uaxactun. F'Uaxactun fil-fatt instabu dokumentazzjonijiet dwar il-qbid ta' priġunieri minn Tikal.<ref>Kelly 1996, p. 129.</ref> Milli jidher kien hemm waqfa fis-suċċessjoni dinastika minn raġel għal ieħor lejn it-317 W.K., meta [[Unen Bahlam]] għamlet ċerimonja ta' tmiem ''katun'', x'aktarx bħala r-reġina tal-belt.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, p. 27.</ref> ==== Tikal u Teotihuacan ==== [[Stampa:Mexico SunMoonPyramid.jpg|daqsminuri|Jidher li l-metropoli l-kbira ta' Teotihuacan fil-Wied tal-Messiku intervjeniet b'mod deċiżiv fil-politka ta' Tikal.]] Diġà fil-200 W.K. Teotihuacan kellha ambaxxati f'Tikal.<ref>The Origins & Collapse of the Preclassic Maya in the Mirador Basin - Richard Hansen at The Library of Congress (2014)</ref> L-erbatax-il re ta' Tikal kien Chak Tok Ich'aak (li tfisser litteralment "Sieq tal-Ġagwar il-Kbir"). Chak Tok Ich'aak bena palazz li ġie ppreservat u żviluppat mill-mexxejja ta' warajh sakemm sar il-qalba tal-Akropoli Ċentrali.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 192.</ref> Ma tantx nafu wisq dwar Chak Tok Ich'aak għajr li nqatel fl-14 ta' Jannar 378 W.K. Fl-istess jum, wasal Siyah K'ak' (li tfisser litteralment "Twieled in-Nar") mill-Punent, wara li għadda minn [[El Peru]], sit fil-Punent ta' Tikal, fit-8 ta' Jannar. Fuq l-iStele 31 jissemma bħala s-"Sinjur tal-Punent".<ref>Drew 1999, p. 199.</ref> Siyah K'ak' x'aktarx li kien ġeneral barrani, irrappreżentat minn kitba ġeroglifika mhux tal-Maja ta' wieħed li jwaddab il-lanez flimkien ma' kokka, kitba ġeroglifika magħrufa sew mill-metropoli l-kbira ta' Teotihuacan fil-Wied tal-Messiku daqstant 'il bogħod. Siyah K'ak' jaf kien anke l-mexxej ta' Teotihuacan. Dawn l-avvenimenti rreġistrati fil-kitba ġeroglifika tal-Maja jissuġġerixxu b'mod qawwi li Siyah K'ak' mexxa invażjoni ta' Tikal min-naħa ta' Teotihuacan u r-re nattiv ta' Tikal ġarrab telfa, inqabad mill-għadu u ġie ġġustizzjat minnufih.<ref>Coe 1999, pp. 90-91.</ref> Milli jidher Siyah K'ak' ġie megħjun minn fazzjoni politika b'saħħitha f'Tikal stess<ref>Webster 2002, p. 133.</ref>; bejn wieħed u ieħor fl-istess żmien tal-ħakma, grupp ta' nattivi ta' Teotihuacan kienu qed jirresjedu qrib il-kumpless tad-Dinja Mitlufa.<ref>Drew 1999, p. 201.</ref> Huwa eżerċita kontroll ukoll fuq bliet oħra fl-inħawi, fosthom Uaxactun, fejn sar re, iżda ma ħax it-tron ta' Tikal għalih innifsu.<ref name=":1">Drew 1999, p. 200.</ref> Fi żmien sena, ibnu, Yax Nuun Ayiin I (l-"Ewwel Kukkudrill") sar il-ħmistax-il re ta' Tikal meta kien għadu tifel, u ngħata t-tron fit-13 ta' Settembru 379.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 97.</ref> Huwa rrenja għal 47 sena bħala r-re ta' Tikal, u baqa' vassall ta' Siyah K'ak' sa ma dan miet. X'aktarx li Yax Nuun Ayiin I ħa mara mid-dinastija ta' Tikal ta' qablu u b'hekk leġittimizza d-dritt ta' tmexxija għal ibnu, Siyaj Chan K'awiil II.<ref name=":1" /> [[Río Azul]], sit żgħir madwar 100 kilometru (62 mil) fil-Grigal ta' Tikal, inħakem minn Tikal matul ir-renju ta' Yax Nuun Ayiin I. Is-sit sar qisu tarka ta' Tikal u kien jiddefendiha mill-bliet ostili iktar lejn it-Tramuntana, u sar kollegament kummerċjali mal-[[Baħar Karibew|Karibew]].<ref>Drew 1999, pp. 201-202.</ref> Għalkemm il-mexxejja l-ġodda ta' Tikal kienu barranin, id-dixxendenti tagħhom malajr saru midħla tal-Maja. Tikal saret l-alleat u l-imsieħeb kummerċjali ewlieni ta' Teotihuacan fl-artijiet baxxi tal-Maja. Wara li nħakmet minn Teotihuacan, Tikal malajr iddominat ir-reġjun ta' Peten fit-Tramuntana u fil-Lvant. Uaxactun, flimkien ma' rħula żgħar oħra fir-reġjun, ġew assorbiti fir-renju ta' Tikal. Siti oħra, bħal [[Bejucal]] u [[Motul de San José]] ħdejn il-Lag ta' Petén Itzá saru vassalli tal-ġar iktar setgħan tagħhom lejn it-Tramuntana. Sa nofs is-seklu 5 Tikal kellha territorju ewlieni ta' mill-inqas 25 kilometru (16-il mil) f'kull direzzjoni. Għall-ħabta tas-seklu 5 inbniet sistema impressjonanti ta' fortifikazzjonijiet b'fosos u bi ħniedaq tul il-periferija tat-Tramuntana ta' Tikal, flimkien mad-difiżi naturali pprovduti minn żoni kbar ta' artijiet bassasa fil-Lvant u fil-Punent tal-belt. X'aktarx li nbnew ukoll fortifikazzjonijiet oħra lejn in-Nofsinhar. Dawn id-difiżi pproteġew lill-popolazzjoni ewlenija u r-riżorsi agrikoli ta' Tikal, f'erja ta' madwar 120 kilometru kwadru (46 mil kwadru). Riċerka reċenti tissuġġerixxi li l-ħniedaq kienu jintużaw bħala sistema ta' ġbir tal-ilma iktar milli għad-difiża.<ref>Silverstein 2009.</ref> ==== Tikal u Copán ==== Fis-seklu 5 il-poter tal-belt kien iwassal saħansitra sa Copán fin-Nofsinhar, u l-fundatur tagħha, K'inich Yax K'uk' Mo', kellu rabtiet ċari ma' Tikal. Copán stess ma kinitx f'reġjun etniku tal-Maja u l-istabbiliment tad-dinastija ta' Copán x'aktarx li kienet tinvolvi l-intervent dirett ta' Tikal.<ref>Wyllys Andrews & Fash 2005, p. 407.</ref> K'inich Yax K'uk' Mo' wasal f'Copán f'Diċembru 426 u mill-analiżi tal-għadam tiegħu nafu li qatta' tfulitu u żgħożitu f'Tikal.<ref>Fash & Agurcia Fasquelle 2005, p. 26.</ref> Individwu magħruf bħala Ajaw K'uk' Mo' (jew is-Sinjur K'uk' Mo') jissemma f'test bikri f'Tikal u jaf kien l-istess persuna.<ref>Looper 2003, p. 37.</ref> Il-qabar tiegħu kellu karatteristiċi ta' Teotihuacan u iktar 'il quddiem ġie mpinġi bl-ilbies tal-ġellieda ta' Teotihuacan. Kitbiet ġeroglifiċi jirreferu għalih bħala s-"Sinjur tal-Punent", l-istess bħal Siyah K'ak'. Fl-istess żmien, fl-aħħar tal-426, Copán stabbiliet is-sit ta' [[Quiriguá]] fil-qrib, possibbilment sponsorjata minn Tikal stess. L-istabbiliment ta' dawn iż-żewġ ċentri jaf kien parti minn sforz biex tiġi imposta l-awtorità ta' Tikal fuq il-parti tax-Xlokk tar-reġjun tal-Maja.<ref>Looper 2003, p. 38.</ref> L-interazzjoni bejn dawn is-siti u Tikal kienet waħda intensiva matul it-tliet sekli ta' wara.<ref>Looper 1999, p. 263.</ref> Rivalità twila bejn Tikal u Calakmul bdiet fis-seklu 6, u kull waħda miż-żewġt ibliet iffurmat in-network tagħha ta' alleanzi ostili għal xulxin, u dan x'aktarx wassal għal gwerra twila bejn iż-żewġ superpotenzi tal-Maja. Ir-rejiet ta' dawn iż-żewġ bliet kapitali adottaw it-titlu ta' ''kaloomte''', terminu li ġiex tradott b'mod preċiż iżda li jimplika xi ħaġa bħal "re għoli".<ref>Webster 2002, pp. 168-169.</ref> Fil-bidu tas-seklu 6 laħqet reġina oħra bħala mexxejja tal-belt, magħrufa bħala s-"Sinjura ta' Tikal", li x'aktarx kienet bint Chak Tok Ich'aak II. Milli jidher qatt ma mexxiet waħedha, iżda dejjem kellha magħha mexxejja rġiel. L-ewwel wieħed minnhom kien Kaloomte' B'alam, li milli jidher kellu karriera twila bħala ġeneral f'Tikal qabel ma sar mexxej mar-reġina u fid-19-il post fis-sekwenza dinastika. Is-Sinjura ta' Tikal stess ma ġietx magħduda fis-sekwenza dinastika numerika. Iktar 'il quddiem x'aktarx li ngħaqad magħha bħala mexxej is-Sinjur "Difer ta' [[Għasfur]]", li jingħad li kien l-20 mexxej.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, pp. 38-39.</ref> === Klassika Aħħarija === ==== Pawża fil-kontinwità tal-poter ta' Tikal ==== [[Stampa:Tikal-Plaza-And-North-Acropolis.jpg|daqsminuri|280x280px|Il-pjazza prinċipali matul iċ-ċelebrazzjonijiet tas-solstizju tax-xitwa]] F'nofs is-seklu 6, milli jidher Caracol saret alleata ta' Calakmul u għelbu lil Tikal, u b'hekk temmew il-perjodu Klassiku Bikri.<ref>Miller 1999, p. 89.</ref> Din il-pawża fil-kontinwità tal-poter ta' Tikal x'aktarx li seħħet bejn l-aħħar tas-seklu 6 u l-aħħar tas-seklu 7 fejn kien hemm qabża fil-kitba tal-kitbiet imnaqqxa u fil-kostruzzjoni fuq skala kbira f'Tikal. Fl-aħħar nofs tas-seklu 6 W.K., il-belt għaddiet minn kriżi kbira, fejn ma tħejjiet l-ebda stele ġdida u fejn kien hemm mutilazzjoni mifruxa tal-iskulturi pubbliċi.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 94.</ref> Din il-pawża fl-attività kontinwa ta' Tikal kienet misteru għal żmien twil, iżda mbagħad ġew iddeċifrati epigrafi oħra li identifikaw li dak il-perjodu seħħ wara t-telfa komprensiva li ġarrbet Tikal kontra l-alleanza ta' Calakmul u ta' Caracol fil-562, telfa li milli jidher irriżultat fil-qbid u fis-sagrifiċċju tar-re ta' Tikal. L-Artal 21 f'Caracol, ħafna minnu miekul mill-elementi, jiddeskrivi kif Tikal ġarrbet din it-telfa diżastruża fi gwerra maġġuri li seħħet f'April 562.<ref>Historical Dictionary of Mesoamerica by Walter Robert Thurmond Witschey and Clifford T. Brown, p. 313.</ref> Milli jidher Caracol alleat ruħha ma' Calakmul fil-kunflitt usa' bejn il-belt u Tikal, u t-telfa ta' Tikal kellha impatt kbir għal żmien twil fuq il-belt. Ir-rikkezzi ta' Tikal ma ġewx misruqa iżda l-poter u l-influwenza li kellha ntilfu.<ref>Webster 2002, pp. 192-193.</ref> Wara r-rebħa kbira tagħha, Caracol kibret malajr u parti mill-popolazzjoni ta' Tikal jaf ġiet rilokata hemmhekk. Matul il-pawża fil-kontinwità tal-poter ta' Tikal, mill-inqas mexxej wieħed ta' Tikal fittex refuġju ma' Janaab' Pakal ta' Palenque, vittma ieħor ta' Calakmul.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 193.</ref> Calakmul stagħnat matul il-pawża twila fil-kontinwità tal-poter ta' Tikal.<ref name=":2">Webster 2002, p. 194.</ref> Din il-pawża serviet bħala markatur li l-arkeologi jużaw biex jiddistingwu bejn il-perjodu Klassiku tal-kronoloġija Mesoamerikana u l-perjodu Klassiku Bikri u Aħħari.<ref>Miller u Taube 1993, p. 20.</ref> ==== Tikal u Dos Pilas ==== Fis-629 Tikal stabbiliet lil [[Dos Pilas]], xi 110 kilometri (68 mil) fil-Lbiċ, bħala stazzjonament militari sabiex tikkontrolla l-kummerċ tul ix-xmara [[Pasión]].<ref>Salisbury et al. 2002, p. 1.</ref> B'alaj Chan K'awiil tela' fuq it-tron tal-istazzjonament il-ġdid meta kellu erba' snin, fis-635. Meta kiber, għal bosta snin serva bħala vassall leali u ġġieled għal ħuh, ir-re ta' Tikal.<ref>Salisbury et al. 2002, pp. 2-3.</ref> Bejn wieħed u ieħor għoxrin sena wara, Dos Pilas ġie attakkat minn Calakmul u ġarrab telfa kbira. B'alaj Chan K'awiil inqabad mir-re ta' Calakmul iżda, minflok ġie ssagrifikat, reġa' ngħata t-tron bħala vassall tal-eks għadu tiegħu.<ref>Salisbury et al. 2002, p. 2.</ref> Huwa attakka lil Tikal fis-657, u ġiegħel lil Nuun Ujol Chaak, ir-re ta' Tikal ta' dak iż-żmien, jabbanduna l-belt temporanjament. L-ewwel żewġ mexxejja ta' Dos Pilas komplew jużaw il-ġeroglifiċi emblematiċi ta' Mutal li kienu ta' Tikal, u x'aktarx li ħassew li kienu leġittimi biex jieħdu t-tron ta' Tikal stess. Għall-istess raġuni, B'alaj Chan K'awiil ma sarx il-mexxej il-ġdid ta' Tikal; u minflok baqa' f'Dos Pilas. Tikal wettqet kontroattakk kontra Dos Pilas fis-672, u wasslet biex B'alaj Chan K'awiil jaħrab f'eżilju li dam ħames snin.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 276.</ref> Calakmul ipprovat tiċċirkonda lil Tikal fi ħdan żona ddominata mill-alleati tagħha, fosthom El Peru, Dos Pilas, u Caracol.<ref>Hammond 2000, p. 220.</ref> Fis-682, Jasaw Chan K'awiil I bena l-ewwel [[monument]] datat f'Tikal f'120 sena u ħa t-titlu ta' ''kaloomte''', u b'hekk temm din il-pawża fil-poter. Huwa ta bidu għal programm ġdid ta' kostruzzjoni u ħadha qatta' bla ħabel kontra Calakmul sakemm fis-695, irnexxielu jaqbad il-mexxej tal-għadu u b'hekk xeħet lill-istat għadu tiegħu f'perjodu twil ta' deklin li qatt ma rkupra minnu għalkollox. Wara dan l-avveniment, Calakmul qatt ma reġgħet bniet monument biex tiċċelebra xi rebħa militari.<ref name=":2" /> ==== Tikal wara Teotihuacan ==== Sas-seklu 7, ma kien hemm l-ebda preżenza attiva ta' Teotihuacan f'xi sit tal-Maja u ċ-ċentru ta' Teotihuacan inqered sas-sena 700. Anke wara dan il-perjodu, l-ilbies militari formali mnaqqax jew impinġi fuq il-monumenti kellu stil ta' Teotihuacan.<ref>Miller 1999, p. 105.</ref> Jasaw Chan K'awiil I u l-eredi tiegħu Yik'in Chan K'awiil komplew l-ostilitajiet kontra Calakmul u l-alleati tagħha u imponew kontroll reġjonali rigoruż fuq iż-żona madwar Tikal, estiża saħansitra sat-territorju madwar il-Lag ta' Petén Itzá. Dan iż-żewġ mexxejja kienu responsabbli għall-biċċa l-kbira tal-arkitettura impressjonanti viżibbli llum il-ġurnata.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 263.</ref> Fis-738, Quiriguá, li kienet vassall ta' Copán, l-alleat ewlieni ta' Tikal fin-Nofsinhar, qalbet l-alleanza tagħha favur Calakmul, rebħet kontra Copán u kisbet l-indipendenza tagħha stess. Milli jidher dan kien sforz konxju min-naħa ta' Calakmul sabiex twassal għall-qerda tal-alleati ta' Tikal fin-Nofsinhar.<ref>Looper 2003, p. 79.</ref> Dan biddel il-bilanċ fil-poter taż-żona tan-Nofsinhar tal-Maja u wassal għal deklin rapidu ta' Copán.<ref>Wyllys Andrews & Fash 2005, p. 408.</ref> Fis-seklu 8, il-mexxejja ta' Tikal ġabru xi monumenti mill-belt u tellgħuhom quddiem l-Akropoli tat-Tramuntana. Sal-aħħar tas-seklu 8 u l-bidu tas-seklu 9, l-attività f'Tikal majnat. Xorta waħda nbniet arkitettura impressjonanti iżda ftit kitbiet ġeroglifiċi jirreferi għall-mexxejja li ġew wara.<ref>Miller 1999, p. 33.</ref> === Klassika Terminali === [[Stampa:Tikal12.jpg|daqsminuri|259x259px|Veduta tal-qalba ta' Tikal min-Nofsinhar, bit-Tempju I fin-nofs, l-Akropolit tat-Tramuntana fuq ix-xellug u l-Akropoli Ċentrali fuq il-lemin.]] Sas-seklu 9, il-kriżi tal-waqgħa tal-Maja tal-perjodu Klassiku kienet qed taħkem ir-reġjun kollu, il-popolazzjonijiet bdew jonqsu drastikament, u belt wara l-oħra bdiet tispiċċa fix-xejn.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, pp. 52-53.</ref> Kulma jmur, gwerer endemiċi fir-reġjun tal-Maja wasslu biex il-popolazzjoni ta' Tikal tkun ikkonċentrata b'mod massiċċ qrib il-belt stess, u b'hekk ġie aċċellerat l-użu tal-agrikoltura intensiva li kkontribwixxa għad-deklin ambjentali korrispondenti.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 340.</ref> Il-kostruzzjoni kompliet fil-bidu tas-seklu, bil-bini tat-Tempju 3, l-aħħar tal-piramidi maġġuri tal-belt, kif ukoll il-bini ta' monumenti li mmarkaw il-waslu tad-19-il K'atun fit-810.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, p. 52.</ref> Il-bidu tal-għaxar Bak'tun fit-830 sar bla ċelebrazzjonijiet, u jimmarka l-bidu ta' pawża ta' 60 sena fil-kontinwità tal-attività f'Tikal, li probabbilment irriżultat mill-kollass tal-kontrol ċentrali fil-belt. Matul din il-pawża, siti anċillari li tradizzjonalment kienu taħt il-kontroll ta' Tikal bdew jibnu l-monumenti tagħhom stess biex jiċċelebraw lill-mexxejja lokali u xorta waħda użaw il-glifiċi emblematiċi ta' Mutal.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, p. 53.</ref> Kulma jmur Tikal milli jidher ma kellhiex iktar l-awtorità jew il-poter biex twaqqaf ħesrem dawn it-tentattivi ta' indipendenza. Fit-849, Jewel K'awiil jissemma fuq stele f'[[Seibal]] u jingħad li żar il-belt bħala s-Sinjur Divin ta' Tikal għalkemm ma ġie rreġistrat imkien iktar u l-poter li xi darba kellha Tikal kien kważi spiċċa fix-xejn. Sa dak iż-żmien is-siti ta' [[Ixlu]] u [[Jimbal]] kienu wirtu l-glifiċi emblematiċi ta' Mutal li fl-imgħoddi kien esklużivi.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, p. 53.</ref> [[Stampa:EdShookCropped.jpg|xellug|daqsminuri|L-arkeologu [[Edwin M. Shook]], direttur fuq il-post tal-Proġett ta' Tikal; Shook kien strumentali wkoll biex jiġi stabbilit l-ewwel Park Nazzjonali tal-Gwatemala f'Tikal.]] Meta Tikal u l-periferija tagħha laħqu l-ogħla popolazzjoni, iż-żona batiet minħabba d-deforestazzjoni, l-erożjoni u t-telf tan-nutrijenti, li ġew segwiti minn deklin rapidu fil-livelli tal-popolazzjoni. Analiżi reċenti tindika wkoll li l-għejun tal-ilma ħelu tal-belt saru kkontaminati ferm bil-[[Merkurju (kimika)|merkurju]], bil-fosfati u biċ-ċjanobatterji, u dan wassal biex jakkumulaw it-tossini.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.sustainability-times.com/environmental-protection/the-mayan-city-of-tikal-succumbed-to-water-pollution-experts-say/|titlu=The Mayan city of Tikal succumbed to 'water pollution'|kunjom=Cross|isem=Daniel T.|data=2020-07-03|lingwa=en-GB|data-aċċess=2022-08-15}}</ref> Tikal u l-inħawi tal-madwar milli jidher tilfu l-biċċa l-kbira tal-popolazzjoni tagħhom bejn it-830 u d-950, u magħha l-awtorità ċentrali wkoll. Ma tantx hemm evidenza minn Tikal li l-belt kienet affettwata direttament minn xi gwerer endemiċi li affettwaw partijiet mir-reġjun tal-Maja matul il-perjodu Klassiku Terminali, għalkemm influss ta' refuġjati mir-reġjun ta' Petexbatún jaf żied il-problemi li rriżultaw mir-riżorsi ambjentali li diġà kienu minimi.<ref name=":3">Webster 2002, p. 273.</ref> Fl-aħħar nofs tas-seklu 9 kien hemm tentattiv biex il-poter irjali fil-belt imċekkna ferm ta' Tikal jerġa' jingħata l-ħajja, kif joħroġ fid-dieher minn stele li ttellgħet fil-Pjazza l-Kbira minn Jasaw Chan K'awiil II fit-869. Dan kien l-aħħar monument li nbena jew li ttella' f'Tikal qabel ma l-belt sfat fix-xejn. L-eks siti anċillari ta' Tikal, bħal Jimbal u Uaxactun, ma tantx damu wisq iktar, u tellgħu l-aħħar monumenti tagħhom fit-889. Sal-aħħar tas-seklu 9, il-maġġoranza l-kbira tal-popolazzjoni ta' Tikal telqet mill-belt, il-palazzi rjali tagħha ġew okkupati b'mod abbużiv u bdew jinbnew abitazzjonijiet sempliċi bil-ħuxlief fil-pjazez ċerimonjali tal-belt. Dawk li kienu qed jokkupaw il-binjiet b'mod abbużiv imblukkaw xi daħliet fil-kmamar li kienu qed jokkupaw fl-istrutturi monumentali tas-sit u ħallew bosta skart, li kien jinkludi taħlita ta' skart domestiku u oġġetti mhux utilitarji bħal strumenti mużikali. Dawn l-abitanti reġgħu użaw il-monumenti bikrin għall-attivitajiet ritwali tagħhom stess, ferm differenti minn dawk tad-dinastija rjali li kienet bniethom. Xi monumenti ġew ivvandalizzati u wħud tressqu f'postijiet ġodda. Qabel l-abbandun finali tas-sit, kull rispett għall-mexxejja antiki kien għeb, u l-oqbra tal-Akropoli tat-Tramuntana ġew esplorati għall-ġada, filwaqt li r-rikkezzi tal-oqbra iktar aċċessibbli ġew misruqa. Wara d-950, Tikal kienet kważi vojta għalkollox, għalkemm jaf kien għad fadal xi popolazzjoni żgħira f'xi għorfiet qalb il-fdalijiet. Anke dawn l-abitanti finali abbandunaw il-belt fis-sekli 10 u 11 u l-foresta tropikali għattiet il-fdalijiet għall-elf sena ta' wara. Ftit mill-popolazzjoni ta' Tikal jaf marret tgħix fir-reġjun tal-Lagi ta' Peten, li baqgħu b'popolazzjoni kbira minkejja t-tnaqqis fil-livelli tal-popolazzjoni fl-ewwel nofs tas-seklu 9.<ref name=":3" /> L-iżjed kawża probabbli tal-waqgħa ta' Tikal hija l-popolazzjoni eċċessiva u l-falliment agrarju. Il-waqgħa ta' Tikal kienet daqqa ta' ħarta għall-qalba taċ-ċivilizzazzjoni tal-Maja Klassika, peress li l-belt kienet minn ta' quddiem fil-ħajja tal-qorti, fl-[[arti]] u fl-arkitettura għal iżjed minn elf sena, b'dinastija mexxejja antika.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 274.</ref> Madankollu, riċerka ġdida rigward elementi paleoambjentali mis-sistema ta' ġibjuni ta' Tikal tissuġġerixxi li nixfa meteoroloġika jaf wasslet għall-abbandun ta' Tikal<ref>{{Ċita teżi|kunjom1=Tamberino|isem1=Anthony T.|data=2013|titlu=Ancient Maya Reservoirs and their Role in the Abandonment of Tikal, Guatemala: A Multi-Proxy Investigation of Solid Sediment Cores.|url=https://etd.ohiolink.edu/apexprod/rws_olink/r/1501/10?clear=10&p10_accession_num=ucin1377866689|data-aċċess=2022-08-15|lingwa=en}}</ref>, minħabba l-kontaminazzjoni ta' xi ġibjuni qrib it-tempju u l-palazz bl-algi, filwaqt li l-ilma minn ġibjuni oħra baqa' tajjeb għax-xorb. Il-binjiet ġew impittra biċ-ċinabru b'kontenut tal-merkurju, li jaf inġarr mal-ilma tax-xita u niġġes xi ġibjuni. Ix-xogħlijiet ta' Kohler u kollegi tiegħu wrew li din il-belt kienet laħqet livell mhux sostenibbli ta' inugwaljanzi lejn l-aħħar tagħha.<ref>Lentz, David L.; Hamilton, Trinity L.; Dunning, Nicholas P.; Scarborough, Vernon L.; Luxton, Todd P.; Vonderheide, Anne; Tepe, Eric J.; Perfetta, Cory J.; Brunemann, James; Grazioso, Liwy; Valdez, Fred; Tankersley, Kenneth B.; Weiss, Alison A. (2020). "Molecular genetic and geochemical assays reveal severe contamination of drinking water reservoirs at the ancient Maya city of Tikal". ''Scientific Reports''. '''10''' (1): 10316.</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://phys.org/news/2020-06-ancient-maya-reservoirs-toxic-pollution.html|titlu=Ancient Maya reservoirs contained toxic pollution: study|kunjom=Miller|isem=Michael|kunjom2=Cincinnati|isem2=University of|sit=phys.org|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2022-08-15}}</ref><ref>Kohler et al. (2017) Greater post-Neolithic wealth disparities in Eurasia than in North America and Mesoamerica. Nature (551) : 619–622.</ref> === Moderna === [[Stampa:Tikal1882.jpeg|daqsminuri|248x248px|Wieħed mir-ritratti ta' Tikal ta' Maudsley tal-1882, li ttieħed wara t-tneħħija tal-veġetazzjoni.]] Fl-1525, il-konkwistatur [[Spanja|Spanjol]] [[Hernán Cortés]] għadda ftit kilometri 'l bogħod mill-fdalijiet ta' Tikal iżda ma semmihomx fl-ittri tiegħu.<ref>Webster 2002, pp. 83-84.</ref> Wara li l-patri Spanjol [[Andrés de Avendaño]] ntilef fil-foresti ta' Petén fil-bidu tal-1696, huwa ddeskriva fdal li jaf kien dak ta' Tikal.<ref>Jones 1998, pp. 218-219. Means 1917, p. 167.</ref> Bħalma sikwit jiġri fil-każ ta' fdalijiet antiki kbar, l-għarfien dwar is-sit qatt ma jkun intilef għalkollox fir-reġjun. Milli jidher il-poplu lokali qatt ma nesa l-belt ta' Tikal u ggwidaw spedizzjonijiet tal-Gwatemala lejn il-fdalijiet fis-snin 50 tas-seklu 19. Xi rakkonti ta' rakkonti (jew saħansitra ta' rakkonti oħra) dwar Tikal ġew stampati mill-bidu tas-[[seklu 17]], u komplew permezz tal-kitbiet ta' [[John Lloyd Stephens]] fil-bidu tas-seklu 19 (Stephens u l-illustratur [[Frederick Catherwood]] semgħu xnigħat ta' belt mitlufa, bil-qċaċet ta' binjiet bojod ħerġin mill-kanopew tal-ġungla, matul il-vjaġġi tagħhom fir-reġjun fl-1839-1840). Madankollu, minħabba kemm kien remot is-sit mill-bliet moderni, l-ebda esploratur ma żar Tikal qabel [[Modesto Méndez]] u [[Ambrosio Tut]] fl-1848, rispettivament il-kummissarju u l-gvernatur ta' Petén. L-artist Eusebio Lara akkumpanjahom u r-rakkont tagħhom ġie ppubblikat fil-[[Ġermanja]] fl-1853. Saru diversi spedizzjonijiet oħra li komplew jinvestigaw, jimmappjaw u jieħdu ritratti ta' Tikal fis-seklu 19 (inkluż dik ta' Alfred P. Maudslay fl-1881-1882) u fil-bidu tas-seklu 20. Xi arkeologi pijunieri bdew jnaddfu, jimmappjaw u jirreġistraw il-fdalijiet fis-snin 80 tas-seklu 19.<ref>Kelly 1996, p. 139.</ref> [[Stampa:Tikal (Eusebio Lara).jpg|daqsminuri|Tpinġija ta' Tikal li saret minn Eusebio Lara, viżitatur ta' nofs is-seklu 19.]] Fl-1951 inbena mitjar żgħir fil-fdalijiet, li qabel setgħu jintlaħqu biss wara diversi jiem ta' vjaġġar bil-mixi jew bil-ħmar minn ġol-ġungla. Fl-1956 il-Proġett ta' Tikal beda jimmappja l-belt fuq skala li qabel ma kinitx prevista fir-reġjun tal-Maja.<ref>Adams 2000, p. 19.</ref> Mill-1956 sal-1970 twettqu skavi arkeoloġiċi maġġuri mill-Proġett ta' Tikal tal-Università ta' [[Pennsylvania]].<ref>Adams 2000, p. 30.</ref> Dawn immappjaw il-biċċa l-kbira tas-sit u rrestawrar ħafna mill-istrutturi. Skavi mmexxija minn Edwin M. Shook u wara minn William Coe fl-università investigaw l-Akropoli tat-Tramuntana u l-Pjazza Ċentrali mill-1957 sal-1969.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, p. 43.</ref> Il-Proġett ta' Tikal irreġistra iżjed minn 200 monument fis-sit. Fl-1979, il-gvern tal-Gwatemala beda proġett arkeoloġiku ieħor f'Tikal li baqa' għaddej sal-1984. Ir-reġista [[George Lucas]] uża lil Tikal biex jiġbed il-[[qamar]] fittizju Yavin 4 fl-ewwel film ta' ''[[Star Wars]]'', l-''Episodju IV: A New Hope'', li nħareġ fl-1977.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 29.</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.starwars.com/|titlu=StarWars.com {{!}} The Official Star Wars Website|sit=StarWars.com|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2022-08-15}}</ref> It-Tempju I ta' Tikal deher fuq in-naħa ta' wara tal-karta tal-flus ta' 50 centavo.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://en.numista.com/catalogue/note204611.html|titlu=0.50 Quetzal, Guatemala|sit=en.numista.com|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2022-08-15}}</ref> Eon Productions użaw is-sit għall-ġbid tal-film ta' [[James Bond]] ''Moonraker''.<ref>''Moonraker Special Edition, Region 2 booklet''. United Artists. 2000.</ref> Is-sit ta' Tikal issa sar attrazzjoni turistika kbira mdawwar bil-park nazzjonali tiegħu stess. F'Tikal inbena [[mużew]] li tlesta fl-1964.<ref>Coe 1967, 1988, p. 10.</ref> == Deskrizzjoni tas-sit == Tikal has been partially restored by the University of Pennsylvania and the government of Guatemala. It was one of the largest of the Classic period Maya cities and was one of the largest cities in the Americas. The architecture of the ancient city is built from limestone and includes the remains of temples that tower over 70 meters (230 ft) high, large royal palaces, in addition to a number of smaller pyramids, palaces, residences, administrative buildings, platforms and inscribed stone monuments. There is even a building which seemed to have been a jail, originally with wooden bars across the windows and doors. There are also seven courts for playing the Mesoamerican ballgame, including a set of 3 in the Seven Temples Plaza, a unique feature in Mesoamerica. The limestone used for construction was local and quarried on-site. The depressions formed by the extraction of stone for building were plastered to waterproof them and were used as reservoirs, together with some waterproofed natural depressions. The main plazas were surfaced with stucco and laid at a gradient that channelled rainfall into a system of canals that fed the reservoirs. The residential area of Tikal covers an estimated 60 square kilometers (23 sq mi), much of which has not yet been cleared, mapped, or excavated. The 16 square kilometers (6.2 sq mi) area around the site core has been intensively mapped; it may have enclosed an area of some 125 square kilometers (48 sq mi) (see below). A huge set of earthworks discovered by Dennis E. Puleston and Donald Callender in the 1960s rings Tikal with a 6-meter (20 ft) wide trench behind a rampart. Recently, a project exploring the defensive earthworks has shown that the scale of the earthworks is highly variable and that in many places it is inconsequential as a defensive feature. In addition, some parts of the earthwork were integrated into a canal system. The earthwork of Tikal varies significantly in coverage from what was originally proposed and it is much more complex and multifaceted than originally thought. === Toroq === By the Late Classic, a network of ''sacbeob'' (causeways) linked various parts of the city, running for several kilometers through its urban core. These linked the Great Plaza with Temple 4 (located about 750 meters (2,460 feet) to the west) and the Temple of the Inscriptions (about 1 kilometer (0.62 mi) to the southeast). These broad causeways were built of packed and plastered limestone and have been named after early explorers and archeologists; the Maler, Maudslay, Tozzer and Méndez causeways. They assisted the passage of everyday traffic during the rain season and also served as dams. The '''Maler Causeway''' runs north from behind Temple I to Group H. A large bas-relief is carved onto limestone bedrock upon the course of the causeway just south of Group H. It depicts two bound captives and dates to the Late Classic. The '''Maudsley Causeway''' runs 0.8 kilometers (0.50 mi) northeast from Temple IV to Group H. The '''Mendez Causeway''' runs southeast from the East Plaza to Temple VI, a distance of about 1.3 kilometers (0.81 mi). The '''Tozzer Causeway''' runs west from the Great Plaza to Temple IV. === Gruppi arkitettoniċi === The '''Great Plaza''' lies at the core of the site; it is flanked on the east and west sides by two great temple-pyramids. On the north side it is bordered by the North Acropolis and on the south by the Central Acropolis. The '''Central Acropolis''' is a palace complex just south of the Great Plaza. The '''North Acropolis''', together with the Great Plaza immediately to the south, is one of the most studied architectural groups in the Maya area; the Tikal Project excavated a massive trench across the complex, thoroughly investigating its construction history. It is a complex group with construction beginning in the Preclassic Period, around 350 BC. It developed into a funerary complex for the ruling dynasty of the Classic Period, with each additional royal burial adding new temples on top of the older structures. After AD 400 a row of tall pyramids was added to the earlier Northern Platform, which measured 100 by 80 meters (330 by 260 ft), gradually hiding it from view. Eight temple pyramids were built in the 6th century AD, each of them had an elaborate roofcomb and a stairway flanked by masks of the gods. By the 9th century AD, 43 stelae and 30 altars had been erected in the North Acropolis; 18 of these monuments were carved with hieroglyphic texts and royal portraits. The North Acropolis continued to receive burials into the Postclassic Period. The '''South Acropolis''' is found next to Temple V. It was built upon a large basal platform that covers an area of more than 20,000 square meters (220,000 sq ft). The '''Plaza of the Seven Temples''' is to the west of the South Acropolis. It is bordered on the east side by a row of nearly identical temples, by palaces on the south and west sides and by an unusual triple ballcourt on the north side. The '''Mundo Perdido''' is to the west of the Plaza of the Seven Temples. It is the largest ceremonial complex dating from the Preclassic period at Tikal. The complex was organized as a large E-Group consisting of a pyramid aligned with a platform to the east that supported three temples. The Mundo Perdido complex was rebuilt many times over the course of its history. By AD 250–300 its architectural style was influenced by the great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico, including the use of the ''talud-tablero'' form. During the Early Classic period (c. 250–600) the Mundo Perdido became one of the twin foci of the city, the other being the North Acropolis. From AD 250 to 378 it may have served as the royal necropolis. The Mundo Perdido complex was given its name by the archeologists of the University of Pennsylvania; it is centered upon the Lost World Pyramid and a small platform to the west of it. To the south of Mundo Perdido, recent 2021 excavations have revealed a one-third size replication of La Ciudadela, or The Citadel, in Teotihuacan. This area may have been used as a diplomatic headquarters and as an effort to further stamp Teotihuacan culture upon the residents of Tikal. '''Group G''' lies just south of the Mendez Causeway. The complex dates to the Late Classic and consists of palace-type structures and is one of the largest groups of its type at Tikal. It has two stories but most of the rooms are on the lower floor, a total of 29 vaulted chambers. The remains of two further chambers belong to the upper story. One of the entrances to the group was framed by a gigantic mask. '''Group H''' is centered on a large plaza to the north of the Great Plaza. It is bordered by temples dating to the Late Classic. There are nine '''Twin-Pyramid Complexes''' at Tikal, one of which was completely dismantled in ancient times and some others were partly destroyed. They vary in size but consist of two pyramids facing each other on an east–west axis. These pyramids are flat-topped and have stairways on all four sides. A row of plain stelae is placed immediately to the west of the eastern pyramid and to the north of the pyramids. Lying roughly equidistant from them, there is usually a sculpted stela and altar pair. On the south side of these complexes there is a long vaulted building containing a single room with nine doorways. The entire complex was built at once and these complexes were built at 20-year (or ''k'atun'') intervals during the Late Classic. The first twin pyramid complex was built in the early 6th century in the East Plaza. It was once thought that these complexes were unique to Tikal but rare examples have now been found at other sites, such as Yaxha and Ixlu, and they may reflect the extent of Tikal's political dominance in the Late Classic. '''Group Q''' is a twin-pyramid complex, and is one of the largest at Tikal. It was built by Yax Nuun Ayiin II in 771 in order to mark the end of the 17th K'atun. Most of it has been restored and its monuments have been re-erected. '''Group R''' is another twin-pyramid complex, dated to 790. It is close to the Maler Causeway. === Strutturi === There are thousands of ancient structures at Tikal and only a fraction of these have been excavated, after decades of archeological work. The most prominent surviving buildings include six very large pyramids, labelled Temples I – VI, each of which support a temple structure on their summits. Some of these pyramids are over 60 meters (200 feet) high. They were numbered sequentially during the early survey of the site. It is estimated that each of these major temples could have been built in as little as two years. '''Temple I''' (also known as the ''Temple of Ah Cacao'' or ''Temple of the Great Jaguar'') is a funerary pyramid dedicated to Jasaw Chan K'awil, who was entombed in the structure in AD 734, the pyramid was completed around 740–750. The temple rises 47 meters (154 ft) high. The massive roofcomb that topped the temple was originally decorated with a giant sculpture of the enthroned king, although little of this decoration survives. The tomb of the king was discovered by Aubrey Trik of the University of Pennsylvania in 1962. Among items recovered from the Late Classic tomb were a large collection of inscribed human and animal bone tubes and strips with sophisticated scenes depicting deities and people, finely carved and rubbed with vermilion, as well as jade and shell ornaments and ceramic vessels filled with offerings of food and drink. The shrine at the summit of the pyramid has three chambers, each behind the next, with the doorways spanned by wooden lintels fashioned from multiple beams. The outermost lintel is plain but the two inner lintels were carved, some of the beams were removed in the 19th century and their location is unknown, while others were taken to museums in Europe. '''Temple II''' (also known as the ''Temple of the Mask'') it was built around AD 700 and stands 38 meters (125 ft) high. Like other major temples at Tikal, the summit shrine had three consecutive chambers with the doorways spanned by wooden lintels, only the middle of which was carved. The temple was dedicated to the wife of Jasaw Chan K'awil, although no tomb was found. The queen's portrait was carved into the lintel spanning the doorway of the summit shrine. One of the beams from this lintel is now in the American Museum of Natural History in New York City. '''Temple III''' (also known as the ''Temple of the Jaguar Priest'') was the last of the great pyramids to be built at Tikal. It stood 55 meters (180 ft) tall and contained an elaborately sculpted but damaged roof lintel, possibly showing Dark Sun engaged in a ritual dance around AD 810. The temple shrine possesses two chambers. '''Temple IV''' is the tallest temple-pyramid at Tikal, measuring 70 meters (230 ft) from the plaza floor level to the top of its roof comb. Temple IV marks the reign of Yik’in Chan Kawil (Ruler B, the son of Ruler A or Jasaw Chan K'awiil I) and two carved wooden lintels over the doorway that leads into the temple on the pyramid's summit record a long count date (9.15.10.0.0) that corresponds to CE 741 (Sharer 1994:169). Temple IV is the largest pyramid built anywhere in the Maya region in the 8th century, and as it currently stands is the tallest pre-Columbian structure in the Americas although the Pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacan may originally have been taller, as may have been one of the structures at El Mirador. '''Temple V''' stands south of the Central Acropolis and is the mortuary pyramid of an as yet unidentified ruler. The temple stands 57 meters (187 ft) high, making it the second tallest structure at Tikal – only Temple IV is taller. The temple has been dated to about AD 700, in the Late Classic period, via radiocarbon analysis and the dating of ceramics associated with the structure places its construction during the reign of Nun Bak Chak in the second half of the 7th century. '''Temple VI''' is also known as the ''Temple of the Inscriptions'' and was dedicated in AD 766. It is notable for its 12-meter (39 ft) high roof-comb. Panels of hieroglyphs cover the back and sides of the roof-comb. The temple faces onto a plaza to the west and its front is unrestored. '''Temple 33''' was a funerary pyramid erected over the tomb of Siyaj Chan K'awiil I (known as Burial 48) in the North Acropolis. It started life in the Early Classic as a wide basal platform decorated with large stucco masks that flanked the stairway. Later in the Early Classic a new superstructure was added, with its own masks and decorated panels. During the Hiatus a third stage was built over the earlier constructions, the stairway was demolished and another royal burial, of an unidentified ruler, was set into the structure (Burial 23). While the new pyramid was being built another high ranking tomb (Burial 24) was inserted into the rubble core of the building. The pyramid was then completed, standing 33 meters (108 ft) tall. The final version of Temple 33 was completely dismantled by archeologists in 1965 in order to arrive at the earlier stages of construction. '''Structure 34''' is a pyramid in the North Acropolis that was built by Siyaj Chan K'awiil II over the tomb of his father, Yax Nuun Ayiin I. The pyramid was topped by a three chambered shrine, the rooms situated one behind the other. Detail of Teotihuacan-related imagery decorating the sloping ''talud'' sections of the ''talud-tablero'' sides of Structure 5D-43. '''Structure 5D-43''' is an unusual radial temple in the East Plaza, built over a pre-existing twin pyramid complex. It is built into the end of the East Plaza Ballcourt and possessed four entry doorways and three stairways, the fourth (south) side was too close to the Central Acropolis for a stairway on that side. The building has a ''talud-tablero'' platform profile, modified from the original style found at Teotihuacan. In fact, it has been suggested that the style of the building has closer affinities with El Tajin and Xochicalco than with Teotihuacan itself. The vertical ''tablero'' panels are set between sloping ''talud'' panels and are decorated with paired disc symbols. Large flower symbols are set into the sloping ''talud'' panels, related to the Venus and star symbols used at Teotihuacan. The roof of the structure was decorated with friezes although only fragments now remain, showing a monstrous face, perhaps that of a jaguar, with another head emerging from the mouth. The second head possesses a bifurcated tongue but is probably not that of a snake. The temple, and its associated ballcourt, probably date to the reign of Nuun Ujol Chaak or that of his son Jasaw Chan K'awiil I, in the later part of the 7th century. '''Structure 5C-49''' possesses a clear Teotihuacan-linked architectural style; it has balustrades, an architectural feature that is very rare in the Maya region, and a ''talud-tablero'' façade; it dates to the 4th century AD. It is located near to the Lost World pyramid. '''Structure 5C-53''' is a small Teotihuacan-style platform that dates to about AD 600. It had stairways on all four sides and did not possess a superstructure. The '''Lost World Pyramid''' (Structure 5C-54) is the largest structure in the Mundo Perdido complex. It lies in the southwest portion of Tikal's central core, south of Temple III and west of Temple V. It was decorated with stucco masks of the sun god and dates to the Late Preclassic; this pyramid is part of an enclosed complex of structures that remained intact and un-impacted by later building activity at Tikal. By the end of the Late Preclassic this pyramid was one of the largest structures in the Maya region. It attained its final form during the reign of Chak Tok Ich'aak in the 4th century AD, in the Early Classic, standing more than 30 meters (98 ft) high with stairways on all four sides and a flat top that possibly supported a superstructure built from perishable materials. Although the plaza later suffered significant alteration, the organization of a group of temples on the east side of this complex adheres to the layout that defines the so-called E-Groups, identified as solar observatories. '''Structure 5D-96''' is the central temple on the east side of the Plaza of the Seven Temples. It has been restored and its rear outer wall is decorated with skull-and-crossbones motifs. '''Group 6C-16''' is an elite residential complex that has been thoroughly excavated. It lies a few hundred m south of the Lost World Complex and the excavations have revealed elaborate stucco masks, ballplayer murals, relief sculptures and buildings with Teotihuacan characteristics. The '''Great Plaza Ballcourt''' is a small ballcourt that lies between Temple I and the Central Acropolis. The '''Bat Palace''' is also known as the Palace of Windows and lies to the west of Temple III. It has two storeys, with a double range of chambers on the lower storey and a single range in the upper storey, which has been restored. The palace has ancient graffiti and possesses low windows. '''Complex N''' lies to the west of the Bat Palace and Temple III. The complex dates to AD 711. In 2018, 60,000 uncharted structures were revealed by archeologists with help of Lidar. Thanks to the new findings, some archeologists believe that 7-11 million Maya people inhabited in the northern Guatemala during the late classical period from 650 to 800 A.D. Lidar digitally removed the tree canopy to reveal ancient remains and showed that Maya cities like Tikal were bigger than previously thought. The project was mapped near the Maya Biosphere Reserve in the Petén region of Guatemala. === Artali === '''Altar 5''' is carved with two nobles, one of whom is probably Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. They are performing a ritual using the bones of an important woman. Altar 5 was found in Complex N, which lies to the west of Temple III. '''Altar 8''' is sculpted with a bound captive. It was found within Complex P in Group H and is now in the Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología in Guatemala City. '''Altar 9''' is associated with Stela 21 and bears the sculpture of a bound captive. It is located in front of Temple VI. '''Altar 10''' is carved with a captive tied to a scaffold. It is in the northern enclosure of Group Q, a twin-pyramid complex and has suffered from erosion. '''Altar 35''' is a plain monument associated with Stela 43. The stela-altar pair is centrally located at the base of the stairway of Temple IV. === Lintels === The elaborately carved wooden Lintel 3 from Temple IV. It celebrates a military victory by Yik'in Chan K'awiil in 743. At Tikal, beams of sapodilla wood were placed as lintels spanning the inner doorways of temples. These are the most elaborately carved wooden lintels to have survived anywhere in the Maya region. '''Lintel 3''' from Temple IV was taken to Basel in Switzerland in the 19th century. It was in almost perfect condition and depicts Yik'in Chan K'awiil seated on a palanquin. === Steli === Stelae are carved stone shafts, often sculpted with figures and hieroglyphs. A selection of the most notable stelae at Tikal follows: '''Stela 1''' dates to the 5th century and depicts the king Siyaj Chan K'awiil II in a standing position. '''Stela 4''' is dated to AD 396, during the reign of Yax Nuun Ayiin after the intrusion of Teotihuacan in the Maya area. The stela displays a mix of Maya and Teotihuacan qualities, and deities from both cultures. It has a portrait of the king with the Underworld Jaguar God under one arm and the Mexican Tlaloc under the other. His helmet is a simplified version of the Teotihuacan War Serpent. Unusually for Maya sculpture, but typically for Teotihuacan, Yax Nuun Ayiin is depicted with a frontal face, rather than in profile. '''Stela 5''' was dedicated in 744 by Yik'in Chan K'awiil. '''Stela 6''' is a badly damaged monument dating to 514 and bears the name of the "Lady of Tikal" who celebrated the end of the 4th K'atun in that year. '''Stela 10''' is twinned with Stela 12 but is badly damaged. It described the accession of Kaloomte' B'alam in the early 6th century and earlier events in his career, including the capture of a prisoner depicted on the monument. '''Stela 11''' was the last monument ever erected at Tikal; it was dedicated in 869 by Jasaw Chan K'awiil II. '''Stela 12''' is linked to the queen known as the "Lady of Tikal" and king Kaloomte' B'alam. The queen is described as performing the year-ending rituals but the monument was dedicated in honor of the king. '''Stela 16''' was dedicated in 711, during the reign of Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. The sculpture, including a portrait of the king and a hieroglyphic text, are limited to the front face of the monument. It was found in Complex N, west of Temple III. '''Stela 18''' was one of two stelae erected by Yax Nuun Ayiin I to celebrate the ''k'atun''-ending of AD 396. It was re-erected at the base of Temple 34, his funerary shrine. '''Stela 19''' was dedicated in 790 by Yax Nuun Ayiin II. '''Stela 20''' was found in Complex P, in Group H, and was moved to the Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología in Guatemala City. '''Stela 21''' was dedicated in 736 by Yik'in Chan K'awiil. Only the bottom of the stela is intact, the rest having been mutilated in ancient times. The surviving sculpture is of fine quality, consisting of the feet of a figure and of accompanying hieroglyphic text. The stela is associated with Altar 9 and is located in front of Temple VI. '''Stela 22''' was dedicated in 771 by Yax Nuun Ayiin II in the northern enclosure of Group Q, a twin-pyramid complex. The face of the figure on the stela has been mutilated. '''Stela 23''' was broken in antiquity and was re-erected in a residential complex. The defaced portrait on the monument is that of the so-called "Lady of Tikal", a daughter of Chak Tok Ich'aak II who became queen at the age of six but never ruled in her own right, being paired with male co-rulers. It dates to the early 6th century. '''Stela 24''' was erected at the foot of Temple 3 in 810, accompanied by Altar 7. Both were broken into fragments in ancient times, although the name of Dark Sun survives on three fragments. '''Stela 26''' was found in the summit shrine of Temple 34, underneath a broken masonry altar. The monument had originally been erected at the base of the temple during the Early Classic period and was later broken, probably at the beginning of the Late Classic. Its remains were then interred within the temple shrine. '''Stela 29''' bears a Long Count (8.12.14.8.15) date equivalent to AD 292, the earliest surviving Long Count date from the Maya lowlands. The stela is also the earliest monument to bear the Tikal emblem glyph. It bears a sculpture of the king facing to the right, holding the head of an underworld jaguar god, one of the patron deities of the city. The stela was deliberately smashed during the 6th century or some time later, the upper portion was dragged away and dumped in a rubbish tip close to Temple III, to be uncovered by archeologists in 1959. '''Stela 30''' is the first surviving monument to be erected after the Hiatus. Its style and iconography is similar to that of Caracol, one of the more important of Tikal's enemies. Stela 31, with the sculpted image of Siyaj Chan K'awiil II '''Stela 31''' is the accession monument of Siyaj Chan K'awiil II, also bearing two portraits of his father, Yax Nuun Ayiin, as a youth dressed as a Teotihuacan warrior. He carries a spearthrower in one hand and bears a shield decorated with the face of Tlaloc, the Teotihuacan war god. In ancient times the sculpture was broken and the upper portion was moved to the summit of Temple 33 and ritually buried. Stela 31 has been described as the greatest Early Classic sculpture to survive at Tikal. A long hieroglyphic text is carved onto the back of the monument, the longest to survive from the Early Classic, which describes the arrival of Siyah K'ak' at El Peru and Tikal in January 378. It was also the first stela at Tikal to be carved on all four faces. '''Stela 32''' is a fragmented monument with a foreign Teotihuacan-style sculpture apparently depicting the lord of that city with the attributes of the central Mexican storm god Tlaloc, including his goggle eyes and tasselled headdress. '''Stela 39''' is a broken monument that was erected in the Lost World complex. The upper portion of the stela is missing but the lower portion shows the lower body and legs of Chak Tok Ich'aak, holding a flint axe in his left hand. He is trampling the figure of a bound, richly dressed captive. The monument is dated to AD 376. The text on the back of the monument describes a bloodletting ritual to celebrate a Katun-ending. The stela also names Chak Tok Ich'aak I's father as K'inich Muwaan Jol. '''Stela 40''' bears a portrait of Kan Chitam and dates to AD 468. '''Stela 43''' is paired with Altar 35. It is a plain monument at the base of the stairway of Temple IV. === Oqbra === A ceramic censer representing an elderly deity, found in Burial 10. '''Burial 1''' is a tomb in the Lost World complex. A fine ceramic bowl was recovered from the tomb, with the handle formed from three-dimensional head and neck of a bird emerging from the two-dimensional body painted on the lid. '''Burial 10''' is the tomb of Yax Nuun Ayiin. It is located beneath Structure 34 in the North Acropolis. The tomb contained a rich array of offerings, including ceramic vessels and food, and nine youths were sacrificed to accompany the dead king. A dog was also entombed with the deceased king. Pots in the tomb were stuccoed and painted and many demonstrated a blend of Maya and Teotihuacan styles. Among the offerings was an incense-burner in the shape of an elderly underworld god, sitting on a stool made of human bones and holding a severed head in his hands. The tomb was sealed with a corbel vault, then the pyramid was built on top. '''Burial 48''' is generally accepted as the tomb of Sihyaj Chan Kʼawiil II. It is located beneath Temple 33 in the North Acropolis. The chamber of the tomb was cut from the bedrock and contained the remains of the king himself together with those of two adolescents who had been sacrificed in order to accompany the deceased ruler. The walls of the tomb were covered with white stucco painted with hieroglyphs that included the Long Count date equivalent to 20 March 457, probably the date of either the death or interment of the king. The king's skeleton was missing its skull, its femurs and one of its hands while the skeletons of the sacrificial victims were intact. '''Burial 85''' dates to the Late Preclassic and was enclosed by a platform, with a primitive corbel vault. The tomb contained a single male skeleton, which lacked a skull and its thighbones. The dynastic founder of Tikal, Yax Ehb' Xook, has been linked to this tomb, which lies deep in the heart of the North Acropolis. The deceased had probably died in battle with his body being mutilated by his enemies before being recovered and interred by his followers. The bones were wrapped carefully in textiles to form an upright bundle. The missing head was replaced by a small greenstone mask with shell-inlaid teeth and eyes and bearing a three-pointed royal headband. This head wears an emblem of rulership on its forehead and is a rare Preclassic lowland Maya portrait of a king. Among the contents of the tomb were a stingray spine, a spondylus shell and twenty-six ceramic vessels. '''Burial 116''' is the tomb of Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. It is a large vaulted chamber deep within the pyramid, below the level of the Great Plaza. The tomb contained rich offerings of jadeite, ceramics, shell and works of art. The body of the king was covered with large quantities of jade ornaments including an enormous necklace with especially large beads, as depicted in sculpted portraits of the king. One of the outstanding pieces recovered from the tomb was an ornate jade mosaic vessel with the lid bearing a sculpted portrait of the king himself. '''Burial 195''' was flooded with mud in antiquity. This flood had covered wooden objects that had completely rotted away by the time the tomb was excavated, leaving hollows in the dried mud. Archeologists filled these hollows with stucco and thus excavated four effigies of the god K'awiil, the wooden originals long gone. '''Burial 196''' is a Late Classic royal tomb that contained a jade mosaic vessel topped with the head of the Maize God. == Biblijografija == * Adams, Richard E.W. (2000). "Introduction to a Survey of the Native Prehistoric Cultures of Mesoamerica". In Richard E.W. Adams; Murdo J. Macleod (eds.). The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas. Vol. II: Mesoamerica, part 1. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–44. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-521-35165-2</nowiki>. OCLC 33359444. * Andrews, E. Wyllys; William L. Fash (2005). "Issues in Copán Archaeology". In E. Wyllys Andrews; William L. Fash (eds.). Copán: The History of an Ancient Maya Kingdom. Santa Fe and Oxford: School of American Research Press and James Currey Ltd. pp. 395–425. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-85255-981-9</nowiki>. OCLC 56194789. * Banco de Guatemala. "Monedas" (in Spanish). Banco de Guatemala. Retrieved 13 November 2009. * Berlin, Heinrich (April 1967). "The Destruction of Structure 5D-33-1st at Tikal". American Antiquity. 32 (2): 241–242. doi:10.2307/277915. ISSN 0002-7316. JSTOR 277915. OCLC 754651089. S2CID 163207109. * Coe, Michael D. (1999). The Maya. Ancient peoples and places series (6th, fully revised and expanded ed.). London and New York: Thames & Hudson. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-500-28066-9</nowiki>. OCLC 59432778. * Coe, William R. (1988) [1967]. Tikal: Guía de las Antiguas Ruinas Mayas (in Spanish). Guatemala: Piedra Santa. <nowiki>ISBN 978-84-8377-246-1</nowiki>. * Drew, David (1999). The Lost Chronicles of the Mayan Kings. Los Angeles: University of California Press. * Fash, William L.; Ricardo Agurcia Fasquelle (2005). "Contributions and Controversies in the Archaeology and History of Copán". In E. Wyllys Andrews; William L. Fash (eds.). Copán: The History of an Ancient Maya Kingdom. Santa Fe and Oxford: School of American Research Press and James Currey Ltd. pp. 3–32. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-85255-981-9</nowiki>. OCLC 56194789. * Gill, Richardson B. (2000). The Great Maya Droughts: Water, Life, and Death. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-8263-2194-7</nowiki>. OCLC 43567384. * Hammond, Norman (2000). "The Maya Lowlands: Pioneer Farmers to Merchant Princes". In Richard E.W. Adams; Murdo J. Macleod (eds.). The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas. Vol. II: Mesoamerica, part 1. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 197–249. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-521-35165-2</nowiki>. OCLC 33359444. * Harrison, Peter D. (2006). "Maya Architecture at Tikal". In Nikolai Grube (ed.). Maya: Divine Kings of the Rain Forest. Eva Eggebrecht and Matthias Seidel (assistant eds.). Köln: Könemann. pp. 218–231. <nowiki>ISBN 978-3-8331-1957-6</nowiki>. OCLC 71165439. * Hidinger, Lori A. (1996). "Measuring the Impacts of Ecotourism on Animal Populations: A Case Study of Tikal National Park, Guatemala" (PDF). Yale Forestry & Environment Bulletin. 99 (1): 45–59. * Jones, Grant D. (1998). The Conquest of the Last Maya Kingdom. Stanford, California, USA: Stanford University Press. <nowiki>ISBN 9780804735223</nowiki>. OCLC 38747674. * Kelly, Joyce (1996). An Archaeological Guide to Northern Central America: Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-8061-2858-0</nowiki>. OCLC 34658843. * Kerr, Justin (n.d.). "A Precolumbian Portfolio" (online database). FAMSI Research Materials. Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies, Inc. Retrieved 13 June 2007. * Looper, Matthew G. (1999). "New Perspectives on the Late Classic Political History of Quirigua, Guatemala". Ancient Mesoamerica. 10 (2): 263–280. doi:10.1017/S0956536199101135. ISSN 0956-5361. OCLC 86542758. S2CID 161977572. * Looper, Matthew G. (2003). Lightning Warrior: Maya Art and Kingship at Quirigua. Linda Schele series in Maya and pre-Columbian studies. Austin: University of Texas Press. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-292-70556-2</nowiki>. OCLC 52208614. * Martin, Simon; Nikolai Grube (2000). Chronicle of the Maya Kings and Queens: Deciphering the Dynasties of the Ancient Maya. London and New York: Thames & Hudson. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-500-05103-0</nowiki>. OCLC 47358325. * Martin, Simon; Nikolai Grube (2008). Chronicle of the Maya Kings and Queens: Deciphering the Dynasties of the Ancient Maya (2nd revised ed.). London and New York: Thames & Hudson. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-500-28726-2</nowiki>. OCLC 191753193. * Martínez, Horacio; David Webster; Jay Silverstein; Timothy Murtha; Kirk Straight; Irinna Montepeque (2004). J.P. Laporte; B. Arroyo; H. Escobedo; H. Mejía (eds.). "Reconocimiento en la periferia de Tikal: Los Terraplenes Norte, Oeste y Este, nuevas exploraciones y perspectivas" (PDF). XVII Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala, 2003 (in Spanish). Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología, Guatemala. pp. 635–641. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 September 2011. Retrieved 24 June 2009. * Means, Philip Ainsworth (1917). History of the Spanish Conquest of Yucatan and of the Itzas . Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University. Vol. VII. Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology. OCLC 681599. * Miller, Mary Ellen (1999). Maya Art and Architecture. London and New York: Thames & Hudson. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-500-20327-9</nowiki>. OCLC 41659173. * Miller, Mary; Karl Taube (1993). The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya: An Illustrated Dictionary of Mesoamerican Religion. London: Thames & Hudson. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-500-05068-2</nowiki>. OCLC 27667317. * Morales, Tirso; Benito Burgos; Miguel Acosta; Sergio Pinelo; Marco Tulio Castellanos; Leopoldo González; Francisco Castañeda; Edy Barrios; Rudy Larios; et al. (2008). J.P. Laporte; B. Arroyo; H. Mejía (eds.). "Trabajos realizados por la Unidad de Arqueología del Parque Nacional Tikal, 2006-2007" (PDF). XXI Simposio de Arqueología en Guatemala, 2007 (in Spanish): 413–436. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 September 2011. Retrieved 21 June 2011. * Puleston, Dennis E.; Donald W. Callender, Jr. (1967). "Defensive Earthworks at Tikal". Expedition. University of Pennsylvania. 9 (3): 40–48. ISSN 0014-4738. OCLC 1568625. * Salisbury, David; Mimi Koumenalis; Barbara Moffett (19 September 2002). "Newly revealed hieroglyphs tell story of superpower conflict in the Maya world" (PDF). Exploration: The Online Research Journal of Vanderbilt University. OCLC 50324967. Archived from the original (PDF online publication) on 2 November 2014. Retrieved 22 September 2009. * Schele, Linda; Peter Mathews (1999). The Code of Kings: The language of seven Maya temples and tombs. New York: Simon & Schuster. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-684-85209-6</nowiki>. OCLC 41423034. * Sharer, Robert J.; Loa P. Traxler (2006). The Ancient Maya (6th, fully revised ed.). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-8047-4817-9</nowiki>. OCLC 57577446. * Silverstein, Jay; David Webster; Horacio Martinez; Alvaro Soto (2009). Rethinking the Earthworks of Tikal: A Hydraulic Hypothesis for the Classic Maya Polity. Ancient Mesoamerican 20(1), Cambridge Journals. * StarWars.com. "Star Wars: Episode IV A New Hope". Lucasfilm. Archived from the original on 29 December 2009. Retrieved 13 November 2009. * Torres, Estuardo. "Parque Nacional Tikal" (in Spanish). Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. Archived from the original on 18 December 2009. Retrieved 30 July 2014. * UNESCO World Heritage Center. "Tikal National Park". UNESCO World Heritage Center. Retrieved 13 November 2009. * Valdés, Juan Antonio; Fahsen, Federico (2005). "Disaster in Sight: The Terminal Classic at Tikal and Uaxactun". In Arthur A. Demarest; Prudence M. Rice; Don S. Rice (eds.). The Terminal Classic in the Maya lowlands: Collapse, transition, and transformation. Boulder: University Press of Colorado. pp. 162–194. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-87081-822-6</nowiki>. OCLC 61719499. * Webster, David L. (2002). The Fall of the Ancient Maya: Solving the Mystery of the Maya Collapse. London: Thames & Hudson. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-500-05113-9</nowiki>. OCLC 48753878. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Siti arkeoloġiċi]] [[Kategorija:Siti ta' Wirt Dinji]] [[Kategorija:Parks Nazzjonali]] [[Kategorija:Maja]] [[Kategorija:Gwatemala]] o36b69jayoy8ad0f2zep1c5hbyo51xy 279128 279127 2022-08-15T10:56:20Z Trigcly 17859 /* Deskrizzjoni tas-sit */ wikitext text/x-wiki [[Stampa:Tikal Temple1 2006 08 11.JPG|daqsminuri|It-Tempju I ta' Tikal huwa għoli 47 metru (154 pied).]] '''Tikal''' (/tiˈkɑːl/; ''Tik’al'' bl-ortografija moderna tal-[[Maja]]) hija l-fdal ta' belt antika, li x'aktarx kienet tissejjaħ '''Yax Mutal'''<ref>Tokovinine, Alexandre (2008). "Lords of Tikal: Narratives and Identities". ''Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology''. Harvard University: 4.</ref>, u li tinsab f'foresta tropikali fil-[[Gwatemala]].<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.cyark.org/projects/tikal/overview|titlu=CyArk|sit=CyArk|data-aċċess=2022-08-14}}</ref> Hija wieħed mill-ikbar siti [[Arkeoloġija|arkeoloġiċi]] u ċentri urbani taċ-ċivilizzazzjoni tal-Maja pre-Kolumbjana. Tinsab fir-reġjun arkeoloġiku tal-Baċir ta' Petén fit-territorju attwali tat-Tramuntana tal-Gwatemala. Is-sit jinsab fid-dipartiment ta' El Petén u huwa parti mill-Park Nazzjonali ta' Tikal. Fl-1979 sar [[Sit ta' Wirt Dinji]] tal-[[UNESCO]].<ref name=":0">{{Ċita web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/64/|titlu=Tikal National Park|kunjom=Centre|isem=UNESCO World Heritage|sit=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2022-08-14}}</ref> Tikal kienet il-[[belt kapitali]] ta' stat ħakkiem li sar wieħed mill-iżjed renji setgħana tal-Maja tal-qedem.<ref>Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 1. Hammond 2000, p. 233.</ref> Għalkemm l-arkitettura [[Monument|monumentali]] tas-sit tmur lura saħansitra tas-seklu 4 [[Ante Christum natum|Q.K]]., Tikal laħqet il-quċċata tagħha matul il-Perjodu Klassiku, għall-ħabta tal-200 sad-900. Matul dak iż-żmien, il-belt iddominat il-biċċa l-kbira tar-reġjun tal-Maja [[Politika|politikament]], ekonomikament u militarment, filwaqt li interaġixxiet ma' żoni fil-Mesoamerka kollha, bħall-metropoli l-kbira ta' [[Teotihuacan]] fil-Wied tal-Messiku daqstant 'il bogħod. Hemm evidenza li Tikal inħakmet minn Teotihuacan fis-seklu 4 W.K.<ref>Martin & Grube 2008, pp. 29-32.</ref> Wara t-tmiem tal-Perjodu Klassiku Aħħari, ma nbena l-ebda monument maġġuri f'Tikal u hemm evidenza li l-palazzi tal-elit ingħataw in-nar. Dan l-avvenimenti mexew id f'id ma' tnaqqis gradwali fil-popolazzjoni, u laħqu l-qofol tagħhom fl-abbandun tas-sit sal-aħħar tas-seklu 10. Tikal hija l-iżjed belt mifhuma minn kwalunkwe waħda mill-bliet tal-Maja l-kbar fl-artijiet baxxi, b'lista twila ta' mexxejja dinastiċi, bl-iskoperta tal-oqbra ta' bosta mill-mexxejja fuq din il-lista u bl-investigazzjoni tal-monumenti, tat-tempji u tal-palazzi tagħhom.<ref>Adams 2000, p. 34.</ref> == Etimoloġija == [[Stampa:Tikalemblem.jpg|daqsminuri|Glifiċi emblematiċi ta' isem Tikal]] L-isem ''Tikal'' jaf oriġina minn ''ti ak'al'' fil-lingwa tal-Maja tal-[[Yucatan]]; jingħad li huwa isem relattivament modern li jfisser "f'ġibjun". Milli jidher l-isem ingħata lil wieħed mill-ġibjuni antiki tas-sit mill-kaċċaturi u mill-vjaġġaturi fir-reġjun.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, p. 30.</ref> Interpretazzjoni oħra tal-isem hi li jfisser "il-post tal-vuċijiet" fil-lingwa tal-Maja ta' Itza. Madankollu, Tikal mhuwiex l-isem antik tas-sit iżda pjuttost l-isem li ġie adottat ftit wara l-iskoperta tas-sit fis-snin 40 tas-seklu 19.<ref>Drew 1999, p. 136.</ref> Il-kitbiet ġeroglifiċi fil-fdalijiet jirreferu għall-belt antika bħala ''Yax Mutal'' jew ''Yax Mutul'', li tfisser "l-ewwel Mutal". Tikal jaf bdiet tissejjaħ hekk minħabba li Dos Pilas beda juża l-istess glifiċi emblematiċi; il-mexxejja tal-belt x'aktarx li riedu jiddistingwu bejn il-bliet b'dan il-mod.<ref>Schele & Mathews 1999, p. 64.</ref> Ir-renju kollu kien jissejjaħ sempliċement ''Mutul'', li huwa l-interpretazzjoni tal-glifiċi emblematiċi tal-"qatta' xagħar" fir-ritratt fuq il-lemin. It-tifsira preċiża għadha mhux ċerta.<ref>Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 1.</ref> == Ġeografija == [[Stampa:Mayamap.png|daqsminuri|280x280px|Mappa taż-żona tal-Maja fir-reġjun Mesoamerikan. Kemm Tikal kif ukoll Calakmul jinsabu qrib iċ-ċentru taż-żona.]] L-eqreb insedjamenti kbar moderni huma Flores u Santa Elena, bejn wieħed u ieħor xi 64 kilometru (40 mil) bogħod bit-triq lejn il-Lbiċ.<ref>Kelly 1996, pp. 111-112.</ref> Tikal tinsab xi 303 kilometri (188 mil) fit-Tramuntana tal-[[Belt tal-Gwatemala]]. Tinsab 19-il kilometru (12-il mil) fin-Nofsinhar tal-belt tal-Maja kontemporanja ta' [[Uaxactun]] u 30 kilometru (19-il mil) fil-Majjistral ta' [[Yaxha]].<ref>Webster 2002, p. 118.</ref> Il-belt tinsab 100 kilometru (62 mil) fix-Xlokk tar-rivali l-kbira tagħha tal-Perjodu Klassiku, [[Calakmul]], u 85 kilometru (53 mil) fil-Majjistral tal-alleat ta' Calakmul, [[Caracol]], li issa tinsab fil-[[Beliże|Belize]].<ref>Webster 2002, p. 118.</ref> Il-belt ġiet immappjata għalkollox u kienet tkopri erja ikbar minn 16-il kilometru kwadru (6.2 mili kwadri) li kienet tinkludi madwar 3,000 struttura.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 104.</ref> It-topografija tas-sit tikkonsisti minn sensiela ta' rdumijiet paralleli tal-[[ġebla tal-ġir]] 'il fuq minn artijiet baxxi u mtajna. L-arkitettura maġġuri tas-sit hija raggruppata f'żoni iktar għoljin li huma kkollegati b'toroq olzati minn naħa għall-oħra tal-artijiet bassasa.<ref>Drew 1999, p. 185.</ref> Iż-żona madwar Tikal ġiet iddikjarata bħala l-Park Nazzjonali ta' Tikal u ż-żona ppreservata tkopri 570 kilometru kwadru (220 mil kwadru).<ref>Kelly 1996, p. 140.</ref> Dan il-park inħoloq fis-26 ta' Mejju 1955 taħt il-patroċinju tal-Instituto de Antropología e Historia u kien l-ewwel żona protetta fil-Gwatemala.<ref>Kelly 1996, p. 140.</ref> Il-fdalijiet jinsabu fost il-foresti tropikali tat-Tramuntana tal-Gwatemala li kienu jiffurmaw in-nieqa taċ-ċivilizzazzjoni tal-Maja fl-artijiet baxxi. Il-belt stess kienet tinsab qalb art għammiela abbundanti, u jaf iddominat rotta kummerċjali naturali mil-Lvant għall-Punent tul il-[[Peniżola]] tal-Yucatan. Fost is-siġar il-kbar tal-Park Nazzjonali ta' Tikal hemm il-kapok ġgantesk (''Ceiba pentandra'') li kienet is-siġra sagra tal-Maja; iċ-ċedru tropikali (''Cedrela odorata''), u l-kawba tal-[[Ħonduras]] (''Swietenia macrophylla''). Fir-rigward tal-fawna, wieħed jista' jara regolarment l-aguti, il-koati ta' mnieħru abjad, il-volpi griż, ix-xadin ta' Geoffroy, ix-xadin li jgħajjat, l-ajkla arpija, il-falkun, id-dundjan tal-foresti, il-gwan, it-tukan, il-pappagall aħdar u n-nemel li jaqta' l-weraq. Jingħad ukoll li l-ġagwar, l-ocelot u l-cougar jgħixu fil-park.<ref>Coe 1967, pp. 9-10. Hidinger 1996, p. 52.</ref> Tikal ma kellha l-ebda ilma għajr dak li kien jinġabar mill-ilma tax-xita u jinħażen f'għaxar ġibjuni. L-arkeologi li ħadmu f'Tikal matul is-seklu 20 sewwew wieħed minn dawn il-ġibjuni antiki biex jaħżnu l-ilma għalihom stess.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 124.</ref> Ix-xita annwali medja li tinżel f'Tikal tammonta għal 1,945 millimetru (76.6 pulzier). Madankollu, ix-xita ġieli tinżel għal għarrieda, u perjodi twal ta' nixfa setgħu jseħħu qabel ma l-għelejjel isiru, li kienet theddida serja għall-abitanti tal-belt antika.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 239.</ref> == Popolazzjoni == L-istimi tal-popolazzjoni ta' Tikal ivarjaw minn 10,000 sa saħansitra 90,000 abitant. Il-popolazzjoni ta' Tikal bdiet kurva kontinwa ta' tkabbir mill-bidu tal-Perjodu Preklassiku (bejn wieħed u ieħor fl-2000 Q.K. – 200 W.K.), bl-eqqel livell fil-Perjodu Klassiku Aħħari, fejn il-popolazzjoni kibret b'mod rapidu mis-700 W.K. sat-830, u mbagħad kien hemm deklin qawwi. Għaż-żona ta' 120 kilometru kwadru (46 mil kwadru) fi ħdan id-difiżi bit-tajn tal-periferija, l-ogħla popolazzjoni hija stmata li kienet 517-il persuna għal kull kilometru kwadru (1,340 persuna għal kull mil kwadru). F'żona fi ħdan raġġ ta' 12-il kilometru (7.5 mili) tal-qalba tas-sit, l-ogħla popolazzjoni hija stmata li kienet tlaħħaq il-120,000 ruħ; id-densità tal-popolazzjoni hija stmata li kienet 265 persuna għal kull kilometru kwadru (689 persuna għal kull mil kwadru). F'reġjun fi ħdan raġġ ta' 25 kilometru (16-il mil) mill-qalba tas-sit u inkluż xi siti anċillari, l-ogħla popolazzjoni hija stmata li kienet tlaħħaq l-425,000 ruħ b'densità ta' 216-il persuna għal kull kilometru kwadru (515-il persuna għal kull mil kwadru). Dawn iċ-ċifri rigward il-popolazzjoni huma ferm iktar impressjonanti minħabba l-artijiet bassasa estensiva li ma kinux adattati għall-abitazzjoni jew għall-agrikoltura. Madankollu, xi arkeologi, bħal [[David Webster]], jemmnu li dawn iċ-ċifri huma wisq għoljin.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 264.</ref> == Sit ta' Wirt Dinji == Il-Park Nazzjonali ta' Tikal ġie ddeżinjat bħala Sit ta' Wirt Dinji tal-UNESCO fl-1979.<ref name=":0" /> Il-valur universali straordinarju tas-sit ġie rrikonoxxut abbażi ta' ħames kriterji tal-għażla tal-UNESCO bħala sit kulturali u naturali mħallat: il-'''kriterju (i)''' "Rappreżentazzjoni ta' kapulavur frott il-kreattività tal-bniedem"; il-'''kriterju (iii)''' "Xhieda unika jew minn tal-inqas eċċezzjonali ta' tradizzjoni kulturali jew ta' ċivilizzazzjoni li għadha ħajja jew li għebet"; il-'''kriterju (iv)''' "Eżempju straordinarju ta' tip ta' bini, ta' grupp ta' siti jew ta' pajsaġġ arkitettoniku jew teknoloġiku li joħroġ fid-dieher stadju/i sinifikanti fl-istorja tal-bniedem"; il-'''kriterju (ix)''' "Eżempju straordinarju li jirrappreżenta proċessi ekoloġiċi u bijoloġiċi kontinwi sinifikanti fl-evoluzzjoni u fl-iżvilupp ta' ekosistemi u ta' komunitajiet ta' pjanti u ta' annimali terrestri, tal-ilma ħelu, kostali u tal-baħar"; u l-'''kriterju (x)''' "Post fejn hemm l-iktar ħabitats naturali importanti u sinifikanti għall-konservazzjoni fil-post tad-diversità bijoloġika, inkluż fejn hemm speċijiet mhedda ta' valur universali straordinarju mill-perspettiva tax-xjenza jew tal-konservazzjoni".<ref name=":0" /> == Storja == === Preklassika === [[Stampa:Maya-Maske.jpg|daqsminuri|Maskra tal-Maja li nstabet f'Tikal]] Hemm traċċi ta' biedja bikrija fis-sit li jmorru lura saħansitra sal-1000 Q.K., fil-Preklassiku Nofsani.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 262.</ref> Ġabra ta' bċejjeċ taċ-ċeramika ta' Mamon li jmorru lura għal madwar is-700 u l-400 Q.K. instabu f'''chultun'' issiġillat, jiġifieri f'kompartiment taħt l-art b'għamla ta' flixkun.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 55.</ref> Fil-perjodu Preklassiku Aħħar f'Tikal diġà kienet qed issir kostruzzjoni maġġuri, u l-ewwel binjiet tfaċċaw għall-ħabta tal-400 u t-300 Q.K., inkluż il-kostruzzjoni ta' piramidi u pjattaformi maġġuri, għalkemm il-belt kienet għadha ferm iżgħar minn siti oħra iktar fin-Nofsinhar bħal [[El Mirador]] u [[Nakbe]].<ref>Coe 1999, p. 55.</ref> F'dak iż-żmien, Tikal ipparteċipat fil-kultura mifruxa ta' Chikanel li ddominat iż-żoni Ċentrali u tat-Tramuntana tal-Maja dak iż-żmien – reġjun li kien jinkludi l-Peniżola tal-Yucatan kollha inkluż it-Tramuntana u l-Lvant tal-Gwatemala u l-Belize kollu.<ref>Coe 1999, pp. 73, 80.</ref> Żewġ tempji li jmorru lura għaż-żminijiet aħħarin ta' Chikanel kellhom superstrutturi b'ħitan bix-xogħol fil-ġebel li jaf kienu bil-volti apposta li jħallu arkata jew spazju vojt fi ħdanhom, għalkemm ma nstabux provi ta' dan. Wieħed minnhom kellu affreski elaborati mal-ħitan ta' barra li juru figuri umani fuq sfond ta' tiżjin ripetut bl-[[isfar]], bl-[[iswed]], bir-roża u bl-[[aħmar]].<ref>Coe 1999, p. 75.</ref> Fl-ewwel seklu W.K. tfaċċaw l-ewwel oqbra għonja u Tikal iffjorixxiet politikament u kulturalment, filwaqt li l-ġirien ġganteski tagħha fit-Tramuntana majnaw. Lejn l-aħħar tal-Preklassiku Aħħari, l-istil tal-arti u tal-arkitettura Izapan mill-Kosta [[Oċean Paċifiku|Paċifika]] beda jinfluwenza lil Tikal, kif joħroġ fid-dieher minn skultura miksura mill-akropoli u mill-affreski bikrin fil-belt.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 78.</ref> === Klassika Bikrija === It-tmexxija dinastika fl-artijiet baxxi tal-Maja hija ankrata l-iktar fil-fond f'Tikal. Skont sejbiet ġeroglifiċi li saru iktar 'il quddiem, id-dinastija ġiet stabbilita minn [[Yax Ehb Xook]], x'aktarx fl-ewwel seklu W.K.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 90.</ref> Fil-bidu tal-perjodu Klassiku Bikri, il-poter fir-reġjun tal-Maja kien ikkonċentrat f'Tikal u f'Calakmul, fil-qalba tat-territorju tal-Maja.<ref>Miller 1999, pp. 88-89.</ref> Tikal jaf ibbenefikat mill-waqgħa tal-istati Preklassiċi l-kbar bħal El Mirador. Fil-perjodu Klassiku Bikri Tikal malajr żviluppat fl-iżjed belt dinamika fir-reġjun tal-Maja, u xprunat l-iżvilupp ta' bliet tal-Maja oħrajn fl-inħawi.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 191.</ref> Madankollu, is-sit spiss kien imdaħħal fi gwerer u mill-kitbiet imnaqqxa nafu li kien hemm diversi alleanzi u kunflitti ma' stati oħra tal-Maja, inkluż Uaxactun, Caracol, [[Naranjo]] u Calakmul. Is-sit ġarrab telfa fl-aħħar tal-perjodu Klassiku Bikri kontra Caracol, li ħadet post Tikal bħala ċ-ċentru ewlieni fl-artijiet baxxi tan-Nofsinhar tal-Maja.<ref>Sharer 1994, p. 265.</ref> Fil-parti iktar bikrija tal-Klassiku Bikri kien hemm ostilitajiet bejn Tikal u l-ġar tagħha Uaxactun. F'Uaxactun fil-fatt instabu dokumentazzjonijiet dwar il-qbid ta' priġunieri minn Tikal.<ref>Kelly 1996, p. 129.</ref> Milli jidher kien hemm waqfa fis-suċċessjoni dinastika minn raġel għal ieħor lejn it-317 W.K., meta [[Unen Bahlam]] għamlet ċerimonja ta' tmiem ''katun'', x'aktarx bħala r-reġina tal-belt.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, p. 27.</ref> ==== Tikal u Teotihuacan ==== [[Stampa:Mexico SunMoonPyramid.jpg|daqsminuri|Jidher li l-metropoli l-kbira ta' Teotihuacan fil-Wied tal-Messiku intervjeniet b'mod deċiżiv fil-politka ta' Tikal.]] Diġà fil-200 W.K. Teotihuacan kellha ambaxxati f'Tikal.<ref>The Origins & Collapse of the Preclassic Maya in the Mirador Basin - Richard Hansen at The Library of Congress (2014)</ref> L-erbatax-il re ta' Tikal kien Chak Tok Ich'aak (li tfisser litteralment "Sieq tal-Ġagwar il-Kbir"). Chak Tok Ich'aak bena palazz li ġie ppreservat u żviluppat mill-mexxejja ta' warajh sakemm sar il-qalba tal-Akropoli Ċentrali.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 192.</ref> Ma tantx nafu wisq dwar Chak Tok Ich'aak għajr li nqatel fl-14 ta' Jannar 378 W.K. Fl-istess jum, wasal Siyah K'ak' (li tfisser litteralment "Twieled in-Nar") mill-Punent, wara li għadda minn [[El Peru]], sit fil-Punent ta' Tikal, fit-8 ta' Jannar. Fuq l-iStele 31 jissemma bħala s-"Sinjur tal-Punent".<ref>Drew 1999, p. 199.</ref> Siyah K'ak' x'aktarx li kien ġeneral barrani, irrappreżentat minn kitba ġeroglifika mhux tal-Maja ta' wieħed li jwaddab il-lanez flimkien ma' kokka, kitba ġeroglifika magħrufa sew mill-metropoli l-kbira ta' Teotihuacan fil-Wied tal-Messiku daqstant 'il bogħod. Siyah K'ak' jaf kien anke l-mexxej ta' Teotihuacan. Dawn l-avvenimenti rreġistrati fil-kitba ġeroglifika tal-Maja jissuġġerixxu b'mod qawwi li Siyah K'ak' mexxa invażjoni ta' Tikal min-naħa ta' Teotihuacan u r-re nattiv ta' Tikal ġarrab telfa, inqabad mill-għadu u ġie ġġustizzjat minnufih.<ref>Coe 1999, pp. 90-91.</ref> Milli jidher Siyah K'ak' ġie megħjun minn fazzjoni politika b'saħħitha f'Tikal stess<ref>Webster 2002, p. 133.</ref>; bejn wieħed u ieħor fl-istess żmien tal-ħakma, grupp ta' nattivi ta' Teotihuacan kienu qed jirresjedu qrib il-kumpless tad-Dinja Mitlufa.<ref>Drew 1999, p. 201.</ref> Huwa eżerċita kontroll ukoll fuq bliet oħra fl-inħawi, fosthom Uaxactun, fejn sar re, iżda ma ħax it-tron ta' Tikal għalih innifsu.<ref name=":1">Drew 1999, p. 200.</ref> Fi żmien sena, ibnu, Yax Nuun Ayiin I (l-"Ewwel Kukkudrill") sar il-ħmistax-il re ta' Tikal meta kien għadu tifel, u ngħata t-tron fit-13 ta' Settembru 379.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 97.</ref> Huwa rrenja għal 47 sena bħala r-re ta' Tikal, u baqa' vassall ta' Siyah K'ak' sa ma dan miet. X'aktarx li Yax Nuun Ayiin I ħa mara mid-dinastija ta' Tikal ta' qablu u b'hekk leġittimizza d-dritt ta' tmexxija għal ibnu, Siyaj Chan K'awiil II.<ref name=":1" /> [[Río Azul]], sit żgħir madwar 100 kilometru (62 mil) fil-Grigal ta' Tikal, inħakem minn Tikal matul ir-renju ta' Yax Nuun Ayiin I. Is-sit sar qisu tarka ta' Tikal u kien jiddefendiha mill-bliet ostili iktar lejn it-Tramuntana, u sar kollegament kummerċjali mal-[[Baħar Karibew|Karibew]].<ref>Drew 1999, pp. 201-202.</ref> Għalkemm il-mexxejja l-ġodda ta' Tikal kienu barranin, id-dixxendenti tagħhom malajr saru midħla tal-Maja. Tikal saret l-alleat u l-imsieħeb kummerċjali ewlieni ta' Teotihuacan fl-artijiet baxxi tal-Maja. Wara li nħakmet minn Teotihuacan, Tikal malajr iddominat ir-reġjun ta' Peten fit-Tramuntana u fil-Lvant. Uaxactun, flimkien ma' rħula żgħar oħra fir-reġjun, ġew assorbiti fir-renju ta' Tikal. Siti oħra, bħal [[Bejucal]] u [[Motul de San José]] ħdejn il-Lag ta' Petén Itzá saru vassalli tal-ġar iktar setgħan tagħhom lejn it-Tramuntana. Sa nofs is-seklu 5 Tikal kellha territorju ewlieni ta' mill-inqas 25 kilometru (16-il mil) f'kull direzzjoni. Għall-ħabta tas-seklu 5 inbniet sistema impressjonanti ta' fortifikazzjonijiet b'fosos u bi ħniedaq tul il-periferija tat-Tramuntana ta' Tikal, flimkien mad-difiżi naturali pprovduti minn żoni kbar ta' artijiet bassasa fil-Lvant u fil-Punent tal-belt. X'aktarx li nbnew ukoll fortifikazzjonijiet oħra lejn in-Nofsinhar. Dawn id-difiżi pproteġew lill-popolazzjoni ewlenija u r-riżorsi agrikoli ta' Tikal, f'erja ta' madwar 120 kilometru kwadru (46 mil kwadru). Riċerka reċenti tissuġġerixxi li l-ħniedaq kienu jintużaw bħala sistema ta' ġbir tal-ilma iktar milli għad-difiża.<ref>Silverstein 2009.</ref> ==== Tikal u Copán ==== Fis-seklu 5 il-poter tal-belt kien iwassal saħansitra sa Copán fin-Nofsinhar, u l-fundatur tagħha, K'inich Yax K'uk' Mo', kellu rabtiet ċari ma' Tikal. Copán stess ma kinitx f'reġjun etniku tal-Maja u l-istabbiliment tad-dinastija ta' Copán x'aktarx li kienet tinvolvi l-intervent dirett ta' Tikal.<ref>Wyllys Andrews & Fash 2005, p. 407.</ref> K'inich Yax K'uk' Mo' wasal f'Copán f'Diċembru 426 u mill-analiżi tal-għadam tiegħu nafu li qatta' tfulitu u żgħożitu f'Tikal.<ref>Fash & Agurcia Fasquelle 2005, p. 26.</ref> Individwu magħruf bħala Ajaw K'uk' Mo' (jew is-Sinjur K'uk' Mo') jissemma f'test bikri f'Tikal u jaf kien l-istess persuna.<ref>Looper 2003, p. 37.</ref> Il-qabar tiegħu kellu karatteristiċi ta' Teotihuacan u iktar 'il quddiem ġie mpinġi bl-ilbies tal-ġellieda ta' Teotihuacan. Kitbiet ġeroglifiċi jirreferu għalih bħala s-"Sinjur tal-Punent", l-istess bħal Siyah K'ak'. Fl-istess żmien, fl-aħħar tal-426, Copán stabbiliet is-sit ta' [[Quiriguá]] fil-qrib, possibbilment sponsorjata minn Tikal stess. L-istabbiliment ta' dawn iż-żewġ ċentri jaf kien parti minn sforz biex tiġi imposta l-awtorità ta' Tikal fuq il-parti tax-Xlokk tar-reġjun tal-Maja.<ref>Looper 2003, p. 38.</ref> L-interazzjoni bejn dawn is-siti u Tikal kienet waħda intensiva matul it-tliet sekli ta' wara.<ref>Looper 1999, p. 263.</ref> Rivalità twila bejn Tikal u Calakmul bdiet fis-seklu 6, u kull waħda miż-żewġt ibliet iffurmat in-network tagħha ta' alleanzi ostili għal xulxin, u dan x'aktarx wassal għal gwerra twila bejn iż-żewġ superpotenzi tal-Maja. Ir-rejiet ta' dawn iż-żewġ bliet kapitali adottaw it-titlu ta' ''kaloomte''', terminu li ġiex tradott b'mod preċiż iżda li jimplika xi ħaġa bħal "re għoli".<ref>Webster 2002, pp. 168-169.</ref> Fil-bidu tas-seklu 6 laħqet reġina oħra bħala mexxejja tal-belt, magħrufa bħala s-"Sinjura ta' Tikal", li x'aktarx kienet bint Chak Tok Ich'aak II. Milli jidher qatt ma mexxiet waħedha, iżda dejjem kellha magħha mexxejja rġiel. L-ewwel wieħed minnhom kien Kaloomte' B'alam, li milli jidher kellu karriera twila bħala ġeneral f'Tikal qabel ma sar mexxej mar-reġina u fid-19-il post fis-sekwenza dinastika. Is-Sinjura ta' Tikal stess ma ġietx magħduda fis-sekwenza dinastika numerika. Iktar 'il quddiem x'aktarx li ngħaqad magħha bħala mexxej is-Sinjur "Difer ta' [[Għasfur]]", li jingħad li kien l-20 mexxej.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, pp. 38-39.</ref> === Klassika Aħħarija === ==== Pawża fil-kontinwità tal-poter ta' Tikal ==== [[Stampa:Tikal-Plaza-And-North-Acropolis.jpg|daqsminuri|280x280px|Il-pjazza prinċipali matul iċ-ċelebrazzjonijiet tas-solstizju tax-xitwa]] F'nofs is-seklu 6, milli jidher Caracol saret alleata ta' Calakmul u għelbu lil Tikal, u b'hekk temmew il-perjodu Klassiku Bikri.<ref>Miller 1999, p. 89.</ref> Din il-pawża fil-kontinwità tal-poter ta' Tikal x'aktarx li seħħet bejn l-aħħar tas-seklu 6 u l-aħħar tas-seklu 7 fejn kien hemm qabża fil-kitba tal-kitbiet imnaqqxa u fil-kostruzzjoni fuq skala kbira f'Tikal. Fl-aħħar nofs tas-seklu 6 W.K., il-belt għaddiet minn kriżi kbira, fejn ma tħejjiet l-ebda stele ġdida u fejn kien hemm mutilazzjoni mifruxa tal-iskulturi pubbliċi.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 94.</ref> Din il-pawża fl-attività kontinwa ta' Tikal kienet misteru għal żmien twil, iżda mbagħad ġew iddeċifrati epigrafi oħra li identifikaw li dak il-perjodu seħħ wara t-telfa komprensiva li ġarrbet Tikal kontra l-alleanza ta' Calakmul u ta' Caracol fil-562, telfa li milli jidher irriżultat fil-qbid u fis-sagrifiċċju tar-re ta' Tikal. L-Artal 21 f'Caracol, ħafna minnu miekul mill-elementi, jiddeskrivi kif Tikal ġarrbet din it-telfa diżastruża fi gwerra maġġuri li seħħet f'April 562.<ref>Historical Dictionary of Mesoamerica by Walter Robert Thurmond Witschey and Clifford T. Brown, p. 313.</ref> Milli jidher Caracol alleat ruħha ma' Calakmul fil-kunflitt usa' bejn il-belt u Tikal, u t-telfa ta' Tikal kellha impatt kbir għal żmien twil fuq il-belt. Ir-rikkezzi ta' Tikal ma ġewx misruqa iżda l-poter u l-influwenza li kellha ntilfu.<ref>Webster 2002, pp. 192-193.</ref> Wara r-rebħa kbira tagħha, Caracol kibret malajr u parti mill-popolazzjoni ta' Tikal jaf ġiet rilokata hemmhekk. Matul il-pawża fil-kontinwità tal-poter ta' Tikal, mill-inqas mexxej wieħed ta' Tikal fittex refuġju ma' Janaab' Pakal ta' Palenque, vittma ieħor ta' Calakmul.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 193.</ref> Calakmul stagħnat matul il-pawża twila fil-kontinwità tal-poter ta' Tikal.<ref name=":2">Webster 2002, p. 194.</ref> Din il-pawża serviet bħala markatur li l-arkeologi jużaw biex jiddistingwu bejn il-perjodu Klassiku tal-kronoloġija Mesoamerikana u l-perjodu Klassiku Bikri u Aħħari.<ref>Miller u Taube 1993, p. 20.</ref> ==== Tikal u Dos Pilas ==== Fis-629 Tikal stabbiliet lil [[Dos Pilas]], xi 110 kilometri (68 mil) fil-Lbiċ, bħala stazzjonament militari sabiex tikkontrolla l-kummerċ tul ix-xmara [[Pasión]].<ref>Salisbury et al. 2002, p. 1.</ref> B'alaj Chan K'awiil tela' fuq it-tron tal-istazzjonament il-ġdid meta kellu erba' snin, fis-635. Meta kiber, għal bosta snin serva bħala vassall leali u ġġieled għal ħuh, ir-re ta' Tikal.<ref>Salisbury et al. 2002, pp. 2-3.</ref> Bejn wieħed u ieħor għoxrin sena wara, Dos Pilas ġie attakkat minn Calakmul u ġarrab telfa kbira. B'alaj Chan K'awiil inqabad mir-re ta' Calakmul iżda, minflok ġie ssagrifikat, reġa' ngħata t-tron bħala vassall tal-eks għadu tiegħu.<ref>Salisbury et al. 2002, p. 2.</ref> Huwa attakka lil Tikal fis-657, u ġiegħel lil Nuun Ujol Chaak, ir-re ta' Tikal ta' dak iż-żmien, jabbanduna l-belt temporanjament. L-ewwel żewġ mexxejja ta' Dos Pilas komplew jużaw il-ġeroglifiċi emblematiċi ta' Mutal li kienu ta' Tikal, u x'aktarx li ħassew li kienu leġittimi biex jieħdu t-tron ta' Tikal stess. Għall-istess raġuni, B'alaj Chan K'awiil ma sarx il-mexxej il-ġdid ta' Tikal; u minflok baqa' f'Dos Pilas. Tikal wettqet kontroattakk kontra Dos Pilas fis-672, u wasslet biex B'alaj Chan K'awiil jaħrab f'eżilju li dam ħames snin.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 276.</ref> Calakmul ipprovat tiċċirkonda lil Tikal fi ħdan żona ddominata mill-alleati tagħha, fosthom El Peru, Dos Pilas, u Caracol.<ref>Hammond 2000, p. 220.</ref> Fis-682, Jasaw Chan K'awiil I bena l-ewwel [[monument]] datat f'Tikal f'120 sena u ħa t-titlu ta' ''kaloomte''', u b'hekk temm din il-pawża fil-poter. Huwa ta bidu għal programm ġdid ta' kostruzzjoni u ħadha qatta' bla ħabel kontra Calakmul sakemm fis-695, irnexxielu jaqbad il-mexxej tal-għadu u b'hekk xeħet lill-istat għadu tiegħu f'perjodu twil ta' deklin li qatt ma rkupra minnu għalkollox. Wara dan l-avveniment, Calakmul qatt ma reġgħet bniet monument biex tiċċelebra xi rebħa militari.<ref name=":2" /> ==== Tikal wara Teotihuacan ==== Sas-seklu 7, ma kien hemm l-ebda preżenza attiva ta' Teotihuacan f'xi sit tal-Maja u ċ-ċentru ta' Teotihuacan inqered sas-sena 700. Anke wara dan il-perjodu, l-ilbies militari formali mnaqqax jew impinġi fuq il-monumenti kellu stil ta' Teotihuacan.<ref>Miller 1999, p. 105.</ref> Jasaw Chan K'awiil I u l-eredi tiegħu Yik'in Chan K'awiil komplew l-ostilitajiet kontra Calakmul u l-alleati tagħha u imponew kontroll reġjonali rigoruż fuq iż-żona madwar Tikal, estiża saħansitra sat-territorju madwar il-Lag ta' Petén Itzá. Dan iż-żewġ mexxejja kienu responsabbli għall-biċċa l-kbira tal-arkitettura impressjonanti viżibbli llum il-ġurnata.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 263.</ref> Fis-738, Quiriguá, li kienet vassall ta' Copán, l-alleat ewlieni ta' Tikal fin-Nofsinhar, qalbet l-alleanza tagħha favur Calakmul, rebħet kontra Copán u kisbet l-indipendenza tagħha stess. Milli jidher dan kien sforz konxju min-naħa ta' Calakmul sabiex twassal għall-qerda tal-alleati ta' Tikal fin-Nofsinhar.<ref>Looper 2003, p. 79.</ref> Dan biddel il-bilanċ fil-poter taż-żona tan-Nofsinhar tal-Maja u wassal għal deklin rapidu ta' Copán.<ref>Wyllys Andrews & Fash 2005, p. 408.</ref> Fis-seklu 8, il-mexxejja ta' Tikal ġabru xi monumenti mill-belt u tellgħuhom quddiem l-Akropoli tat-Tramuntana. Sal-aħħar tas-seklu 8 u l-bidu tas-seklu 9, l-attività f'Tikal majnat. Xorta waħda nbniet arkitettura impressjonanti iżda ftit kitbiet ġeroglifiċi jirreferi għall-mexxejja li ġew wara.<ref>Miller 1999, p. 33.</ref> === Klassika Terminali === [[Stampa:Tikal12.jpg|daqsminuri|259x259px|Veduta tal-qalba ta' Tikal min-Nofsinhar, bit-Tempju I fin-nofs, l-Akropolit tat-Tramuntana fuq ix-xellug u l-Akropoli Ċentrali fuq il-lemin.]] Sas-seklu 9, il-kriżi tal-waqgħa tal-Maja tal-perjodu Klassiku kienet qed taħkem ir-reġjun kollu, il-popolazzjonijiet bdew jonqsu drastikament, u belt wara l-oħra bdiet tispiċċa fix-xejn.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, pp. 52-53.</ref> Kulma jmur, gwerer endemiċi fir-reġjun tal-Maja wasslu biex il-popolazzjoni ta' Tikal tkun ikkonċentrata b'mod massiċċ qrib il-belt stess, u b'hekk ġie aċċellerat l-użu tal-agrikoltura intensiva li kkontribwixxa għad-deklin ambjentali korrispondenti.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 340.</ref> Il-kostruzzjoni kompliet fil-bidu tas-seklu, bil-bini tat-Tempju 3, l-aħħar tal-piramidi maġġuri tal-belt, kif ukoll il-bini ta' monumenti li mmarkaw il-waslu tad-19-il K'atun fit-810.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, p. 52.</ref> Il-bidu tal-għaxar Bak'tun fit-830 sar bla ċelebrazzjonijiet, u jimmarka l-bidu ta' pawża ta' 60 sena fil-kontinwità tal-attività f'Tikal, li probabbilment irriżultat mill-kollass tal-kontrol ċentrali fil-belt. Matul din il-pawża, siti anċillari li tradizzjonalment kienu taħt il-kontroll ta' Tikal bdew jibnu l-monumenti tagħhom stess biex jiċċelebraw lill-mexxejja lokali u xorta waħda użaw il-glifiċi emblematiċi ta' Mutal.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, p. 53.</ref> Kulma jmur Tikal milli jidher ma kellhiex iktar l-awtorità jew il-poter biex twaqqaf ħesrem dawn it-tentattivi ta' indipendenza. Fit-849, Jewel K'awiil jissemma fuq stele f'[[Seibal]] u jingħad li żar il-belt bħala s-Sinjur Divin ta' Tikal għalkemm ma ġie rreġistrat imkien iktar u l-poter li xi darba kellha Tikal kien kważi spiċċa fix-xejn. Sa dak iż-żmien is-siti ta' [[Ixlu]] u [[Jimbal]] kienu wirtu l-glifiċi emblematiċi ta' Mutal li fl-imgħoddi kien esklużivi.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, p. 53.</ref> [[Stampa:EdShookCropped.jpg|xellug|daqsminuri|L-arkeologu [[Edwin M. Shook]], direttur fuq il-post tal-Proġett ta' Tikal; Shook kien strumentali wkoll biex jiġi stabbilit l-ewwel Park Nazzjonali tal-Gwatemala f'Tikal.]] Meta Tikal u l-periferija tagħha laħqu l-ogħla popolazzjoni, iż-żona batiet minħabba d-deforestazzjoni, l-erożjoni u t-telf tan-nutrijenti, li ġew segwiti minn deklin rapidu fil-livelli tal-popolazzjoni. Analiżi reċenti tindika wkoll li l-għejun tal-ilma ħelu tal-belt saru kkontaminati ferm bil-[[Merkurju (kimika)|merkurju]], bil-fosfati u biċ-ċjanobatterji, u dan wassal biex jakkumulaw it-tossini.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.sustainability-times.com/environmental-protection/the-mayan-city-of-tikal-succumbed-to-water-pollution-experts-say/|titlu=The Mayan city of Tikal succumbed to 'water pollution'|kunjom=Cross|isem=Daniel T.|data=2020-07-03|lingwa=en-GB|data-aċċess=2022-08-15}}</ref> Tikal u l-inħawi tal-madwar milli jidher tilfu l-biċċa l-kbira tal-popolazzjoni tagħhom bejn it-830 u d-950, u magħha l-awtorità ċentrali wkoll. Ma tantx hemm evidenza minn Tikal li l-belt kienet affettwata direttament minn xi gwerer endemiċi li affettwaw partijiet mir-reġjun tal-Maja matul il-perjodu Klassiku Terminali, għalkemm influss ta' refuġjati mir-reġjun ta' Petexbatún jaf żied il-problemi li rriżultaw mir-riżorsi ambjentali li diġà kienu minimi.<ref name=":3">Webster 2002, p. 273.</ref> Fl-aħħar nofs tas-seklu 9 kien hemm tentattiv biex il-poter irjali fil-belt imċekkna ferm ta' Tikal jerġa' jingħata l-ħajja, kif joħroġ fid-dieher minn stele li ttellgħet fil-Pjazza l-Kbira minn Jasaw Chan K'awiil II fit-869. Dan kien l-aħħar monument li nbena jew li ttella' f'Tikal qabel ma l-belt sfat fix-xejn. L-eks siti anċillari ta' Tikal, bħal Jimbal u Uaxactun, ma tantx damu wisq iktar, u tellgħu l-aħħar monumenti tagħhom fit-889. Sal-aħħar tas-seklu 9, il-maġġoranza l-kbira tal-popolazzjoni ta' Tikal telqet mill-belt, il-palazzi rjali tagħha ġew okkupati b'mod abbużiv u bdew jinbnew abitazzjonijiet sempliċi bil-ħuxlief fil-pjazez ċerimonjali tal-belt. Dawk li kienu qed jokkupaw il-binjiet b'mod abbużiv imblukkaw xi daħliet fil-kmamar li kienu qed jokkupaw fl-istrutturi monumentali tas-sit u ħallew bosta skart, li kien jinkludi taħlita ta' skart domestiku u oġġetti mhux utilitarji bħal strumenti mużikali. Dawn l-abitanti reġgħu użaw il-monumenti bikrin għall-attivitajiet ritwali tagħhom stess, ferm differenti minn dawk tad-dinastija rjali li kienet bniethom. Xi monumenti ġew ivvandalizzati u wħud tressqu f'postijiet ġodda. Qabel l-abbandun finali tas-sit, kull rispett għall-mexxejja antiki kien għeb, u l-oqbra tal-Akropoli tat-Tramuntana ġew esplorati għall-ġada, filwaqt li r-rikkezzi tal-oqbra iktar aċċessibbli ġew misruqa. Wara d-950, Tikal kienet kważi vojta għalkollox, għalkemm jaf kien għad fadal xi popolazzjoni żgħira f'xi għorfiet qalb il-fdalijiet. Anke dawn l-abitanti finali abbandunaw il-belt fis-sekli 10 u 11 u l-foresta tropikali għattiet il-fdalijiet għall-elf sena ta' wara. Ftit mill-popolazzjoni ta' Tikal jaf marret tgħix fir-reġjun tal-Lagi ta' Peten, li baqgħu b'popolazzjoni kbira minkejja t-tnaqqis fil-livelli tal-popolazzjoni fl-ewwel nofs tas-seklu 9.<ref name=":3" /> L-iżjed kawża probabbli tal-waqgħa ta' Tikal hija l-popolazzjoni eċċessiva u l-falliment agrarju. Il-waqgħa ta' Tikal kienet daqqa ta' ħarta għall-qalba taċ-ċivilizzazzjoni tal-Maja Klassika, peress li l-belt kienet minn ta' quddiem fil-ħajja tal-qorti, fl-[[arti]] u fl-arkitettura għal iżjed minn elf sena, b'dinastija mexxejja antika.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 274.</ref> Madankollu, riċerka ġdida rigward elementi paleoambjentali mis-sistema ta' ġibjuni ta' Tikal tissuġġerixxi li nixfa meteoroloġika jaf wasslet għall-abbandun ta' Tikal<ref>{{Ċita teżi|kunjom1=Tamberino|isem1=Anthony T.|data=2013|titlu=Ancient Maya Reservoirs and their Role in the Abandonment of Tikal, Guatemala: A Multi-Proxy Investigation of Solid Sediment Cores.|url=https://etd.ohiolink.edu/apexprod/rws_olink/r/1501/10?clear=10&p10_accession_num=ucin1377866689|data-aċċess=2022-08-15|lingwa=en}}</ref>, minħabba l-kontaminazzjoni ta' xi ġibjuni qrib it-tempju u l-palazz bl-algi, filwaqt li l-ilma minn ġibjuni oħra baqa' tajjeb għax-xorb. Il-binjiet ġew impittra biċ-ċinabru b'kontenut tal-merkurju, li jaf inġarr mal-ilma tax-xita u niġġes xi ġibjuni. Ix-xogħlijiet ta' Kohler u kollegi tiegħu wrew li din il-belt kienet laħqet livell mhux sostenibbli ta' inugwaljanzi lejn l-aħħar tagħha.<ref>Lentz, David L.; Hamilton, Trinity L.; Dunning, Nicholas P.; Scarborough, Vernon L.; Luxton, Todd P.; Vonderheide, Anne; Tepe, Eric J.; Perfetta, Cory J.; Brunemann, James; Grazioso, Liwy; Valdez, Fred; Tankersley, Kenneth B.; Weiss, Alison A. (2020). "Molecular genetic and geochemical assays reveal severe contamination of drinking water reservoirs at the ancient Maya city of Tikal". ''Scientific Reports''. '''10''' (1): 10316.</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://phys.org/news/2020-06-ancient-maya-reservoirs-toxic-pollution.html|titlu=Ancient Maya reservoirs contained toxic pollution: study|kunjom=Miller|isem=Michael|kunjom2=Cincinnati|isem2=University of|sit=phys.org|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2022-08-15}}</ref><ref>Kohler et al. (2017) Greater post-Neolithic wealth disparities in Eurasia than in North America and Mesoamerica. Nature (551) : 619–622.</ref> === Moderna === [[Stampa:Tikal1882.jpeg|daqsminuri|248x248px|Wieħed mir-ritratti ta' Tikal ta' Maudsley tal-1882, li ttieħed wara t-tneħħija tal-veġetazzjoni.]] Fl-1525, il-konkwistatur [[Spanja|Spanjol]] [[Hernán Cortés]] għadda ftit kilometri 'l bogħod mill-fdalijiet ta' Tikal iżda ma semmihomx fl-ittri tiegħu.<ref>Webster 2002, pp. 83-84.</ref> Wara li l-patri Spanjol [[Andrés de Avendaño]] ntilef fil-foresti ta' Petén fil-bidu tal-1696, huwa ddeskriva fdal li jaf kien dak ta' Tikal.<ref>Jones 1998, pp. 218-219. Means 1917, p. 167.</ref> Bħalma sikwit jiġri fil-każ ta' fdalijiet antiki kbar, l-għarfien dwar is-sit qatt ma jkun intilef għalkollox fir-reġjun. Milli jidher il-poplu lokali qatt ma nesa l-belt ta' Tikal u ggwidaw spedizzjonijiet tal-Gwatemala lejn il-fdalijiet fis-snin 50 tas-seklu 19. Xi rakkonti ta' rakkonti (jew saħansitra ta' rakkonti oħra) dwar Tikal ġew stampati mill-bidu tas-[[seklu 17]], u komplew permezz tal-kitbiet ta' [[John Lloyd Stephens]] fil-bidu tas-seklu 19 (Stephens u l-illustratur [[Frederick Catherwood]] semgħu xnigħat ta' belt mitlufa, bil-qċaċet ta' binjiet bojod ħerġin mill-kanopew tal-ġungla, matul il-vjaġġi tagħhom fir-reġjun fl-1839-1840). Madankollu, minħabba kemm kien remot is-sit mill-bliet moderni, l-ebda esploratur ma żar Tikal qabel [[Modesto Méndez]] u [[Ambrosio Tut]] fl-1848, rispettivament il-kummissarju u l-gvernatur ta' Petén. L-artist Eusebio Lara akkumpanjahom u r-rakkont tagħhom ġie ppubblikat fil-[[Ġermanja]] fl-1853. Saru diversi spedizzjonijiet oħra li komplew jinvestigaw, jimmappjaw u jieħdu ritratti ta' Tikal fis-seklu 19 (inkluż dik ta' Alfred P. Maudslay fl-1881-1882) u fil-bidu tas-seklu 20. Xi arkeologi pijunieri bdew jnaddfu, jimmappjaw u jirreġistraw il-fdalijiet fis-snin 80 tas-seklu 19.<ref>Kelly 1996, p. 139.</ref> [[Stampa:Tikal (Eusebio Lara).jpg|daqsminuri|Tpinġija ta' Tikal li saret minn Eusebio Lara, viżitatur ta' nofs is-seklu 19.]] Fl-1951 inbena mitjar żgħir fil-fdalijiet, li qabel setgħu jintlaħqu biss wara diversi jiem ta' vjaġġar bil-mixi jew bil-ħmar minn ġol-ġungla. Fl-1956 il-Proġett ta' Tikal beda jimmappja l-belt fuq skala li qabel ma kinitx prevista fir-reġjun tal-Maja.<ref>Adams 2000, p. 19.</ref> Mill-1956 sal-1970 twettqu skavi arkeoloġiċi maġġuri mill-Proġett ta' Tikal tal-Università ta' [[Pennsylvania]].<ref>Adams 2000, p. 30.</ref> Dawn immappjaw il-biċċa l-kbira tas-sit u rrestawrar ħafna mill-istrutturi. Skavi mmexxija minn Edwin M. Shook u wara minn William Coe fl-università investigaw l-Akropoli tat-Tramuntana u l-Pjazza Ċentrali mill-1957 sal-1969.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, p. 43.</ref> Il-Proġett ta' Tikal irreġistra iżjed minn 200 monument fis-sit. Fl-1979, il-gvern tal-Gwatemala beda proġett arkeoloġiku ieħor f'Tikal li baqa' għaddej sal-1984. Ir-reġista [[George Lucas]] uża lil Tikal biex jiġbed il-[[qamar]] fittizju Yavin 4 fl-ewwel film ta' ''[[Star Wars]]'', l-''Episodju IV: A New Hope'', li nħareġ fl-1977.<ref>Webster 2002, p. 29.</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.starwars.com/|titlu=StarWars.com {{!}} The Official Star Wars Website|sit=StarWars.com|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2022-08-15}}</ref> It-Tempju I ta' Tikal deher fuq in-naħa ta' wara tal-karta tal-flus ta' 50 centavo.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://en.numista.com/catalogue/note204611.html|titlu=0.50 Quetzal, Guatemala|sit=en.numista.com|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2022-08-15}}</ref> Eon Productions użaw is-sit għall-ġbid tal-film ta' [[James Bond]] ''Moonraker''.<ref>''Moonraker Special Edition, Region 2 booklet''. United Artists. 2000.</ref> Is-sit ta' Tikal issa sar attrazzjoni turistika kbira mdawwar bil-park nazzjonali tiegħu stess. F'Tikal inbena [[mużew]] li tlesta fl-1964.<ref>Coe 1967, 1988, p. 10.</ref> == Biblijografija == * Adams, Richard E.W. (2000). "Introduction to a Survey of the Native Prehistoric Cultures of Mesoamerica". In Richard E.W. Adams; Murdo J. Macleod (eds.). The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas. Vol. II: Mesoamerica, part 1. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–44. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-521-35165-2</nowiki>. OCLC 33359444. * Andrews, E. Wyllys; William L. Fash (2005). "Issues in Copán Archaeology". In E. Wyllys Andrews; William L. Fash (eds.). Copán: The History of an Ancient Maya Kingdom. Santa Fe and Oxford: School of American Research Press and James Currey Ltd. pp. 395–425. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-85255-981-9</nowiki>. OCLC 56194789. * Banco de Guatemala. "Monedas" (in Spanish). Banco de Guatemala. Retrieved 13 November 2009. * Berlin, Heinrich (April 1967). "The Destruction of Structure 5D-33-1st at Tikal". American Antiquity. 32 (2): 241–242. doi:10.2307/277915. ISSN 0002-7316. JSTOR 277915. OCLC 754651089. S2CID 163207109. * Coe, Michael D. (1999). The Maya. 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OCLC 48753878. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Siti arkeoloġiċi]] [[Kategorija:Siti ta' Wirt Dinji]] [[Kategorija:Parks Nazzjonali]] [[Kategorija:Maja]] [[Kategorija:Gwatemala]] 2gkkfcilytis390zyy1wrmqbi6lr2jn 0 28812 279117 2022-08-15T09:45:43Z Chrisportelli 355 Chrisportelli mexxa l-paġna [[Knisja tal-Pellegrinaġġ ta’ San Ġwann ta’ Nepomuk]] għal [[Knisja tal-Pellegrinaġġ ta' San Ġwann ta' Nepomuk]]: [[:w:WP:'|WP:']] wikitext text/x-wiki #RINDIRIZZA [[Knisja tal-Pellegrinaġġ ta' San Ġwann ta' Nepomuk]] msf9o0hhkp4l1czksh5xjpqlx691490 1 28813 279119 2022-08-15T09:45:44Z Chrisportelli 355 Chrisportelli mexxa l-paġna [[Diskussjoni:Knisja tal-Pellegrinaġġ ta’ San Ġwann ta’ Nepomuk]] għal [[Diskussjoni:Knisja tal-Pellegrinaġġ ta' San Ġwann ta' Nepomuk]]: [[:w:WP:'|WP:']] wikitext text/x-wiki #RINDIRIZZA [[Diskussjoni:Knisja tal-Pellegrinaġġ ta' San Ġwann ta' Nepomuk]] r9ww4w80wfecv6bk251xhbhtbfgzfz7